Chapter # 2 : Kinematics

Scalar Quantities:

All those physical quantities which can be specified by a magnitude and a proper unit are known as
"Scalar Quantities".

Examples:

Work, electric flux, volume, viscosity, density, power, temperature and electric charge etc.

Vectors Quantities:

All those physical quantities having both magnitude and direction with proper unit and also obeys the
Vector Algebra are known as "Vector Quantities".

Examples:

Displacement, Velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, etc.

Representation of Vectors:
Vector quantities can be represented in two ways

➢ Analytical Or Symbolic representation

➢ Graphical representation

Analytical Or Symbolic representation:

In analytical method vectors are denoted by a letter with arrow or bold letters such as:

𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, or a, b, A, C

Graphical representation:

In graphical method vectors are denoted by a line segment with

arrow, the starting point of line is called tail and the ending point
of line having arrow is known as head of vector. The length of line
showing the magnitude of given vector as shown in figure.2.1
Fig: 2.1 Representation of vector
Addition of vectors by Head to Tail method
(Graphical Method):
Head to Tail method or graphical method is one of the easiest methods used to find the resultant vector
of two of more than two vectors.

Consider two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗ acting in the directions as shown in figure
2.2:

Head to tail rule is a method of vector addition in which tail of second

vector is connected by head of first vector. All vectors are connected in this
way.

Finally, from tail of first vector to the head of last vector we will draw a
vector called resultant vector.

Mathematically for resultant vector 'R'

Fig: 2.2:
̅̅̅̅̅ = 𝑶𝑨
𝑶𝑩 ̅̅̅̅ + 𝑨𝑩
̅̅̅̅
Addition of Vectors
𝑹 ⃗⃗ + 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗ ......(2.1)

Addition of Vectors:

Properties of vector addition:

Commutative law of vector addition:

Consider two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗⃗. Let these two vectors represent two
adjacent sides of a parallelogram. We construct a parallelogram
OACB as shown in the diagram. The diagonal OC represents the
resultant vector ⃗𝑹
⃗⃗.

⃗⃗ = ⃗𝑨⃗ + ⃗𝑩
⃗𝑹 ⃗⃗

⃗𝑹 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝑨⃗
⃗⃗ = ⃗𝑩

Therefore

⃗𝑨⃗ + ⃗𝑩 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝑨⃗ ..... (2.2)

⃗⃗ = ⃗𝑩

This fact is referred to as the commutative law of vector addition.

Associative law of vector addition:
The law states that the sum of vectors remains same irrespective of their order or
grouping in which they are arranged.

⃗⃗ , 𝑩
Consider three vectors 𝑨 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑪

⃗⃗ + 𝑩
Applying "head to tail rule" to obtain the resultant of (𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗)

⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗𝑪⃗) Then finally again find the resultant of these three
and (𝑩

vectors:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑶𝑷
𝑶𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑷𝑹
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ Or

𝑹 ⃗⃗ +( 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗= 𝑨 ⃗⃗)
⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪 (i)
and

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑶𝑸
𝑶𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑸𝑹
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑹 ⃗⃗ + 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗=( 𝑨 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗) + 𝑪 (ii)
Thus from eq. (i) and (ii)

⃗𝑨⃗ +( ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝑪⃗) = ( ⃗𝑨⃗ + ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗) + ⃗𝑪⃗

This fact is known as the Associative Law of Vector Addition.

Magnitude of resultant vector:

Magnitude or resultant vector can be determined by using either Cosine law or Sine law.

Resultant by cosine law : R = √𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 – 𝟐𝐀𝐁𝐜𝐨𝐬 < 𝐎𝐀𝐁

𝑨 𝑩 𝑹
Resultant by sine law : =𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜷 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜶

Multiplication and division of vector by number:

A vector can be multiplied and divided by a number using simple algebraic rules. In case of
multiplication/division by positive number (non zero) only changes the magnitude of given vector. If
\number is negative then the change comes in the direction of vector.

Cartesian coordinate system:

Cartesian coordinate system is a set of three mutually perpendicular
lines (X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis) with common initial point called origin
used to find out location of any point as shown in figure.

Fig: Cartesian coordinates

Unit vector:
"A unit vector is defined as a vector in any specified direction whose
magnitude is unity i.e. 1. A unit vector only specifies the direction of a
given vector. "

⃗⃗⃗
𝑨
̂=
𝒂
𝑨
Fig: Unit vector i,j,k

Free vector:
A free vector can be moved or translated without changing its essential
characteristics, such as magnitude and direction. It is represented by an
arrow and is not attached to any specific point in space.

Fig : Free vector

Position vector:
A Vector that indicates the position of a point in a coordinate system is referred to
as position vector.

