Definition of Computer

•Computer is a programmable machine.

•Computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions.
•Computer is any device which aids humans in performing various kinds of computations or
Calculations.
Three principles characteristic of computer:

•It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well defined manner.

•It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions.
•It can quickly store and retrieve large amounts of data.

Computer is an electronic machine that can solve problems by accepting data, performing
certain operations on data and producing results of those operations under the direction of
detailed step-by-step instructions. Such a sequence of instructions which causes a computer to
perform particular operations is called a program.

Computers are used in every walk of life.

• In business, computers are used for word processing, accounting, payroll processing,
keeping personal record etc.
• In health care, computer is used to monitor pulse rate, blood pressure andother vital
signs.
• It is used for weather forecasting.
• It is used in the field of education which enhances student’s performance Considerably.
• In recent years, computer usage has increased in people having interests
• in History, Literature, Music, Graphics, Arts and other branches of humanities.

Characteristics of computer

The use of computers in such diverse fields is because of certain characteristics of computer.
These are
1. Speed – A computer performs operations such as adding and subtracting numbers,
comparing letters to determine alphabetical sequence etc, at great speed. This speed varies
from a few microseconds (millionth of a second) to nanoseconds(billionth of a second).

2. Accuracy – Computers are very accurate. They can perform thousands of operations with
great accuracy. They can run errorless for days.

3. Reliability –Computer output is generally very reliable, subject to the condition that the data
input to the computer is correct and the program (that is the sequence of instructions given to
the computer) is reliable and correct. Incorrect input data and unreliable programs givewrong
results. This is referred to as GARBAGE IN-GARBAGE OUT.
4. Diligence – Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration. It can work for hours without creating an error. If ten million calculations are to
be performed, a computer will perform the last one with exactly the same accuracy and speed
as the first one.

5. Versatility – A computer can perform any task, provided set of instructions to perform the
task are given. One moment it is preparing results of examination, next moment it is busy
calculating salary of employees. All this can be done with the help of respective program.

6. Storage –A computer can store and recall any amount of information due to its secondary
storage. It can store a lot of information. It can retain information as long as user desires and
the user can recall the information whenever required.

Evolution of Computers -
Evolution of computer into a powerful machine has happened over a period of time and is
based on many technological developments. Modern computer systems have gone through five
generations of evolution.
Significant steps in evolution of computers are:

Earliest Computer
•Originally calculations were computed by humans, whose job title was computers.
•These human computers were typically engaged in the calculation of mathematical
expression.
•The calculations of this period were specialized and expensive, requiring years of training
In mathematics
•The first use of the word "computer" was recorded in 1613 , referring to a person who carried
out calculations, or computations, and the word continued to be used in that sense until the
middle of the 20 th century.

1. Tally Sticks
A tally stick was an ancient emory aid device to record and document numbers, quantities, or
even messages.
2. Abacus
An abacusis a mechanical device used to aid an individual in performing mathematical
calculations.
•The abacus was invented in Babylonia in 2400 B.C.
•The abacus in the form we are most familiar with was first used in China in around 500 B.C.
•It used to perform basic arithmetic operations.
3. Napier’s Bones
Invented by John Napier in 1614.
•Allowed the operator to multiply divideand calculate squareand cube roots by moving the
rods around and placing them in specially constructed boards.
. 4. Slide Rule

•Invented by William Oughtred in 1622.

•Is based on Napier's ideas about logarithms.

•Used primarily for–multiplication–division–roots–logarithms–Trigonometry
•Not normally used for addition or subtraction

5 .Difference Engine and Analytical Engine

•It an automatic, mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions.

•Invented by Charles Babbage in1822 and 1834
•It is the first mechanical computer.

Computer Generations

There are five generations of computer:

•First generation–1946 -1958
•Second generation–1959 -1964
•Third generation–1965 -1970
•Fourth generation–1971 -today
•Fifth generation–Today to future

The First Generation

•The first computers used Vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and
were often enormous, taking up entire rooms.
•They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
• First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest
-level programming language understood by computers, to perform operations,
and they could only solve one problem at a time.
•Input was based on punched cards and paper tape,and output was displayed on printouts.

Example: UNIVAC( Universal Automatic Computer), IBM 701, ENIAC (Electronic neumaric
integrator And Computer) , EDSAC (Electronic discrete variable automatic delay storage
arithmetic calculator , EDVAC(Electronic discrete variable automatic computer).

The Second Generation

•Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers.
•One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes
•Allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more
reliable.
•Still generated a great deal of heat that can damage the computer.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or
assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specifyinstructions in words.
•Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
•These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which
moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

Example: IBM7030,Honeywell 400

The Third Generation

•The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers.
•Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
•Much smaller and cheaper compare to the second generation computers.
•It could carry out instructions in billionths of a second.

•Users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and
interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different
applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
•Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller
and cheaper than their predecessors.

Example: IBM 360, & IBM 370

The Fourth Generation

•The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.
•As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet.
•Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld
devices.

The Fifth Generation

•Based on Artificial Intelligence (AI).
•Still in development.
•The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a
reality.
•The goal is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of
learning and self-organization.
•There are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today.
Classification of Computers
The computer systems can be classified on the following basis:
1.On the basis of size.
2. On the basis of functionality.
3. On the basis of data handling.
Classification on the basis of size
1. Super computers: A supercomputer is a computer that performs at or near the
currently highest operational rate for computers. Traditionally, supercomputers
have been used for scientific and engineering applications that must handle very
large databases or do a great amount of computation (or both). Although advances
like multi-core processors and GPGPUs (general-purpose graphics processing
units) have enabled powerful machines for personal use, by definition, a
supercomputer is exceptional in terms of performance.
At any given time, there are a few well-publicized supercomputers that
operate at extremely high speeds relative to all other computers. The term is also
sometimes applied to far slower (but still impressively fast) computers. The largest,
most powerful supercomputers are really multiple computers that perform parallel
processing.

