Python Basics

1. Calculate the Area of a Circle

o Question: Write a program to calculate the area of a circle given its radius.
o Answer:

import math

radius = float(input("Enter the radius of the circle: "))

area = math.pi * (radius ** 2)
print(f"The area of the circle is: {area}")

2. Swap Two Numbers

o Question: Write a program to swap two numbers without using a temporary
variable.
o Answer:

x = int(input("Enter first number: "))

y = int(input("Enter second number: "))

x, y = y, x

print(f"After swapping: x = {x}, y = {y}")

3. Check Prime Number

o Question: Write a program to check if a number is prime.
o Answer:

num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

if num > 1:
for i in range(2, int(num/2)+1):
if (num % i) == 0:
print(f"{num} is not a prime number")
break
else:
print(f"{num} is a prime number")
else:
print(f"{num} is not a prime number")

4. Factorial of a Number
o Question: Write a program to find the factorial of a number.
o Answer:

num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

factorial = 1

if num < 0:
 print("Sorry, factorial does not exist for negative
numbers")
elif num == 0:
print("The factorial of 0 is 1")
else:
for i in range(1, num + 1):
factorial *= i
print(f"The factorial of {num} is {factorial}")

5. Reverse a String
o Question: Write a program to reverse a given string.
o Answer:

string = input("Enter a string: ")

reversed_string = string[::-1]
print(f"Reversed string: {reversed_string}")

Operators

1. Arithmetic Operations
o Question: Write a program to perform basic arithmetic operations: addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.
o Answer:

a = float(input("Enter first number: "))

b = float(input("Enter second number: "))

addition = a + b
subtraction = a - b
multiplication = a * b
division = a / b if b != 0 else "undefined"

print(f"Addition: {addition}, Subtraction: {subtraction},

Multiplication: {multiplication}, Division: {division}")

2. Relational Operators
o Question: Write a program to compare two numbers using relational
operators.
o Answer:

a = float(input("Enter first number: "))

b = float(input("Enter second number: "))

print(f"a > b: {a > b}")

print(f"a < b: {a < b}")
print(f"a == b: {a == b}")
print(f"a != b: {a != b}")
print(f"a >= b: {a >= b}")
print(f"a <= b: {a <= b}")
 3. Logical Operators
o Question: Write a program to demonstrate the use of logical operators.
o Answer:

a = True
b = False

print(f"a and b: {a and b}")

print(f"a or b: {a or b}")
print(f"not a: {not a}")

4. Bitwise Operators
o Question: Write a program to demonstrate the use of bitwise operators.
o Answer:

a = 10 # 1010 in binary
b = 4 # 0100 in binary

print(f"a & b: {a & b}") # Bitwise AND

print(f"a | b: {a | b}") # Bitwise OR
print(f"a ^ b: {a ^ b}") # Bitwise XOR
print(f"~a: {~a}") # Bitwise NOT
print(f"a << 1: {a << 1}") # Left shift
print(f"a >> 1: {a >> 1}") # Right shift

5. Assignment Operators
o Question: Write a program to demonstrate the use of assignment operators.
o Answer:

a = 5
print(f"Initial value of a: {a}")

a += 3
print(f"a += 3: {a}")

a -= 2
print(f"a -= 2: {a}")

a *= 4
print(f"a *= 4: {a}")

a /= 2
print(f"a /= 2: {a}")

Conditional Statements

1. If Statement
o Question: Write a program to check if a number is positive.
o Answer:
 num = float(input("Enter a number: "))
if num > 0:
print(f"{num} is positive")

2. If-Else Statement
o Question: Write a program to check if a number is odd or even.
o Answer:

num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

if num % 2 == 0:
print(f"{num} is even")
else:
print(f"{num} is odd")

3. If-Elif-Else Statement
o Question: Write a program to check if a number is positive, negative, or zero.
o Answer:

num = float(input("Enter a number: "))

if num > 0:
print(f"{num} is positive")
elif num < 0:
print(f"{num} is negative")
else:
print(f"{num} is zero")