Suppose we have a fixed reference point O, then we can specify the position the
position of a given point P with respect to point O.

Fig : Position vector

Resolution of vector:
The process of splitting a vector into rectangular components is called "RESOLUTION OF VECTOR"

Method of resolving a vector into rectangular components:

Consider a vector ⃗𝑽⃗ acting at a point making an angle 𝜃 with positive X axis. Vector ⃗𝑽⃗ is represented by a
line OA as shown in fig: 2.10. From point A draw a perpendicular AB on X- axis. Suppose OB and BA
represents two vectors. Vector OA is parallel to X-axis and vector BA is parallel to Y-axis. Magnitude of
these vectors are Vx and Vy respectively. By the method of head to tail we notice that the sum of these
⃗⃗.
vectors is equal to vector 𝑽

.Thus Vx and Vy are the rectangular components of vector

⃗⃗ along x-axis
Vx= Horizontal component of 𝑽
 ⃗⃗ along y-axis
Vy = Vertical component of 𝑽

Fig : 2.10

Magnitude of horizontal component :

Consider right angled triangle

̅̅̅̅̅
𝑶𝑩
Cos𝜽 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑶𝑨

̅̅̅̅̅
𝑶𝑩 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑶𝑨 Cos𝜃

Vx = V Cos𝜃
Magnitude of vertical component :
Consider right angled triangle
̅̅̅̅
𝑩𝑨
Sin𝜽 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑶𝑨

̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ Sin𝜽

𝑩𝑨 = 𝑶𝑨

Vy = V Sin𝜽

Direction of the Vector:

̅̅̅̅
𝑩𝑨
Tan𝜽 = 𝑶𝑩
̅̅̅̅̅

𝑽𝒚
Tan𝜽 =
𝑽𝒙

Addition of vectors by rectangular components method:

Consider two vectors V and V2 making angles 0 and 02 with +ve x-axis respectively.

⃗⃗1 ⃗⃗2
𝑉
𝑉
𝜃1 𝜃2

Fig (a) Fig (b)

 ⃗⃗1 into two rectangular components 𝑉
Resolve vector 𝑉 ⃗⃗1𝑥 and 𝑉
⃗⃗1𝑦 as shown in
fig: (c).
Magnitude of these components are:

𝑉1𝑥 = 𝑉1 Cos 𝜃1
and Fig (c)
𝑉1𝑦 = 𝑉1 Sin 𝜃1

Resolve vector V₂ into two rectangular components V₂x and V₂y as shown in figure (c)

Magnitude of these components are:

𝑉2𝑥 = V₂ Cos θ₂

And

𝑉2𝑥 = V₂ Sin θ₂

Now move vector 𝑽 ⃗⃗𝟐 parallel to itself so that its initial point (tail) lies on the terminal point (head) of
⃗⃗𝟏 as shown in the Fig: (c).
vector 𝑽

Representative lines of 𝑽 ⃗⃗𝟏 and 𝑽

⃗⃗𝟐 are 𝑂𝐴 and OB respectively. Join O and B which is equal to resultant
vector of ⃗𝑽⃗𝟏 and ⃗𝑽⃗𝟐 .

Resultant vector along X-axis can be determined as:

̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐷 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐶 + ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷
̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐷 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐶 + ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐸 : CD = AE

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅ₓ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉₁ₓ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉₂ₓ

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅ₓ = V₁ Cos θ₁ + V₂ Cos θ₂

Resultant vector along Y-axis can be determined as:

𝐷𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ + ̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ = 𝐶𝐴 𝐸𝐵
̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐷 = ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 + ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐵 :CA = DE

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑉
𝑅ᵧ ⃗⃗ ₁ᵧ + 𝑉₂ᵧ
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = V₁ Sin θ₁ + V₂ Sin θ₂

𝑅ᵧ

Now we will determine the magnitude of resultant vector by using the Pythagoras' theorem.

Hypotenous² = Base² + Perpendicular²

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑂𝐵|² = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑂𝐷|² + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝐷𝐵|²

R² = Rₓ² + Rᵧ²

R = √(𝑅ₓ² + 𝑅ᵧ²)

R = √(𝑉₁ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃₁ + 𝑉₂ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃₂)² + (𝑉₁ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃₁ + 𝑉₂ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃₂)²

Finally the direction of resultant vector will be determined.

Again in the right angled triangle < DOB:

̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐵
tan < DOB = ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝐷
𝑅
tan < DOB = tan θ = 𝑅𝑦
𝑥

𝑅
θ = tan⁻¹ ( 𝑦 )
𝑅𝑥

Product of two vectors:

There are two types of vector product which can be classified as

➢ Scalar product (Dot product)

➢ Vector product (Cross product).