2. Mainframe computers Mainframes are a type of computer that generally are known
for their large size, amount of storage, processing power and high level of reliability.
They are primarily used by large organizations for mission-critical applications
requiring high volumes of data processing. In general, there are a few characteristics
of mainframes that are common among all mainframe vendors: Nearly all
mainframes have the ability to run (or host) multiple operating systems. Mainframes
can add or hot swap system capacity without disruption. Mainframes are designed
to handle very high volume input and output (I/O) and emphasize throughput
computing. A single mainframe can replace dozens or even hundreds of smaller
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 omputers : These computers came into the market in mid 1960s and were sold at a
much cheaper price than the main frames, they were actually designed for control,
instrumentation, human interaction, and communication switching as distinct from
calculation and record keeping, later they became very popular for personal uses with
evolution.
In the 60s to describe the smaller computers that became possible with the use of
transistors and core memory technologies, minimal instructions sets and less
expensive peripherals such as the ubiquitous Teletype Model 33 ASR.They usually took
up one or a few inch rack cabinets, compared with the large mainframes that could fill
a room, there was a new term “MINICOMPUTERS” coined
Eg: Personal Laptop, PC etc.

4. Microcomputers : A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer with a

microprocessor as its CPU. It includes a microprocessor, memory, and minimal I/O
circuitry mounted on a single printed circuit board.The previous to these computers,
mainframes and minicomputers, were comparatively much larger, hard to maintain
and more expensive. They actually formed the foundation for present day
microcomputers and smart gadgets that we use in day to day life.
Eg: Tablets, Smartwatches.

Classification on the basis of functionality

1. Servers: Servers are nothing but dedicated computers which are set-up to offer some
services to the clients. They are named depending on the type of service they offered.
Eg: security server, database server.
2. Workstation: Those are the computers designed to primarily to be used by single user
at a time. They run multi-user operating systems. They are the ones which we use for
our day to day personal / commercial work.
3. Information Appliances: They are the portable devices which are designed to perform
a limited set of tasks like basic calculations, playing multimedia, browsing internet etc.
They are generally referred as the mobile devices. They have very limited memory and
flexibility and generally run on “as-is” basis.
4. Embedded computers: They are the computing devices which are used in other
machines to serve limited set of requirements. They follow instructions from the non-
volatile memory and they are not required to execute reboot or reset. The processing
units used in such device work to those basic requirements only and are different from
the ones that are used in personal computers- better known as workstations.

Classification on the basis of data handling

1. Analog: An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously-

changeable aspects of physical fact such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic
quantities to model the problem being solved. Anything that is variable with respect to
time and continuous can be claimed as analog just like an analog clock measures time
by means of the distance traveled for the spokes of the clock around the circular dial.
 2. Digital: A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system of “0” and “1”, “Computer
capable of solving problems by processing information expressed in discrete form.
from manipulation of the combinations of the binary digits, it can perform
mathematical calculations, organize and analyze data, control industrial and other
processes, and simulate dynamic systems such as global weather patterns.

3. Hybrid: A computer that processes both analog and digital data, Hybrid computer is a
digital computer that accepts analog signals, converts them to digital and processes
them in digital form.

Block diagram of a computer:

Block diagram of a computer gives you the pictorial representation of a computer that how
it works inside. Or you can say that, in computer's block diagram, we will see how computer
works from feeding the data to getting the result.

Here is the block diagram of a computer system:

In the above diagram, both control (control unit or CU) and arithmetic & logic unit
(ALU) combine called as Central Processing Unit (CPU).

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

It is the brain of the computer system.
All major calculation and comparisons are made inside the CPU and it is also responsible for
activation and controlling the operation of other unit.This unit consists of two major
components, that are arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU).
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Arithmetic logic unit performs all arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. It also uses logic operation for comparison.
Control Unit (CU)
The control unit of a CPU controls the entire operation of the computer. It also controls all
devices such as memory, input/output devices connected to the CPU.CU fetches instructions
from memory, decodes the instruction, interprets the instruction to know what the task are
to be performed and sends suitable control signals to the other components to perform for
the necessary steps to executes the instruction.
Input/output Unit

The input/output unit consists of devices used to transmit information between the external
world and computer memory.

The information fed through the input unit is stored in computer's memory for processing
and the final result stored in memory can be recorded or display on the output medium.

Memory Unit
Memory unit is an essential component of a digital computer. It is where all data
intermediate and find results are stored.The data read from the main storage or an
input unit are transferred to the computer's memory where they are available for
processing.
This memory unit is used to hold the instructions to be executed and data to be processes.

Disk Storage Unit

Data and instruction enters into a computer system through input device have to stored
inside the computer before actual processing start.
Two types of storage unit are primary and secondary storage unit.

Primary Storage Unit

Primary memory has direct link with input unit and output unit. It stores the input data,
calculation result.
Secondary Storage Unit
The primary storage is not able to store data permanently for future use. So some
other types of storage technology is required to store the data permanently for long
time, it is called secondary or auxiliary storage.
 Input-Output Devices
To perform a task, a computer system needs to communicate with its users. This is done using Input-
output devices. They are also known as peripheral devices because they surround a computer’s CPU
and memory. Input devices enter data from outside world into primary storage, and output devices
give the results of processing from primary storage to users.

INPUT DEVICES
An input device is an electromechanical device that accepts data from outside world and translates
them into a form, a computer can interpret. Following are the different categories of input devices:

1. Keyboard devices

2. Point-and-draw devices

3. Data scanning devices

4. Digitizer

5. Speech recognition devices

6. Vision based devices

Various types of input devices and their applications are :

1. Keyboard devices
Keyboard devices are the most commonly used input devices today. They allow data entry
into a computer system by pressing a set of keys mounted on a keyboard connected to a
computer system. The most popular keyboard used today is the 101-keyss QWERTY
Keyboard.

2. Point-and-draw devices
2.1 Mouse –

Mouse is the most popular point-and-draw device. It is an input device used for modern
personal computers and workstations because they support GUI (Graphical User Interface).
• Mechanical mouse: Houses a hard rubber ball that rolls as the mouse is moved. Sensors
inside the mouse body detect the movement and translate it into information that the
computer interprets.
• Optical mouse: Uses an LED sensor to detect tabletop movement and then sends off that
information to the computer for merry munching.

2.2 Trackball-

A trackball is a pointing device similar to a mechanical mouse. Its roller ball is on the top
(instead of the base) along with the buttons. To move the graphics cursor on the screen, we
have to roll the ball with hand. As it is not required to move the whole device for moving the
graphics cursor, a trackball requires less space than a mouse for operation. It is often
attached to or built into the keyboard.
Trackball is a preferred device for CAD/CAM (Computer Aided
Design/ Computer Aided Manufacturing) applications, because a designer can move the
graphics cursor with hand movements only without any movement of equipment.
Several equipments having embedded computers also use a trackball. For example, an
Ultrasound machine usually has a trackball that a sonologist (medical expert in sonography)
uses to move the cursor (usually in cross-hair shape) to mark the points of references on the
image on the screen.