4. Nested If Statement
o Question: Write a program to determine the largest of three numbers using
nested if statements.
o Answer:

a = float(input("Enter first number: "))

b = float(input("Enter second number: "))
c = float(input("Enter third number: "))

if a >= b:
if a >= c:
print(f"The largest number is {a}")
else:
print(f"The largest number is {c}")
else:
if b >= c:
print(f"The largest number is {b}")
else:
print(f"The largest number is {c}")

5. If-Else with Multiple Conditions

o Question: Write a program to check if a year is a leap year.
 o Answer:

year = int(input("Enter a year: "))

if (year % 4 == 0 and year % 100 != 0) or (year % 400 == 0):
print(f"{year} is a leap year")
else:
print(f"{year} is not a leap year")

Loops

1. For Loop
o Question: Write a program to print the first 10 natural numbers using a for
loop.
o Answer:

for i in range(1, 11):

print(i)

2. Nested For Loop

o Question: Write a program to print a multiplication table up to 10 using
nested for loops.
o Answer:

for i in range(1, 11):

for j in range(1, 11):
print(f"{i} x {j} = {i * j}")
print("") # Blank line for better readability

3. For Loop with Break

o Question: Write a program to search for an element in a list. If found, print
"Element found" and stop searching.
o Answer:

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]

target = int(input("Enter a number to search: "))

for num in numbers:

if num == target:
print("Element found")
break
else:
print("Element not found")

4. For Loop with Continue

o Question: Write a program to print all numbers from 1 to 10 except 5 using a
for loop and continue statement.
 o Answer:

for i in range(1, 11):

if i == 5:
continue
print(i)

5. For Loop with Pass

o Question: Write a program that iterates over a list of numbers and does
nothing if the number is even using the pass statement.
o Answer:

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]

for num in numbers:

if num % 2 == 0:
pass
else:
print(f"Odd number: {num}")

While Loop

1. Simple While Loop

o Question: Write a program to print numbers from 1 to 5 using a while loop.
o Answer:

i = 1
while i <= 5:
print(i)
i += 1

2. While Loop with Break

o Question: Write a program to repeatedly take user input until the user enters
0.
o Answer:

while True:
num = int(input("Enter a number (0 to stop): "))
if num == 0:
break
print(f"You entered: {num}")

3. While Loop with Continue

o Question: Write a program to print only odd numbers from 1 to 10 using a
while loop and continue statement.
o Answer:
 i = 1
while i <= 10:
if i % 2 == 0:
i += 1
continue
print(i)
i += 1

4. While Loop with Else

o Question: Write a program to search for an element in a list using a while
loop with an else statement.
o Answer:

numbers = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]

i = 0
target = int(input("Enter the number to search: "))

while i < len(numbers):

if numbers[i] == target:
print("Element found")
break
i += 1
else:
print("Element not found")

5. While Loop for Factorial Calculation

o Question: Write a program to calculate the factorial of a number using a
while loop.
o Answer:

num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

factorial = 1
i = 1

while i <= num:

factorial *= i
i += 1

print(f"The factorial of {num} is {factorial}")

Type Casting

1. String to Integer Conversion

o Question: Write a program to convert a string containing a number into an
integer.
o Answer:

str_num = "100"
 int_num = int(str_num)
print(f"String to integer: {int_num}")

2. Integer to Float Conversion

o Question: Write a program to convert an integer into a float.
o Answer:

int_num = 25
float_num = float(int_num)
print(f"Integer to float: {float_num}")

3. Float to String Conversion

o Question: Write a program to convert a float into a string.
o Answer:

float_num = 50.75
str_num = str(float_num)
print(f"Float to string: {str_num}")

4. List to Tuple Conversion

o Question: Write a program to convert a list into a tuple.
o Answer:

my_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
my_tuple = tuple(my_list)
print(f"List to tuple: {my_tuple}")

5. String to List Conversion

o Question: Write a program to convert a string into a list of characters.
o Answer:

my_string = "Hello"
my_list = list(my_string)
print(f"String to list: {my_list}")

