Operating System (OS)

Deadlock
• A process in operating system uses resources in the
following way.
• Requests a resource
• Use the resource
• Releases the resource
• A deadlock is a situation where a set of processes are
blocked because each process is holding a resource and
waiting for another resource acquired by some other
2 process.
 In an operating system, a deadlock occurs when a process or
thread enters a waiting state because a requested system
resource is held by another waiting process, which in turn is
waiting for another resource held by another waiting process

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 necessary conditions for deadlock
• Deadlock can arise if the following four conditions hold
simultaneously (Necessary Conditions)
• Mutual Exclusion: Two or more resources are non-
shareable (Only one process can use at a time)
Hold and Wait: A process is holding at least one resource
and waiting for resources.
No Preemption: A resource cannot be taken from a
process unless the process releases the resource.
Circular Wait: A set of processes waiting for each other in
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 • Methods for handling deadlock
There are three ways to handle deadlock
1) Deadlock prevention or avoidance:
Prevention:
• The idea is to not let the system into a deadlock state. This
system will make sure that above mentioned four conditions will
not arise. These techniques are very costly so we use this in
cases where our priority is making a system deadlock-free.
One can zoom into each category individually, Prevention is
done by negating one of the above-mentioned necessary
conditions for deadlock
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 • Prevention can be done in four different ways:
1. Eliminate mutual exclusion
2. Allow preemption
3. Solve hold and Wait
4. Circular wait

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 deadlock solution
• Avoidance:
Avoidance is kind of futuristic. By using the strategy of
“Avoidance”, we have to make an assumption. We need to
ensure that all information about resources that the process
will need is known to us before the execution of the
process. We use Banker’s algorithm (Which is in turn a
gift from Dijkstra) to avoid deadlock.
• In prevention and avoidance, we get the correctness of data
but performance decreases.
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 • 2) Deadlock detection and recovery: If Deadlock
prevention or avoidance is not applied to the software then
we can handle this by deadlock detection and recovery.
which consist of two phases:
• In the first phase, we examine the state of the process and
check whether there is a deadlock or not in the system.
• If found deadlock in the first phase then we apply the
algorithm for recovery of the deadlock.
• In Deadlock detection and recovery, we get the correctness
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of data but performance decreases.
 Recovery from Deadlock
1. Manual Intervention:
• When a deadlock is detected, one option is to inform the
operator and let them handle the situation manually. While
this approach allows for human judgment and decision-
making, it can be time-consuming and may not be feasible
in large-scale systems.

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 2. Automatic Recovery:
• An alternative approach is to enable the system to recover
from deadlock automatically. This method involves
breaking the deadlock cycle by either aborting processes or
preempting resources

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 Recovery from Deadlock: Process Termination:
1. Abort all deadlocked processes:
• This approach breaks the deadlock cycle, but it comes at a
significant cost. The processes that were aborted may have
executed for a considerable amount of time, resulting in
the loss of partial computations. These computations may
need to be recomputed later.

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 2. Abort one process at a time:
• Instead of aborting all deadlocked processes
simultaneously, this strategy involves selectively aborting
one process at a time until the deadlock cycle is
eliminated. However, this incurs overhead as a deadlock-
detection algorithm must be invoked after each process
termination to determine if any processes are still
deadlocked.

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 Factors for choosing the termination order:
• – The process’s priority
• – Completion time and the progress made so far
• – Resources consumed by the process
• – Resources required to complete the process
• – Number of processes to be terminated
• – Process type (interactive or batch)

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 Recovery from Deadlock: Resource Preemption:
1. Selecting a victim:
• Resource preemption involves choosing which resources
and processes should be preempted to break the deadlock.
The selection order aims to minimize the overall cost of
recovery. Factors considered for victim selection may
include the number of resources held by a deadlocked
process and the amount of time the process has consumed.
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 2. Rollback:
• If a resource is preempted from a process, the process
cannot continue its normal execution as it lacks the
required resource. Rolling back the process to a safe state
and restarting it is a common approach. Determining a safe
state can be challenging, leading to the use of total
rollback, where the process is aborted and restarted from
scratch.

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 3. Starvation prevention:
• To prevent resource starvation, it is essential to ensure that
the same process is not always chosen as a victim. If
victim selection is solely based on cost factors, one process
might repeatedly lose its resources and never complete its
designated task. To address this, it is advisable to limit the
number of times a process can be chosen as a victim,
including the number of rollbacks in the cost factor.