2.3 Joystick-

A joystick is a pointing device which works on the same principle as a trackball. To make the
movements of the spherical ball easier, it is placed in a socket with a stick mounted on it. A
user holds the stick in his/her hand, which is moved around to move the spherical ball. The
user can move the stick in a particular direction(forward or backward, left or right), to move
and position the graphics cursor at a desired position. There is a button on top of the stick, to
select the option pointed to by the cursor. The user clicks the button and makes the selection.
Joysticks are used in video games, flight simulators, training simulators,
and remote control of industrial robots.

2.4 Electronic Pen

An electronic pen is a pen-based point-and-draw device.

2.4.1 Light pen: Computer-aided design (CAD) applications use light pens quite
frequently. For example, a user can draw on the screen directly with a light pen. By
using light pen with a keyboard, CAD applications allow users to select different
formatting options for colors and line thicknesses, reduce/enlarge drawings, and
add/erase graphics objects such as lines, rectangles, etc.

2.4.2 Writing pen with pad: This type of electronic pen comes with a special type of
writing pad. A user writes whatever data he/she wants to input to the computer on
the pad with the electronic pen. This input device with handwriting recognition
 software often enables easy input of text and freehand drawings into computer for
the purpose of word processing. Modern PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) quite
often provide this feature. Signatures and messages stored and transferred as
graphic images (like FAX messages) are input with this device.

2.5 Touch Screen

Touch screen is the most simple and easiest to use of all input devices. It enables users to
use a computer without any formal training. It enables a user to choose from available
options by simply touching with a finger the desired icon or menu item displayed on a
computer’s screen.

3. Data scanning devices

Commonly used types of data scanning devices are:
3.1 Image Scanner

An image scanner is an input device which translates paper documents into an electronic
format, for input to a computer. The input documents may be one of the following: typed
text, pictures, graphics, or even handwritten material.
Image scanner is very useful in preserving paper documents in electronic form. This is due to
the fact that a copy of a document stored in a computer in this manner does not deteriorate
in quality with age, and can be displayed or printed, whenever desired. We can
alter/manipulate the stored images using computer image-processing software.

3.2 OMR (Optical Mark Reader)

OMR is a scanner, which can recognize a pre-specified type of mark, made by pencil or pen.
For example, in objective type tests, applicants mark their choices of correct answers on a
special pre-printed test scoring sheet by darkening a small square, circular, or oval shaped box
by a pencil. These answer sheets are fed to an OMR device and are graded automatically by a
computer.

3.3 Bar-Code Reader

Bar codes are data coded in the form of small lines (known as bars). Bar codes represent
alphanumeric data by a combination of adjacent vertical lines (bars) by varying their width
and the spacing between them. All types of goods, books, postal packages, badges, tags, etc.
use bar codes for unique identification.
A bar-code reader is a device for reading (decoding) bar-coded data. It is either a hand-held or
a stationary scanner, which has bar-code reader embedded in it. It scans a bar-code image,
and converts it into an alphanumeric value for input to a computer connected to it.
 3.4 MICR (Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition)

Banking industry uses MICR for faster processing of large volumes of cheques handled every
day.
When a customer presents a filled-in-cheque at a bank, the employee enters (keys
in) the information supplied by the customer manually, including the amount written on the
cheque. The bank then processes this cheque by using an MICR reader-sorter that can
recognize magnetic ink characters. The MICR reader-sorter reads the pre-printed data on the
cheques, and sorts the cheques for distribution to other banks, or for further processing.

4. Digitizer
A digitizer is an input device used for converting (digitizing) pictures, maps, and drawings into
digital form, for input to computers. For example, x and y coordinates of points in a line
drawing may be stored in digital form. This enables re-creation of the drawing from the stored
information, and also easy incorporation of changes in the drawing, whenever required.

5. Speech recognition devices

Speech recognition devices are input devices which allow a person to input data to a computer
system by speaking to it. Some of its applications are:

1. For data input to a computer system by a person in situations where his/her hands are
busy or he/she must continuously look at a measuring instrument or some other object.
For example, doctors in an operation room can request certain information about a patient
while operating.

2. For data input by dictation of long texts or passages for editing later and reviewing.

3. For authentication of a user by a computer system based on speech input.

4. For limited use of computer by individuals with physical disabilities.

6. Vision based devices

A vision-input system allows a computer to accept input by seeing an object. Input data, in
this case, is generally an object’s shape and features in the form of an image. A computer
with a vision-input device consists of a digital camera, and follows the following steps to
recognize a given object:

1. It focuses the camera on the given object for taking its picture.
 2. The camera creates a digital image of the object, which is fed to the computer.

3. The computer matches the image with similarly formed pre-stored images in its image
database.

4. The computer takes appropriate action, depending on whether it finds a match or not.
Vision-input systems are quite often part of industrial robots used for quality control and
assembly processes. For example, a robot used for quality control may inspect objects passing
on a conveyor belt and separate those not meeting certain quality-control specifications.
Another robot may inspect shapes of objects and separate objects of different shapes in
different bins.

OUTPUT DEVICES

An output device is an electromechanical device which accepts data from a computer, and then
translates them into a form suitable for use by outside world (users).
Various output devices are:

1. Monitors

2. Printers

3. Plotters

4. Screen image projector

5. Voice response system

Various types of input devices and their applications are :

1. Monitors:

Monitors are the most popular output devices used today. A monitor is associated usually with a
keyboard, and together they form a video display terminal (VDT). A VDT (often referred to as just
terminal) is both an input and output device. A user uses the keyboard to input data to a computer
and the monitor is used to view the output from the computer.
Two basic types of monitors are cathode-ray-tube (CRT) and LCD (Liquid Crystal
Display) flat-panel. CRT monitors work much like a television screen and are suitable for use with
non-portable computer systems. On the other hand, LCD flat-panel monitors are thinner, lighter, and
are suitable for use with both portable and non-portable computer systems. They occupy less table
space and also consume less power.