List Operations

1. List Append
o Question: Write a program to append an element to a list.
o Answer:

my_list = [1, 2, 3]
my_list.append(4)
print(f"List after append: {my_list}")
 2. List Insert
o Question: Write a program to insert an element at the second position in a list.
o Answer:

my_list = [1, 2, 3]
my_list.insert(1, "Hello")
print(f"List after insert: {my_list}")

3. Nested List
o Question: Write a program to create a nested list and access an element from
it.
o Answer:

nested_list = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]]

print(f"Element at nested_list[1][2]: {nested_list[1][2]}")

4. List Pop
o Question: Write a program to remove and return the last element from a list
using pop().
o Answer:

my_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
popped_element = my_list.pop()
print(f"Popped element: {popped_element}")
print(f"List after pop: {my_list}")

5. List with For Loop

o Question: Write a program to iterate over a list using a for loop and print
each element.
o Answer:

my_list = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]

for element in my_list:
print(element)

Tuple Operations

1. Tuple Creation
o Question: Write a program to create a tuple and print its elements.
o Answer:

my_tuple = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
print(f"My tuple: {my_tuple}")
 2. Tuple Operations
o Question: Write a program to perform concatenation and repetition operations
on tuples.
o Answer:

tuple1 = (1, 2, 3)
tuple2 = (4, 5, 6)

concatenated_tuple = tuple1 + tuple2

repeated_tuple = tuple1 * 2

print(f"Concatenated tuple: {concatenated_tuple}")

print(f"Repeated tuple: {repeated_tuple}")

3. Tuple with For Loop

o Question: Write a program to iterate over a tuple using a for loop and print
each element.
o Answer:

my_tuple = ('a', 'b', 'c', 'd')

for element in my_tuple:
print(element)

4. Tuple Indexing
o Question: Write a program to access elements from a tuple using positive and
negative indexing.
o Answer:

my_tuple = (10, 20, 30, 40, 50)

print(f"Element at index 1: {my_tuple[1]}")
print(f"Element at index -1: {my_tuple[-1]}")

Dictionary Operations

1. Dictionary Creation and Access

o Question: Write a program to create a dictionary and access its elements.
o Answer:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25, 'city': 'New York'}

print(f"Name: {my_dict['name']}")
print(f"Age: {my_dict['age']}")
print(f"City: {my_dict['city']}")

2. Dictionary Insertion
o Question: Write a program to add a new key-value pair to an existing
dictionary.
 o Answer:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}

my_dict['city'] = 'New York'
print(f"Updated dictionary: {my_dict}")

3. Dictionary Deletion
o Question: Write a program to delete a key-value pair from a dictionary.
o Answer:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25, 'city': 'New York'}

del my_dict['age']
print(f"Dictionary after deletion: {my_dict}")

4. Dictionary with For Loop

o Question: Write a program to iterate over a dictionary and print each key-
value pair.
o Answer:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25, 'city': 'New York'}

for key, value in my_dict.items():
print(f"{key}: {value}")

5. Check Key in Dictionary

o Question: Write a program to check if a specific key exists in a dictionary.
o Answer:

my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25, 'city': 'New York'}

key_to_check = 'age'

if key_to_check in my_dict:
print(f"'{key_to_check}' exists in the dictionary with
value: {my_dict[key_to_check]}")
else:
print(f"'{key_to_check}' does not exist in the
dictionary.")

Set Operations

1. Set Creation and Access

o Question: Write a program to create a set and print its elements.
o Answer:

my_set = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
print(f"My set: {my_set}")
2. Set Union and Intersection
o Question: Write a program to perform union and intersection operations on
two sets.
o Answer:

set1 = {1, 2, 3}
set2 = {3, 4, 5}

union_set = set1.union(set2)
intersection_set = set1.intersection(set2)

print(f"Union: {union_set}")
print(f"Intersection: {intersection_set}")

3. Set Difference
o Question: Write a program to find the difference between two sets.
o Answer:

set1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
set2 = {3, 4, 6}

difference_set = set1.difference(set2)

print(f"Difference: {difference_set}")