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 3) Deadlock ignorance: If a deadlock is very rare, then let it
happen and reboot the system. This is the approach that both
Windows and UNIX take. we use the ostrich algorithm for
deadlock ignorance.
• In Deadlock, ignorance performance is better than the
above two methods but the correctness of data.

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 Safe State:
• A safe state can be defined as a state in which there is no
deadlock. It is achievable if:
• If a process needs an unavailable resource, it may wait
until the same has been released by a process to which it
has already been allocated. if such a sequence does not
exist, it is an unsafe state.
• All the requested resources are allocated to the process.
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 Disk Scheduling Strategies
• Disk scheduling is done by operating systems to schedule I/O
requests arriving for the disk. Disk scheduling is also known as
I/O Scheduling.
Improtance of Disk Scheduling in Operating System
• Multiple I/O requests may arrive by different processes and only
one I/O request can be served at a time by the disk controller.
Thus other I/O requests need to wait in the waiting queue and
need to be scheduled.
• Two or more requests may be far from each other so this can
result in greater disk arm movement.
• Hard drives are one of the slowest parts of the computer system
and thus need to be accessed in an efficient manner.
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 • Disk Scheduling Algorithms
– FCFS (First Come First Serve)
– SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First)
– SCAN (Elevator Algorithm)
– C-SCAN (CIrcular SCAN)
– LOOK
– C-LOOK
– RSS
– LIFO (Last-In First-Out)
– N-Step SCAN
21 – F-SCAN
 Terms Associated with Disk Scheduling
• Seek Time: Seek time is the time taken to locate the disk arm to a specified track
where the data is to be read or written. So the disk scheduling algorithm that gives a
minimum average seek time is better.
• Rotational Latency: Rotational Latency is the time taken by the desired sector of the
disk to rotate into a position so that it can access the read/write heads. So the disk
scheduling algorithm that gives minimum rotational latency is better.
• Transfer Time: Transfer time is the time to transfer the data. It depends on the
rotating speed of the disk and the number of bytes to be transferred.
• Disk Access Time:
Disk Access Time = Seek Time + Rotational Latency + Transfer Time

Total Seek Time = Total head Movement * Seek Time

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 • Disk Response Time: Response Time is the average time
spent by a request waiting to perform its I/O operation.
The average Response time is the response time of all
requests. Variance Response Time is the measure of how
individual requests are serviced with respect to average
response time. So the disk scheduling algorithm that gives
minimum variance response time is better.

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 Disk Scheduling Algorithms
FCFS (First Come First Serve)
• FCFS is the simplest of all Disk Scheduling Algorithms. In
FCFS, the requests are addressed in the order they arrive in
the disk queue.
Example:
• Suppose the order of request is- (82,170,43,140,24,16,190)
And current position of Read/Write head is: 50
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 So, total overhead movement (total distance covered by the
disk arm) =
(82-50)+(170-82)+(170-43)+(140-43)+(140-24)+(24-
16)+(190-16) =642

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 • SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First)
In SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First), requests having the
shortest seek time are executed first. So, the seek time of
every request is calculated in advance in the queue and then
they are scheduled according to their calculated seek time.
As a result, the request near the disk arm will get executed
first.
Example: order of request is- (82,170,43,140,24,16,190)
And current position of Read/Write head is: 50
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 total overhead movement (total distance covered by the disk
arm) =
(50-43)+(43-24)+(24-16)+(82-16)+(140-82)+(170-
140)+(190-170) =208

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 • SCAN
• In the SCAN algorithm the disk arm moves in a particular
direction and services the requests coming in its path and
after reaching the end of the disk, it reverses its direction
and again services the request arriving in its path. So, this
algorithm works as an elevator and is hence also known as
an elevator algorithm. As a result, the requests at the
midrange are serviced more and those arriving behind the
disk arm will have to wait.
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 • C-SCAN
• In the SCAN algorithm, the disk arm again scans the path that
has been scanned, after reversing its direction. So, it may be
possible that too many requests are waiting at the other end or
there may be zero or few requests pending at the scanned area.

• These situations are avoided in the CSCAN algorithm in which

the disk arm instead of reversing its direction goes to the other
end of the disk and starts servicing the requests from there. So,
the disk arm moves in a circular fashion and this algorithm is
also similar to the SCAN algorithm hence it is known as C-
SCAN (Circular SCAN).
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 LOOK
LOOK Algorithm is similar to the SCAN disk scheduling
algorithm except for the difference that the disk arm in spite
of going to the end of the disk goes only to the last request to
be serviced in front of the head and then reverses its
direction from there only. Thus it prevents the extra delay
which occurred due to unnecessary traversal to the end of the
disk.