Difference b/w CRT and LCD:

S.NO CRT LCD
While LCD stands for Liquid Crystal
1. CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube.
Display.
2. CRT consumes more power. While it consumes less power.
3. The cost of CRT is less than LCD. While it is costlier than CRT.
CRT is faster than LCD in terms of While it is slower than CRT in terms of
4.
response. response.
5. CRT is larger than LCD in terms of size. While it is small in terms of size.
6. It has not image confinement. While it has good image confinement.
7. CRT’s resolution is lower than LCD. While LCD’s resolution is more than CRT.

1. Printers

Printers are the most popular hard-copy output devices used today. Different
types of printers are:

a. Dot- Matrix Printers

Dot-matrix printers are character printers, which print one character at a time. They form
characters and all kinds of images as patterns of dots. It has a print head which moves
horizontally (left to right and right to left) across the paper. To print a character, the printer
activates the appropriate set of pins as the print head moves horizontally. For faster
printing, many dot-matrix printers print both ways – while the print head moves from left
to right and while it moves form right to left, on return. Such a method is called bi-
directional printing.

Since dot matrix printers produce printed output as patterns of dots, they can print any
shape or character that a program can describe. They can print many special characters,
different sizes of print, and graphics such as charts and graphs.Dot-matrix printers are
• Slow
• Have printing speeds in the range of 30 to 600 characters per second.
• They are cheap, in terms of both initial cost and cost of operation.
Hence, individuals and organizations prefer dot-matrix printers for generating hard-copy
outputs, if the speed and quality of printing are not important factors.

They are also used for applications which require multi-copy output, such as shipping forms
and invoices that rely on impact printing for generating multiple copies.
b. Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are character printers which form characters and images by spraying small
drops of ink on a paper. The print head of an inkjet printer contains up to 64 tiny nozzles.
To print a character, the printer selectively heats the appropriate set of nozzles as the print
head moves horizontally. Inkjet printers are non-impact printers, due to the fact that they
print by spraying ink on paper. Hence, they are quieter in operation, but we cannot use
them for producing multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

Inkjet printers are both monochrome and color. Inkjet

printers are Slower than dot- matrix printers

• Printing speeds range from 40 to 300 characters per second

• They are costlier than dot-matrix printers
Users prefer them for better quality output, if speed of printing is not an important factor.
c. Laser Printers
Laser printers are page printers that print one page at a time

Laser printers produce high quality output, because they form characters by tiny ink
particles. The most common laser printers have resolution of 600 dpi (dots per inch),
whereas some high-end laser printers have resolution of 1200 dpi. Due to their high
resolution, these printers give excellent graphics art quality.

As laser printers produce printed output as patterns generated by the laser beam, they can
print any shape of characters. Theycan print many special characters, different sizes of
print, and graphics such as charts and graphs.

Laser printers are non-impact printers. Hence, they are quiet in operation, but cannot be
used for producing multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

Low –speed laser printers can print 4 to 12 pages per minute. High-speed laser printers
are also available. Owing to their better print quality and printing speed, laser printers are
more expensive than other types of printers.

2. Plotters
Many engineering design applications, like architectural plan of a building , design of
mechanical components of an aircraft or a car, etc. quite often require high-quality,
perfectly-proportioned graphic output on large sheets. Various types of printers described
above are not suitable for meeting this output requirement of such applications. Hence,
such applications use plotters.

A plotter is an ideal output device for architects, engineers, city planners, and others who
need to generate high precision, hard-copy, graphic output of varying sizes.

3. Screen Image Projector

Screen image projector is an output device, which is used to project information from a
computer on a large screen (such as a cloth screen or wall). Thus, a group of people can
view it simultaneously. It is very useful for making presentations to a group of people with
the direct use of a computer.

Like monitors, screen image projectors provide a temporary, soft-copy output.

4. Speech Synthesizer
A speech synthesizer is a device which converts text information into spoken sentences. To
produce speech, it combines basic sound units called ‘phonemes’. From a given text
information, it combines the sequence of words into phonemes, amplifies it, and the
output is produced through a speaker.

Several applications that use Speech synthesizers are:

• For reading out text information to blind persons. For example, we can scan a recently
published book using a scanner, convert it into text using OCR software, and then a
speech synthesizer can read it out to blind persons.
• For allowing those persons who cannot speak, to communicate effectively. For
example, a person with this type of disability simply types the information, and the
speech synthesizer converts the typed information into spoken words.
 Memory Organization in Computer Architecture

A memory unit is the collection of storage units or devices together. The memory unit stores
the binary information in the form of bits. Generally, memory/storage is classified into 2
categories:

• Volatile Memory: This loses its data, when power is switched off.
• Non-Volatile Memory: This is a permanent storage and does not lose any data when
power is switched off.

The memory hierarchy design in a computer system mainly includes different storage devices.
Most of the computers were inbuilt with extra storage to run more powerfully beyond the main
memory capacity. The following memory hierarchy diagram is a hierarchical pyramid for
computer memory.

Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy Design

1. Capacity:
It is the global volume of information the memory can store. As we move from top to
bottom in the Hierarchy, the capacity increases.
2. Access Time:
It is the time interval between the read/write request and the availability of the data. As
we move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the access time increases.
 3. Performance:
Earlier when the computer system was designed without Memory Hierarchy design, the
speed gap increases between the CPU registers and Main Memory due to large difference
in access time. This results in lower performance of the system and thus, enhancement
was required. This enhancement was made in the form of Memory Hierarchy Design
because of which the performance of the system increases. One of the most significant
ways to increase system performance is minimizing how far down the memory hierarchy
one has to go to manipulate data.

4. Cost per bit:

As we move from bottom to top in the Hierarchy, the cost per bit increases i.e. Internal
Memory is costlier than External Memory.

Memory Hierarchy Diagram

Level-0: At level-0, registers are present which are contained inside the CPU.

• Since they are present inside the CPU, they have least access time.
• They are most expensive and therefore smallest in size (in KB).
• Registers are implemented using Flip-Flops.

Level-1: At level-1, Cache Memory is present.

• It stores the segments of program that are frequently accessed by the processor.
• It is expensive and therefore smaller in size (in MB).
• Cache memory is implemented using static RAM.

Level-2: At level-2, Main memory is present.

• It can communicate directly with the CPU and with auxiliary memory devices through an
I/O processor.
• It is less expensive than cache memory and therefore larger in size (in few GB).
• Main memory is implemented using dynamic RAM.

Level-3: At level-3, secondary storage devices like Magnetic Disk are present.

• They are used as back up storage.

• They are cheaper than main memory and therefore much larger in size (in few TB).

Level-4:

• At level-4, tertiary storage devices like magnetic tape are present.