4. Set Symmetric Difference

o Question: Write a program to find the symmetric difference between two sets.
o Answer:

set1 = {1, 2, 3}
set2 = {2, 3, 4}

sym_diff = set1.symmetric_difference(set2)

print(f"Symmetric Difference: {sym_diff}")

5. Set Update
o Question: Write a program to update a set with another set using the
update() method.
o Answer:

set1 = {1, 2, 3}
set2 = {3, 4, 5}

set1.update(set2)

print(f"Updated set: {set1}")

Functions

1. Function Definition
o Question: Write a simple function to calculate the square of a number.
o Answer:

def square(num):
return num * num

result = square(5)
print(f"Square of 5: {result}")

2. Function with Arguments

o Question: Write a function that takes two numbers and returns their sum.
o Answer:

def add(a, b):

return a + b

result = add(10, 20)

print(f"Sum: {result}")

3. Function with Default Arguments

o Question: Write a function that greets a person. If no name is provided, it
should greet with "Hello, World!".
o Answer:

def greet(name="World"):
print(f"Hello, {name}!")

greet() # Default greeting

greet("Alice") # Custom greeting

4. Function with Return Values

o Question: Write a function that returns the factorial of a given number.
o Answer:

def factorial(n):
if n == 0 or n == 1:
return 1
else:
return n * factorial(n - 1)

result = factorial(5)
print(f"Factorial of 5: {result}")

5. Function with Variable Length Arguments

 o Question: Write a function that takes a variable number of arguments and
returns their sum.
o Answer:

def sum_of_numbers(*args):
return sum(args)

result = sum_of_numbers(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
print(f"Sum: {result}")

Exception Handling

1. Basic Try-Except
o Question: Write a program that handles division by zero using try-except.
o Answer:

try:
result = 10 / 0
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero!")

2. Multiple Exceptions
o Question: Write a program that handles both ValueError and
ZeroDivisionError.
o Answer:

try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
result = 10 / num
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input! Please enter a number.")
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero!")

3. Finally Clause
o Question: Write a program that demonstrates the use of the finally clause.
o Answer:

try:
result = 10 / 2
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero!")
finally:
print("This will always execute.")

4. Custom Exception
 o Question: Write a program that raises a custom exception if a number is
negative.
o Answer:

class NegativeNumberError(Exception):
pass

def check_positive(number):
if number < 0:
raise NegativeNumberError("Negative number detected!")
return number

try:
check_positive(-5)
except NegativeNumberError as e:
print(e)

5. Raise Exception
o Question: Write a program that raises a ValueError if the input is not an
integer.
o Answer:

def check_integer(value):
if not isinstance(value, int):
raise ValueError("Input is not an integer!")
return value

try:
check_integer("abc")
except ValueError as e:
print(e)

File Handling

1. File Read
o Question: Write a program to read the content of a text file and print it.
o Answer:

with open('example.txt', 'r') as file:

content = file.read()
print(content)

2. File Write
o Question: Write a program to write a string to a text file.
o Answer:

with open('example.txt', 'w') as file:

file.write("Hello, World!")
 3. File Append
o Question: Write a program to append a string to an existing text file.
o Answer:

with open('example.txt', 'a') as file:

file.write("\nAppended text.")

4. File Read Line by Line

o Question: Write a program to read a file line by line and print each line.
o Answer:

with open('example.txt', 'r') as file:

for line in file:
print(line, end='')

5. File Handling with Exception

o Question: Write a program to handle file not found exception while trying to
open a file.
o Answer:

try:
with open('non_existent_file

Classes and Objects

1. Basic Class
o Question: Write a class Person with attributes name and age. Create an object
and print its attributes.
o Answer:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

person = Person("Alice", 30)

print(f"Name: {person.name}")
print(f"Age: {person.age}")