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 C-LOOK
• As LOOK is similar to the SCAN algorithm, in a similar
way, C-LOOK is similar to the CSCAN disk scheduling
algorithm. In CLOOK, the disk arm in spite of going to the
end goes only to the last request to be serviced in front of
the head and then from there goes to the other end’s last
request. Thus, it also prevents the extra delay which
occurred due to unnecessary traversal to the end of the
disk.
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 Rotational optimization
In early hard drives, the dominant component of access time was
seek time. So, older systems concentrated on disk scheduling
algorithms for minimizing seek times. Today's hard disks exhibit
seek times and average latencies of the same order of magnitude.
Rotational optimization can improve the performance in case there
are a number of requests to small pieces of data randomly
distributed throughout the disk's cylinders. But the processes that
access data sequentially tend to access entire tracks of data and
thus do not benefit much from rotational optimization. Recently
developed strategies attempt to optimization disk performance by
reducing rotational latency
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 • Seek time is measured defines the amount of time it takes
a hard drive's read/write head to find the physical location
of a piece of data on the disk. Latency is the average time
for the sector being accessed to rotate into position under
ahead, after a completed seeks.

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 What is Rotational Latency?
• The disk is divided into many circular tracks, and these tracks
are further divided into blocks known as sectors. To access data,
the actuator arm moves the read-write head over the platter to a
particular track while the platter spins to position the requested
sector under the read-write head. The time taken by the platter
to rotate and position the data under the read-write head is
called rotational latency.
• This latency depends on the rotation speed of the spindle and is
measured in milliseconds. The average rotational latency for a
disk is half the amount of time it takes for the disk to make one
revolution.
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 Important Formula
Rotational Latency = (Angle between current sector and requ
ired sector) / (Rotational frequency)
And
Average Rotational Latency = (1/2) * One rotation time

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 Example
Suppose, Speed = 2400 RPM (Rotation Per Minute)
Then, 2400 Rotation = 1 min
1 Rotation = 60 sec / 2400 // 1 min = 60 sec
1 Rotation = 1/40 sec
One Rotation Time = 1/40 sec

Average Rotational Latency = (1/2) * (1/40)

= 1/80 sec
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 • What is Disk Access Time?
• Disk Access Time is defined as the total time required by the computer to
process a read/write request and then retrieve the required data from the
disk storage.
• There are two components in disk access time. The first component is seek
time which occurs when the read and write arm seeks the desired track. The
second component is latency or wait time which occurs when the head write
arm waits for the desired sector on the track to spin around.
• Access to the data on disks is measured in terms of milliseconds. However,
this is much slower than the processing speeds of CPUs. Although I/O is
still slow, it cannot match the speed improvements of modern processors.
Disk Access Time is divided into two parts:
• Access Time
• Data Transfer Time
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 Formula
we can calculate the disk access time by using the following
formula.
Disk Access Time = Access Time + Data Transfer Time

OR

Disk Access Time = Seek time + Rotational delay + Transfer time

+ Controller overhead + Queuing delay
Average disk access time is calculated as
Average disk access time = Average seek time + Average rotation
al delay + Transfer time + Controller
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 System Consideration
Make sure that your system meets the minimum operating
system requirements. In a production environment with
numerous concurrent users, multiple processors help increase
performance. In addition to using faster processors to speed
up most operations, there are other areas to consider when
you want to improve operating system performance.

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 Caching and Buffering
Caching :
Caching is storing data in a separate disk (very fast speed
disk). The data which is to be used many times results in
wastage of time if it is in hard disk, but storing the data in
cache reduces this time wastage. cache is used in system to
speed up the access of data frequently used.

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 Buffering :
In computer system when the speed in which data is received
and the speed in which data is processed are different, then
there we use the buffer. Buffer is a memory space which
stores the input data and pass it on to the system according to
this speed in this way there is no need to hold the input
device until it is processed. simply the data will be stored in
buffer and then used by the system. The buffer can be of any
type, hardware or software, but in general software buffer are
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 Assignment 3
1. Explain necessary conditions for deadlock.
2. Define Bankers algorithms with example.
3. What are steps taken for deadlock recovery.
4. Explain any 3 Disk Scheduling Strategies with example.
5. Differentiate between Caching and Buffering.

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