• They are used to store removable files.
• They are cheapest and largest in size (1-20 TB).
 Register

Register are used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are being
used immediately by the CPU, there are various types of Registers those are used for various
purpose. While we are working on the System then these Registers are used by the CPU for Performing
the Operations. When We Gives Some Input to the System then the Input will be Stored into the
Registers and When the System will gives us the Results after Processing then the Result will also be
from the Registers. So that they are used by the CPU for Processing the Data which is given by the User.
Registers Perform:-

1) Fetch: The Fetch Operation is used for taking the instructions those are given by the user
and the Instructions those are stored into the Main Memory will be fetch by using Registers.

2) Decode: The Decode Operation is used for interpreting the Instructions means the
Instructions are decoded means the CPU will find out which Operation is to be performed on
the Instructions.

3) Execute: The Execute Operation is performed by the CPU. And Results those are produced
by the CPU are then Stored into the Memory and after that they are displayed on the user
Screen.

Types of Registers are as Followings

• MAR (Memory Address Register ) This register holds the memory addresses of
data and instructions. This register is used to access data and instructions from
memory during the execution phase of an instruction. Suppose CPU wants to store
some data in the memory or to read the data from the memory. It places the address of
the-required memory location in the MAR.

• Memory Buffer Register (MBR) MDR is the register of a computer's control unit
that contains the data to be stored in the computer storage (e.g. RAM), or the data
after a fetch from the computer storage. It acts like a buffer and holds anything that is
copied from the memory ready for the processor to use it. MDR hold the
information before it goes to the decoder.

• Data register A register used in microcomputers to temporarily store data being

transmitted to or from a peripheral device.
• I/O address Register An I/O address for passing control signals and memory for
transferring data.
• Accumulator is a register for short-term, intermediate storage of arithmetic and logic
data in a computer's CPU (Central Processing Unit).
 Cache Memory

Small piece of high speed volatile memory available to the processor for fast processing is
called cache memory. Cache may be a reserved portion of main memory, another chip on CPU
or an independent high speed storage device. Cache memory is made of fast speed SRAMs. The
process of keeping some data and instructions in cache memory for faster access is called
caching. Caching is done when a set of data or instructions is accesses again and again.

Whenever the processor needs any piece of data or instructions, it checks the cache first. If it is
unavailable there, then the main memory and finally secondary memory is accessed. As cache
has very high speed, time spent in accessing it every time is negligible as compared to time
saved if data indeed is in the cache. Finding data or instruction in cache is called cache hit.

Types of cache memory are as Followings

Level 1 (L1) cache or Primary Cache

L1 is the primary type cache memory. The Size of the L1 cache very small comparison
to others that is between 2KB to 64KB, it depend on computer processor. It is a
embedded register in the computer microprocessor (CPU).The Instructions that are
required by the CPU that are firstly searched in L1 Cache. Example of registers are
accumulator, address register, Program counter etc.

Level 2 (L2) cache or Secondary Cache

L2 is secondary type cache memory. The Size of the L2 cache is more capacious than
L1 that is between 256KB to 512KB.L2 cache is Located on computer microprocessor.
After searching the Instructions in L1 Cache, if not found then it searched into L2 cache
by computer microprocessor. The high-speed system bus interconnecting the cache to
the microprocessor.

Level 3 (L3) cache or Main Memory

The L3 cache is larger in size but also slower in speed than L1 and L2, it’s size is
between 1MB to 8MB.In Multicore processors, each core may have separate L1 and
L2,but all core share a common L3 cache. L3 cache double speed than the RAM.
 Primary memory

Primary memory is also known as main memory or may also refer to "Internal memory." and
primary storage. All those types of computer memories that are directly accessed by the
processor using data bus are called primary memory. That allows a processor to access stores
running programs and currently processed data that stored in a memory location.

RAM

RAM stands for Random Access Memory. The processor accesses all memory addresses
directly, irrespective of word length, making storage and retrieval fast. RAM is the fastest
memory available and hence most expensive. These two factors imply that RAM is available in
very small quantities of up to 1GB. RAM is volatile but my be of any of these two types

DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

Each memory cell in a DRAM is made of one transistor and one capacitor, which store one bit of
data. However, this cell starts losing its charge and hence data stored in less than thousandth of
a second. So it needs to be refreshed thousand times a second, which takes up processor time.
However, due to small size of each cell, one DRAM can have large number of cells. Primary
memory of most of the personal computers is made of DRAM.

SRAM (SRAM)

Each cell in SRAM is made of a flip flop that stores one bit. It retains its bit till the power supply
is on and doesn’t need to be refreshed like DRAM. It also has shorter read-write cycles as
compared to DRAM. SRAM is used in specialized applications.
ROM

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. As the name suggests, ROM can only be read by the
processor. New data cannot be written into ROM. Data to be stored into ROM is written during
the manufacturing phase itself. They contain data that does not need to be altered, like booting
sequence of a computer or algorithmic tables for mathematical applications. ROM is slower and
hence cheaper than RAM. It retains its data even when power is switched off, i.e. it is non-
volatile. ROM cannot be altered the way RAM can be but technologies are available to program
these types of ROMs −

PROM (Programmable ROM)

PROM can be programmed using a special hardware device called PROM programmer or PROM
burner.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)

EPROM can be erased and then programmed using special electrical signals or UV rays. EPROMs
that can be erased using UV rays are called UVEPROM and those that can be erased using
electrical signals are called EEPROM. However, handling electric signals is easier and safer than
UV rays.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory Electrically)

Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) is a type of non-volatile memory used

in computers and other electronic devices to store small amounts of data. EEPROM can be
erased and reprogrammed through the application of electrical charge.
 Secondary storage
Computers use main memory such as random access memory (RAM) and cache to hold data that
is being processed. However, this type of memory is volatile - it loses its contents when the
computer is switched off. General purpose computers, such as personal computers and tablets,
need to be able to store programs and data for later use.Secondary storage is non-volatile, long-term
storage. Without secondary storage all programs and data Characteristics of Secondary Memory

These are some characteristics of secondary memory, which distinguish it from primary memory

• It is non-volatile, i.e. it retains data when power is switched off

• It is large capacities to the tune of terabytes
• It is cheaper as compared to primary memory

Would be lost the moment the computer is switched off.