Scalar or dot product:

The scalar product of two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ is written as 𝐴⃗.𝐵
⃗⃗ and is defined as,

"When two parallel vectors are multiplied, their resultant quantity will be a scalar, this is called scalar
or dot product."

⃗𝑨⃗.𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ = AB cos θ

Example:
Work done = Force x Displacement

Work done = Fd cos θ

F.d = Fd cos θ = work done

Where θ is the angle between F and d.

Worked Example 2.1

Find 𝑎⃗.𝑏⃗⃗ when a=𝑖̂−2𝑗̂+𝑘̂ and b=3𝑖̂−4𝑗̂−2𝑘̂

Solution:

a= 𝑖̂−2𝑗̂+𝑘̂ , b= 3𝑖̂−4𝑗̂−2𝑘̂ ∴ 𝑖̂.𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂. 𝑘̂ = 1

∴ 𝑖̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂.𝑘̂ = 0

𝑎⃗.𝑏⃗⃗ = (𝑖̂−2𝑗̂+𝑘̂).( 3𝑖̂−4𝑗̂−2𝑘̂)

= 3+8−2

𝑎⃗.𝑏⃗⃗ = 9
Characteristics of scalar product:
𝐴⃗ . 𝐵
⃗⃗ = AB cos θ

⃗⃗ . 𝐴⃗ = BA cos θ
𝐵

It can be used to find the angle between two vectors.

A .B = B.A

➢ The order of multiplication is irrelevant. In other words, scalar product is commutative.

➢ The scalar product of two mutually perpendicular vectors is zero, hence these vectors are also
called as Orthogonal vectors.

A . B = AB cos 90° = 0 since cos 90° = 0 as shown in fig.

➢ In case of unit vectors 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂, since they are mutually perpendicular, therefore,

𝑖̂ . 𝑗̂= 𝑗̂ . 𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂ . 𝑖̂ = 0

➢ The scalar product of two parallel vectors is equal to the product of their magnitudes. Thus, for
parallel vectors (θ = 0°)

A . B = AB cos 180° = AB since cos 0° = -1

➢ In case of unit vectors

𝑖̂.𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂.𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂.𝑘̂ = 1

➢ And for antiparallel vectors (θ = 180°)

A . B = AB cos 180° = -AB since cos 180° = -1

➢ The self-product of a vector A is equal to square of its magnitude.

A.A = AA cos 0° = A²

➢ Scalar product of two vectors A and B in terms of their rectangular components

A.B =( 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ )( 𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂ )

A.B = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 +𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧

Vector or cross product:

The vector product of two vectors A and B, is a vector which is defined as

"When two perpendicular vectors are multiplied, their resultant quantity will be a vector, this is called
vector or cross product."

A x B = AB sin θ 𝑛̂
Characteristics of Cross Product
➢ Since A x B is not the same as B x A, the cross product is non-commutative.

A x B = -B x A

➢ The vector product is associative (i.e. if m is a scalar, then)

(m A) x B = A x (m B)

= m (A x B)

➢ Vector product is distributive over the addition (i.e.)

A x (B + C) = A x B + A x C

(A + B) x C = A x C + B x C

➢ The cross product of two perpendicular vectors has maximum magnitude

A x B = AB sin 90° 𝑛̂ since sin 90° = 1

= AB 𝑛̂

➢ The cross product of two parallel vectors is a null vector, because for such vectors θ = 0° or 180°.
Hence

A x B = AB sin 0° 𝑛̂ sin 0° = 0, sin 180° = 0

A x B = AB sin 180° 𝑛̂

AxB=0

As a consequence

AxA=0

Also

𝑖̂ x 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ x 𝑗̂= 𝑘̂ x 𝑘̂ = 0

➢ In case of unit vectors, since they form a right-handed system and are mutually perpendicular.

𝑖̂ x 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂

𝑗̂ x 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂

𝑘̂ x 𝑖̂= 𝑗̂

➢ Cross product of two vectors A and B in terms of their rectangular components is:

A x B = ( 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ )( 𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂ )

A x B = ( 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 - 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 ) 𝑖̂ +( 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 - 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 ) 𝑗̂ + ( 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 - 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 ) 𝑘̂

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝐴
AxB= | 𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 |
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
Examples of vector product:

When a force F is applied on a rigid body at a point whose position vector is r from any point of the axis
about which the body rotates, then the turning effect of the force, called the torque

𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ x 𝐹⃗

Let's consider the Force of 5N is acts perpendicularly on edge of door to open it, the distance from the
axis is 2m. calculate the torque produced.

𝜏⃗ = 2m x 5N

𝜏⃗ = 10Nm

The force on a particle of charge q and velocity v in a magnetic field of strength B is given by vector
product.