2. Class with Method

o Question: Write a class Circle with a method to calculate the area of the
circle.
o Answer:
 class Circle:
def __init__(self, radius):
self.radius = radius

def area(self):
return 3.14 * self.radius * self.radius

circle = Circle(5)
print(f"Area of circle: {circle.area()}")

3. Encapsulation
o Question: Write a class BankAccount with private attributes balance.
Provide methods to deposit and withdraw money.
o Answer:

class BankAccount:
def __init__(self):
self.__balance = 0

def deposit(self, amount):

self.__balance += amount

def withdraw(self, amount):

if self.__balance >= amount:
self.__balance -= amount
return amount
else:
return "Insufficient balance"

def get_balance(self):
return self.__balance

account = BankAccount()
account.deposit(100)
print(f"Balance: {account.get_balance()}")
account.withdraw(50)
print(f"Balance: {account.get_balance()}")

4. Polymorphism
o Question: Write a program to demonstrate polymorphism with a method
named area in different classes.
o Answer:

class Rectangle:
def __init__(self, length, breadth):
self.length = length
self.breadth = breadth

def area(self):
return self.length * self.breadth

class Circle:
def __init__(self, radius):
self.radius = radius
 def area(self):
return 3.14 * self.radius * self.radius

shapes = [Rectangle(10, 5), Circle(7)]

for shape in shapes:

print(f"Area: {shape.area()}")

5. Inheritance (Single Inheritance)

o Question: Write a program to demonstrate single inheritance with a base class
Animal and a derived class Dog.
o Answer:

class Animal:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name

def speak(self):
return "Animal Sound"

class Dog(Animal):
def speak(self):
return "Bark"

dog = Dog("Buddy")
print(f"{dog.name} says {dog.speak()}")

6. Inheritance (Multiple Inheritance)

o Question: Write a program to demonstrate multiple inheritance with classes
Parent1, Parent2, and Child.
o Answer:

class Parent1:
def function1(self):
return "Function 1"

class Parent2:
def function2(self):
return "Function 2"

class Child(Parent1, Parent2):

pass

child = Child()
print(child.function1())
print(child.function2())

7. Inheritance (Multilevel Inheritance)

o Question: Write a program to demonstrate multilevel inheritance with classes
Grandparent, Parent, and Child.
o Answer:
 class Grandparent:
def grandparent_function(self):
return "Grandparent Function"

class Parent(Grandparent):
def parent_function(self):
return "Parent Function"

class Child(Parent):
def child_function(self):
return "Child Function"

child = Child()
print(child.grandparent_function())
print(child.parent_function())
print(child.child_function())

8. Inheritance (Hierarchical Inheritance)

o Question: Write a program to demonstrate hierarchical inheritance with a base
class Vehicle and derived classes Car and Bike.
o Answer:

class Vehicle:
def __init__(self, make):
self.make = make

def info(self):
return f"Make: {self.make}"

class Car(Vehicle):
def car_function(self):
return "Car Function"

class Bike(Vehicle):
def bike_function(self):
return "Bike Function"

car = Car("Toyota")
bike = Bike("Yamaha")

print(car.info())
print(car.car_function())

print(bike.info())
print(bike.bike_function())

9. Inheritance (Hybrid Inheritance)

o Question: Write a program to demonstrate hybrid inheritance involving
multiple base and derived classes.
o Answer:

class Base1:
 def base1_function(self):
return "Base1 Function"

class Base2:
def base2_function(self):
return "Base2 Function"

class Derived1(Base1, Base2):

def derived1_function(self):
return "Derived1 Function"

class Derived2(Derived1):
def derived2_function(self):
return "Derived2 Function"

derived = Derived2()
print(derived.base1_function())
print(derived.base2_function())
print(derived.derived1_function())
print(derived.derived2_function())

1. Single Inheritance

Example 1: Basic Inheritance

class Animal:
def sound(self):
return "Some sound"

class Dog(Animal):
def sound(self):
return "Bark"

dog = Dog()
print(dog.sound()) # Output: Bark

Example 2: Inheriting Methods

class Vehicle:
def start(self):
return "Vehicle started"

class Car(Vehicle):
def accelerate(self):
return "Car is accelerating"

car = Car()
print(car.start()) # Output: Vehicle started
print(car.accelerate()) # Output: Car is accelerating