There are three main types of secondary storage in a computer system:

1. magnetic storage devices, such as hard disk drives

2. solid state storage devices, such as USB memory sticks
3. optical storage devices, such as CD, DVD and Blu-ray discs

1. Magnetic Storage Device

Hard drives are the primary storage device in most personal computers. Hard drives use
magnets to record data on rotating metal platters.

Advantages of Magnetic Storage Devices

• Inexpensive storage
• Very fast access to data
• Direct access on any part of the drive
• Very large amounts of storage space

Disadvantages of Magnetic storage devices

• Data can be altered by magnetic fields, dust, mechanical problems

• Gradually lose their charge over time - data lost
• Hard disks eventually fail which stops the computer from working
• The surface of the disk, can lose data within sectors with regular crashes
• Cannot transfer the disk to another computer easily.

Hard Disk Drive

Hard disk drive is made up of a series of circular disks called platters arranged one over the
other almost ½ inches apart around a spindle.
Disks are made of non-magnetic material like aluminum alloy and coated with 10-20 nm of
magnetic material.
Standard diameter of these disks is 14 inches and they rotate with speeds varying from 4200 rpm
(rotations per minute) for personal computers to 15000 rpm for servers. Data is stored by
magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic coating. A magnetic reader arm is used to read data
from and write data to the disks. A typical modern HDD has capacity in terabytes (TB).

2. Optical Storage Device

Optical drives include CD’s, DVD’s and Blu-ray disks and they all use a lens to read and write
information. CD-R, DVD-R, BD-R can be written to once and are then Read only, while CD-RW,
DVD-RW, BD-RW are Read Write so they can be written many times.

Advantages of Optical Storage Devices

• Optical discs are portable and can be read on many different devices
• Very inexpensive
• Memory is retained even when the power is turned off
• Durable and last a long time
• Archived data cannot be overwritten on read only CD-R, DVD-R, BD-R formats
• Can random access data no matter where or when it was stored

Disadvantages of Optical Storage Devices

• Require special drives to read/write.

• Compared to other storage devices they have little storage
• Can be expensive per GB/TB
• There are compatibility issues with different drives
• Lack of standards for grading quality and for longevity tests
• You can write once on read only CD-R, DVD-R, BD-R formats

CD Drive

CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use optical rays, usually lasers, to read
and write data. They are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of storage space for less than a
dollar. CDs are inserted in CD drives built into CPU cabinet. They are portable as you can eject
the drive, remove the CD and carry it with you. There are three types of CDs −

• CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) − The data on these CDs are recorded by the
manufacturer. Proprietary Software, audio or video are released on CD-ROMs.
• CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) − Data can be written by the user once on the CD-R. It
cannot be deleted or modified later.
• CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) − Data can be written and deleted on these optical disks
again and again.
 DVD Drive

DVD stands for Digital Video Display. DVD are optical devices that can store 15 times the data
held by CDs. They are usually used to store rich multimedia files that need high storage capacity.
DVDs also come in three varieties – read only, recordable and rewritable.

Blu Ray Disk

Blu Ray Disk (BD) is an optical storage media used to store high definition (HD) video and other
multimedia filed. BD uses shorter wavelength laser as compared to CD/DVD. This enables
writing arm to focus more tightly on the disk and hence pack in more data. BDs can store up to
128 GB data.

Solid State Storage Device (SSD)

Solid state drives use flash memory and could possibly make conventional hard drives obsolete.
They are compatible with SATA or SAS, and use standard form factors of 3.5-, 2.5- or 1.8-inch.

Advantages of Solid State Storage Devices

• Startup faster due to no spin-up and they are faster than magnetic hard drives
• When seeks on the hard disk seeks are limited they have faster launch times
• They last longer and some are waterproof
• All data stored can be scanned quickly for security purposes

Disadvantages of Solid State Storage Devices

• Solid State Storage devices are expensive

• Vulnerable to abrupt power loss, magnetic fields, and electrical and static charges
• Limited writes cycles wear out after 100,000-300,000
• High endurance
• Larger erase blocks make random write speeds slow

Pen Drive

Pen drive is a portable memory device that uses solid state memory rather than magnetic fields or
lasers to record data. It uses a technology similar to RAM, except that it is nonvolatile. It is also
called USB drive, key drive or flash memory.
Parameters RAM ROM
RAM allows the computer to ROM stores all the application which is needed to
Usage read data quickly to run boot the computer initially. It only allows for
applications. reading.

RAM is volatile. So, its

It is non-volatile, i.e., its contents are retained even
Volatility contents are lost when the
if the device is powered off
device is powered off.

The processor can't directly access the information

that is stored in the ROM. In order to access ROM
Information stored in the
Accessibility information first, the information is transferred into
RAM is easily accessed.
the RAM, and then it can be executed by the
processor.

Both R (read) and W (write)

The ROM memory allows the user to read the
operations can be performed
Read/Write information. But, the user can't alter the
over the information which is
information.
stored in the RAM.

RAM is used to store ROM memory is used to store permanent

Storage
temporary information. information, which is non-erasable.
Its speed is slower in comparison with RAM.
The access speed of RAM is
Speed Therefore, ROM can't boost up the processor
faster.
speed.
The price of RAM is quite
Cost The price of ROM is comparatively low.
high.
Physical size of RAM chip is Physical size of ROM chip is smaller than the
Chip size
bigger than ROM chip. RAM chip of same storage capacity.
Electricity is needed in RAM
Preservation Electricity is not required to flow and preserving
to flow and to preserve
of Data information
information

The RAM chip is in rectangle Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of storage

Structure form and is inserted over the medium that permanently stores data on personal
motherboard of the computer. computers (PCs) and other electronic devices.
 Difference between Primary and Secondary Storage
1. Storage

Data storage is the basic functionality of a computer which is divided into primary and secondary

storage.

Primary storage refers to the main storage of the computer or main memory which is the random access

memory or RAM.

Secondary storage, on the other hand, refers to the external storage devices used to store data on a long-

term basis.
2. Access of Primary Vs. Secondary Storage

Primary storage holds data or applications which can be directly accessed by the processing unit with

minimum or no delay.

On the contrary, secondary storage is used to store and retrieve data permanently with no delay.
3. Nature of Primary Vs. Secondary Storage

Primary storage is a volatile memory which means data is lost as soon as the device loses power and it

cannot be retained. Primary storage is commonly referred to as primary memory such as the RAM.

Secondary storage, commonly known as secondary memory, is a non-volatile memory which is able to

retain data even if the device loses power.