𝐹⃗ = q (𝑣⃗ x 𝐵
⃗⃗)

Position Vector Or Displacement vector:

A vector 𝑟⃗ which is directed towards the point P in rectangular coordinate system is known as position
or displacement vector.

𝑟⃗ = 𝑟𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑟𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑟𝑧 𝑘̂

Average speed:

The average speed of an object is greater than or equal to the magnitude of the average velocity over a
given interval of time.

Uniform Speed:

If an object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time than the speed of the moving object is
called uniform speed.

Instantaneous speed:

Instantaneous speed is the speed of an object at any particular moment in time.

∆𝑠 ⬚
𝑣 = lim ( )
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

Average velocity:

It is the total displacement covered by a body divided by total time taken.

∆𝑟⃗
Average velocity ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 ≡
𝑣
∆𝑡

Positive Acceleration:

If the velocity of an object increases with time, its acceleration is positive.

Negative Acceleration:

If the velocity of an object decreases with time, its acceleration is negative. The negative acceleration is
also called retardation or deceleration.

(i) Uniform acceleration:

A body is said to have uniform acceleration if magnitude and direction of the acceleration remains
constant during particle motion.

(ii) Non-uniform acceleration:

A body is said to have non-uniform acceleration, if magnitude or direction or both, change during
motion.

DERIVATION OF FIRST EQUATION OF MOTION BY GRAPHICAL METHOD:

The first equation of motion can be derived using a velocity-time graph for a moving object with an initial
velocity of u, final velocity of v and acceleration ‘a’.

The figure:

The velocity of the body changes from A to B in time ‘t’ at uniform rate. BC is the final velocity and OC is
the total time ‘t’. A perpendicular is drawn from B to OC, and another perpendicular is drawn from B to
OA (represented by dotted lines).

Following details are obtained from the graph.

The initial velocity of the body = OA = u

The final velocity of the body = BC = v

From the graph, we know that,

BC = BD + DC

v = BD + OA

v = BD + u [∵ DC=OA, BC=v] The Figure:

Now,

a = slope of line AB

a = tan θ

a = BD/AD

a = BD/t

BD = at

v = BD + u

v = at + u

v = u + at
DERIVATION OF SECOND EQUATION OF MOTION BY GRAPHICAL METHOD:
S = D = Area of figure

S = Area of triangle + Area of rectangle

S = ABD + DADC
1
S = (AD x BD) + (AO x OC)
2
1
S = (t x AE) + (u x t)
2
1
𝑆 = (𝑣𝑖 + ∗ 𝑎𝑡 ) * t ∴ 𝑆 =𝑣∗𝑡
2

1
𝑆 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + ∗ 𝑎𝑡 2
2

DERIVATION OF THIRD EQUATION OF MOTION BY GRAPHICAL METHOD:

The total distance travelled, S is given by the area of trapezium OABC.

Hence,
1
𝑆= (sum of parallel sides) x Height
2
1
𝑆= (OA + BC) x OC
2
𝑂𝐴 = 𝑢, 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑣, 𝑂𝐶 = 𝑡
1
𝑆= (u + v) ∗ t
2
𝑣−𝑢
∴𝑡=
𝑎
1 (𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝑆= (𝑣 + 𝑢) ∗
2 𝑎
(𝑣 + 𝑢)(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝑆=
2𝑎
∴ 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏)

𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑆=
2𝑎
2𝑎𝑆 = 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
 Projectile Motion:
In this universe, we see different objects motion in different dimensions. Some are moving along a linear
path, like a car travelling along a rectilinear path and some are moving along a circular path/track. If a
cricketer hits a ball which is placed on the ground, this ball will follow a curved path and will hit the
ground, also if a missile is fired then we see it will always follow a curved path which are the examples of
two dimensional motion.

Projectile motion:
➢ The motion of an object in a plane under the influence of force of gravity of earth.
➢ Gravitational force of earth is responsible for the Projectile motion and the curved path followed
by a projectile is called its trajectory.

Assumptions for projectile motion:

It is easy to analyze the projectile motion if following assumptions are in consider:

➢ The value of acceleration due to gravity is considered as constant throughout the projectile
motion and it is always directed downwards.
➢ The effect of air resistance is negligible.
➢ Projectile motion is not affected due to rotation of an earth.

Time taken by projectile to reach the maximum height:

If we consider t is the time required to achieve the maximum height by a projectile then it can be found
by using 1st equation of motion.

𝑉𝑓𝑦 = 𝑉𝑖𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡

∴ 𝑉𝑓𝑦 = 0

∴ 𝑉𝑖𝑦 = 𝑉𝑜𝑦 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜃

∴ 𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔

0 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜃 + (−𝑔)𝑡
0 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡
𝑔𝑡 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜃
𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜃
𝑡=
𝑔