Example 3: Overriding Methods

class Bird:
def fly(self):
return "Flying"

class Penguin(Bird):
def fly(self):
return "Cannot fly"

penguin = Penguin()
print(penguin.fly()) # Output: Cannot fly

Example 4: Using super()

class Person:
def greet(self):
return "Hello"

class Employee(Person):
def greet(self):
original_greet = super().greet()
return f"{original_greet}, I am an employee"

employee = Employee()
print(employee.greet()) # Output: Hello, I am an employee

Example 5: Real-world Example - Bank Account

class Account:
def __init__(self, owner, balance=0):
self.owner = owner
self.balance = balance

def deposit(self, amount):

self.balance += amount
return self.balance

class SavingsAccount(Account):
def add_interest(self, rate):
self.balance += self.balance * rate
return self.balance

savings = SavingsAccount("John Doe", 1000)

savings.deposit(500)
print(savings.add_interest(0.05)) # Output: 1575.0

2. Multiple Inheritance

Example 1: Basic Multiple Inheritance

class Father:
def tall(self):
 return "Tall"

class Mother:
def beautiful(self):
return "Beautiful"

class Child(Father, Mother):

pass

child = Child()
print(child.tall()) # Output: Tall
print(child.beautiful()) # Output: Beautiful

Example 2: Method Resolution Order (MRO)

class A:
def method(self):
return "A"

class B(A):
def method(self):
return "B"

class C(A):
def method(self):
return "C"

class D(B, C):

pass

d = D()
print(d.method()) # Output: B
print(D.mro()) # Output: [D, B, C, A, object]

Example 3: Inheriting from Multiple Parents

class Writer:
def write(self):
return "Writing"

class Painter:
def paint(self):
return "Painting"

class Artist(Writer, Painter):

pass

artist = Artist()
print(artist.write()) # Output: Writing
print(artist.paint()) # Output: Painting

Example 4: Diamond Problem and super()

class A:
def __init__(self):
print("A's init called")

class B(A):
def __init__(self):
super().__init__()
print("B's init called")

class C(A):
def __init__(self):
super().__init__()
print("C's init called")

class D(B, C):

def __init__(self):
super().__init__()
print("D's init called")

d = D()

Output:

csharp

A's init called

C's init called
B's init called
D's init called

Example 5: Real-world Example - Multi-skilled Worker

class Electrician:
def work(self):
return "Fixing electrical issues"

class Plumber:
def work(self):
return "Fixing plumbing issues"

class Handyman(Electrician, Plumber):

def work(self):
return f"{Electrician.work(self)}, {Plumber.work(self)}"

handyman = Handyman()
print(handyman.work()) # Output: Fixing electrical issues, Fixing plumbing
issues

3. Multilevel Inheritance

Example 1: Basic Multilevel Inheritance

class Animal:
def eat(self):
 return "Eating"

class Mammal(Animal):
def drink(self):
return "Drinking"

class Dog(Mammal):
def bark(self):
return "Barking"

dog = Dog()
print(dog.eat()) # Output: Eating
print(dog.drink()) # Output: Drinking
print(dog.bark()) # Output: Barking

Example 2: Overriding in Multilevel Inheritance

class A:
def show(self):
return "A's show"

class B(A):
def show(self):
return "B's show"

class C(B):
def show(self):
return "C's show"

c = C()
print(c.show()) # Output: C's show

Example 3: Calling Parent Method with super()

class Vehicle:
def move(self):
return "Vehicle moving"

class Car(Vehicle):
def move(self):
return super().move() + " on road"

class SportsCar(Car):
def move(self):
return super().move() + " with speed"

sports_car = SportsCar()
print(sports_car.move()) # Output: Vehicle moving on road with speed