4. Device used for Primary Vs. Secondary Storage

RAM is the most common primary storage device which also goes by main memory and is used to store

data machine code currently in use. Instructions can be retrieved from the RAM whenever required. It

provides fast data access with no delay.

Secondary storage refers to external storage devices such as optical media (CDs and DVDs), hard disk

drives (HDD), floppy disks, USB flash drives, etc.

5. Speed of Primary Vs. Secondary Storage

As programs and applications are stored in main memory, primary storage provides fast and efficient

access to the CPU.

On the contrary, secondary storage is more of a long-term storage solution with substantial data storage

capacity which makes them relatively slower than their primary counterparts.
Primary vs. Secondary Storage: Comparison Chart
Definition of Magnetic disk

The Magnetic disk is made of a set of circular platters. These platters are initially build up of non-
magnetic material i.e., aluminium or aluminium alloy referred to as substrate then the substrate is
coated with a magnetic film and mounted on a common spindle. The disks are placed inside a rotary
drive where the magnetised surface rotates close to the read and write heads. Every head is
comprised of a magnetising coil and a magnetic yoke. It stores the digital information on the
concentric tracks by applying the current pulse of appropriate polarity to the magnetic coil.

The number of bits stored on each track does not change by using simplest constant angular
velocity. Multiple zoned recording is used to increase the density in which the surface is partitioned
into a number of zones and the zones located near the centre contain fewer bits than the zones
farther from the centre. However, this strategy is not optimal.

In the read operation, the alteration in a magnetic field is sensed. So, the two opposite states of
magnetisation represent 0 and 1; it produces the voltage in the head when 0-1 and 1-0 transition
takes place in the bit stream.

Definition of Optical disk

The Optical disk is a storage device in which optical (light) energy is used. In the initial stages, the
designers created a compact disk in the mid- 1980s which use the digital representation for the
analog sound signals. The CD was capable of providing great quality sound recording by taking 16-bit
samples of analog signals at the speed of 44,100 samples per second and also it can detain up to 75
minutes where a total amount of stored bits needed is approx 3 x 109 (3 gigabits). These optical disks
use the optical technology in which a laser light is centred to the spinning disks.

Optical disk Construction

The optical disk is constructed from a resin like polycarbonate, and the surface of this polycarbonate
contains the digital information impressed on it as the sequence of microscopic pits. A microscopic
pitted surface is then glazed by a highly reflective surface such as aluminium or gold. To make the
disk scratch resistant it is coated by acrylic and silkscreened label on it. Finally, a concentrated high-
intensity laser is utilized in the creation of the master disk.
The information retrieval from a CD is done through housing a low powered laser in an optical disk
player. The laser is radiated through the clear polycarbonate while the disk is spinning by the motor.
As the laser falls on the pit (usually having the rough surface), the magnitude of the reflected laser
light changes. The vacant smooth area between the pits is known as the landfrom which the light
reflects back at a higher magnitude.

A photosensor is used to identify the alteration between the pits and lands and translate it into a
digital signal. The pit area represents a ‘1’ while no change is observed between intervals a ‘0’ is
recorded. There are numerous optical disk products are available in the market such as CD, CD-ROM,
CD-R, CD-RW, DVD, DVD-R, DVD-RW.

Key Differences Between Magnetic disk and Optical disk

1. The magnetic disk is a fixed storage device whereas optical disk is transportable storage
media which is removable.
2. Optical disk generates better signal-to-noise ratio as compared to magnetic disk.
3. The sample rate used in the magnetic disk is lower than used in the optical disk.
4. In the optical disk, the data is sequentially accessed. In contrast, the data in the magnetic
disk is randomly accessed.
5. Tracks in the magnetic disk are generally circular while in optical disk the tracks are
constructed spirally.
6. Optical disk allows mass replication. On the contrary, in the magnetic disk, only one disk is
accessed at a time.
7. The access time of the magnetic disk is lesser than the optical disk.
 Data
Data -Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a
formalized manner, which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or
processing by human or electronic machine.
Data are plain facts. The word "data" is plural for "datum." When data are processed, organized,
structured or presented in a given context so as to make them useful, they are called
Information.
It is not enough to have data (such as statistics on the economy). Data themselves are fairly
useless, but when these data are interpreted and processed to determine its true meaning, they
become useful and can be named as Information.
Data is the term, that may be new to beginners, but it is very interesting and simple to
understand. It can be anything like name of a person or a place or a number etc. Data is the
name given to basic facts and entities such as names and numbers. The main examples of data
are weights, prices, costs, numbers of items sold, employee names, product names, addresses,
tax codes, registration marks etc.
Data is the raw material that can be processed by any computing machine. Data can be
represented in the form of:
Numbers and words which can be stored in computer's language.

Data is a raw and unorganized fact that required to be processed to make it

meaningful. Data can be simple at the same time unorganized unless it is
organized. Generally, data comprises facts, observations, perceptions
numbers, characters, symbols, image, etc.

Data is always interpreted, by a human or machine, to derive meaning. So,

data is meaningless. Data contains numbers, statements, and characters in

raw form.

Types of Data
Data, in mathematical and scientific speak, is a group of information collected. The
information could be anything, and is often used to prove or disprove a hypothesis, or
scientific guess, during an experiment. Data that can be collected can be hair color, number of
movies a person goes to, how a person feels about a certain topic, how much money a group
of people make over the course of time, and so much more. Data is usually grouped into two
different types of information: categorical and numerical. In this lesson, we'll talk about
numerical data.

What Is Numerical Data?

Numerical data is the data that is measurable. It is always collected in number form,
although there are other types of data that can appear in number form. An example of
numerical data would be the number of people that attended the movie theatre over the course
of a month.
One of the ways you can identify numerical data is by seeing if the data can be added
together. In fact, you should be able to perform just about any mathematical operation on
numerical data. You can also put data in ascending (least to greatest) and descending
(greatest to least) order. Data can only be numerical if the answers can be represented in
fraction and/or decimal form. If you have to group the information into categories, then it is
considered categorical.
If you were to measure the height of four ladders, you could average the heights, you could
add the heights, and you could put them in ascending or descending order. That's because the
height of the ladders is numerical data!

alphanumeric (alphameric)

Alphanumeric, also referred to as alphameric, is a term that encompasses all of the letters and
numerals in a given language set. In layouts designed for English language users,
alphanumeric characters are those comprised of the combined set of the 26 alphabetic
characters, A to Z, and the 10 Arabic numerals, 0 to 9.
For some computer purposes, such as filenaming, alphanumeric characters are strictly limited
to the 26 alphabetic characters and 10 numerals. However, for other applications, such as
programming, other keyboard symbols are sometimes permitted. In some usages, the
alphanumeric character set may include both upper and lower case letters, punctuation marks
and symbols (such as @, &, and *, for example). For languages other than English,
alphanumeric characters include letter variations such as é and ç.
The mishmash of letters and numerals used for texting abbreviations is sometimes referred to
as alphanumerish. As is the case with the term alphanumeric, alphanumerish can be expanded
to include other characters. The grawlix, for example, which represents a non-specific
profanity, is generally made up of typographical symbols that do not include either letters or
numerals, but it might be considered an alphanumerish word nevertheless.
What is Information?
Information is data that has been processed in such a way as to be meaningful to the
person who receives it. it is any thing that is communicated.

Information is a set of data which is processed in a meaningful way

according to the given requirement. Information is processed, structured, or
presented in a given context to make it meaningful and useful.

It is processed data which includes data that possess context, relevance,

and purpose. It also involves manipulation of raw data.

Information assigns meaning and improves the reliability of the data. It

helps to ensure undesirability and reduces uncertainty. So, when the data
is transformed into information, it never has any useless details.

Data Vs. Information

Parameters Data Information

Qualitative Or
QuantitativeVariables It is a group of data which carries
Description
which helps to develop news and meaning.
ideas or conclusions.
Data comes from a Latin
Information word has old French
word, datum, which
and middle English origins. It has
means "To give
Etymology referred to the "act of informing.".
something." Over a time
It is mostly used for education or
"data" has become the
other known communication.
plural of datum.
 Data is in the form of
Format numbers, letters, or a set Ideas and inferences
of characters.
It can be structured,
Represented Language, ideas, andthoughts
tabular data, graph, data
in based on the given data.
tree, etc.
Data does not have any It carries meaning that has been
Meaning
specific purpose. assigned by interpreting data.
Information that is
Interrelation Information that is processed.
collected
Data is a single unit and Information is the product and
Feature is raw. It alone doesn't group of data which jointly carry a
have any meaning. logical meaning.
It never depends on
Dependence It depended on Data.
Information
Measuring Measured in bits and Measured in meaningful units like
unit bytes. time, quantity, etc.
Support for
It can't be used for It is widely used for decision
Decision
decision making making.
making
Contains Unprocessed raw factors Processed in a meaningful way
Knowledge It is low-level It is the second level of
level knowledge. knowledge.
Data is the property of
an organization and is Information is available for sale to
Characteristic
not available for sale to the public.
the public.
Data depends upon the
Dependency sources for collecting Information depends upon data.
data.
 Sales report by region and venue.
Ticket sales on a band
Example It gives information which venue
on tour.
is profitable for that business.
Data alone has no
Significance Information is significant by itself.
signifiance.
Data is based on records
Information is considered more
and observations and,
reliable than data. It helps the
Meaning which are stored in
researcher to conduct a proper
computers or
analysis.
remembered by a person.
The data collected by the Information is useful and valuable
Usefulness researcher, may or may as it is readily available to the
not be useful. researcher for use.
Information is always specific to
Data is never designed to the requirements and expectations
Dependency the specific need of the because all the irrelevant facts and
user. figures are removed, during the
transformation process.

What is Data Processing?

Data processing is simply the conversion of raw data to meaningful information
through a process. Data is manipulated to produce results that lead to a resolution of
a problem or improvement of an existing situation. Similar to a production process,
it follows a cycle where inputs (raw data) are fed to a process (computer systems,
software, etc.) to produce output (information and insights).Generally, organizations
employ computer systems to carry out a series of operations on the data in order to
present, interpret, or obtain information. The process includes activities like data
entry, summary, calculation, storage, etc. Useful and informative output is presented
in various appropriate forms such as diagrams, reports, graphics, etc.
Stages of the Data Processing Cycle
1) Collection is the first stage of the cycle, and is very crucial, since the quality of
data collected will impact heavily on the output. The collection process needs to
ensure that the data gathered are both defined and accurate, so that subsequent
decisions based on the findings are valid. This stage provides both the baseline from
which to measure, and a target on what to improve.
Some types of data collection include census (data collection about everything in a
group or statistical population), sample survey (collection method that includes only
part of the total population), and administrative by-product (data collection is a
byproduct of an organization’s day-to-day operations).

2) Preparation is the manipulation of data into a form suitable for further analysis
and processing. Raw data cannot be processed and must be checked for accuracy.
Preparation is about constructing a dataset from one or more data sources to be used
for further exploration and processing. Analyzing data that has not been carefully
screened for problems can produce highly misleading results that are heavily
dependent on the quality of data prepared.
3) Input is the task where verified data is coded or converted into machine readable
form so that it can be processed through a computer. Data entry is done through the
use of a keyboard, digitizer, scanner, or data entry from an existing source. This
time-consuming process requires speed and accuracy. Most data need to follow a
formal and strict syntax since a great deal of processing power is required to
breakdown the complex data at this stage. Due to the costs, many businesses are
resorting to outsource this stage.
4) Processing is when the data is subjected to various means and methods of
manipulation, the point where a computer program is being executed, and it contains
the program code and its current activity. The process may be made up of
multiple threads of execution that simultaneously execute instructions, depending on
the operating system. While a computer program is a passive collection of
instructions, a process is the actual execution of those instructions. Many software
programs are available for processing large volumes of data within very short
periods.
5) Output and interpretation is the stage where processed information is now
transmitted to the user. Output is presented to users in various report formats like
printed report, audio, video, or on monitor. Output need to be interpreted so that it
can provide meaningful information that will guide future decisions of the company.
6) Storage is the last stage in the data processing cycle, where data, instruction and
information are held for future use. The importance of this cycle is that it allows
quick access and retrieval of the processed information, allowing it to be passed on to
the next stage directly, when needed. Every computer uses storage to hold system
and application software.
The Data Processing Cycle is a series of steps carried out to extract information from
raw data. Although each step must be taken in order, the order is cyclic. The output
and storage stage can lead to the repeat of the data collection stage, resulting in
another cycle of data processing. The cycle provides a view on how the data travels
and transforms from collection to interpretation, and ultimately, used in effective
business decisions.