Example 4: Multilevel Inheritance with Init Method

class A:
def __init__(self):
 print("A's init")

class B(A):
def __init__(self):
super().__init__()
print("B's init")

class C(B):
def __init__(self):
super().__init__()
print("C's init")

c = C()
# Output:
# A's init
# B's init
# C's init

Example 5: Real-world Example - Organization Hierarchy

class Employee:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name

class Manager(Employee):
def __init__(self, name, department):
super().__init__(name)
self.department = department

class Director(Manager):
def __init__(self, name, department, region):
super().__init__(name, department)
self.region = region

director = Director("Alice", "IT", "North America")

print(director.name) # Output: Alice
print(director.department) # Output: IT
print(director.region) # Output: North America

4. Hybrid Inheritance

Example 1: Combination of Single and Multiple Inheritance

class A:
def method_A(self):
return "A"

class B(A):
def method_B(self):
return "B"

class C(A):
def method_C(self):
return "C"
class D(B, C):
def method_D(self):
return "D"

d = D()
print(d.method_A()) # Output: A
print(d.method_B()) # Output: B
print(d.method_C()) # Output: C
print(d.method_D()) # Output: D

Example 2: Hybrid with Multiple Parents

class X:
def x_method(self):
return "Method from X"

class Y:
def y_method(self):
return "Method from Y"

class Z(X, Y):

def z_method(self):
return "Method from Z"

class A(Z):
def a_method(self):
return "Method from A"

a = A()
print(a.x_method()) # Output: Method from X
print(a.y_method()) # Output: Method from Y
print(a.z_method()) # Output: Method from Z
print(a.a_method()) # Output: Method from A

Example 3: Combining Hierarchical and Multiple Inheritance

class A:
def method_A(self):
return "A"

class B(A):
def method_B(self):
return "B"

class C(A):
def method_C(self):
return "C"

class D(B, C):

def method_D(self):
return "D"

class E(D):
def method_E(self):
return "E"
e = E()
print(e.method_A()) # Output: A
print(e.method_B()) # Output: B

4. Hybrid Inheritance (continued)

Example 4: Real-world Example - Educational Structure

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, name, age, student_id):
super().__init__(name, age)
self.student_id = student_id

class Teacher(Person):
def __init__(self, name, age, employee_id):
super().__init__(name, age)
self.employee_id = employee_id

class TeachingAssistant(Student, Teacher):

def __init__(self, name, age, student_id, employee_id):
Student.__init__(self, name, age, student_id)
Teacher.__init__(self, name, age, employee_id)

ta = TeachingAssistant("John Doe", 24, "S123", "T456")

print(f"Name: {ta.name}, Age: {ta.age}, Student ID: {ta.student_id},
Employee ID: {ta.employee_id}")
# Output: Name: John Doe, Age: 24, Student ID: S123, Employee ID: T456

Example 5: Complex Hybrid Structure

class Engine:
def engine_type(self):
return "V8"

class Car(Engine):
def wheels(self):
return 4

class Boat(Engine):
def propeller(self):
return 1

class AmphibiousVehicle(Car, Boat):

def vehicle_type(self):
return "Amphibious Vehicle"

vehicle = AmphibiousVehicle()
print(vehicle.engine_type()) # Output: V8
print(vehicle.wheels()) # Output: 4
print(vehicle.propeller()) # Output: 1
print(vehicle.vehicle_type()) # Output: Amphibious Vehicle

5. Hierarchical Inheritance

Example 1: Basic Hierarchical Inheritance

class Animal:
def sound(self):
return "Some sound"

class Dog(Animal):
def sound(self):
return "Bark"

class Cat(Animal):
def sound(self):
return "Meow"

dog = Dog()
cat = Cat()
print(dog.sound()) # Output: Bark
print(cat.sound()) # Output: Meow

Example 2: Shared Method in Parent Class

class Person:
def greet(self):
return "Hello!"

class Student(Person):
def study(self):
return "Studying"

class Teacher(Person):
def teach(self):
return "Teaching"

student = Student()
teacher = Teacher()
print(student.greet()) # Output: Hello!
print(student.study()) # Output: Studying
print(teacher.greet()) # Output: Hello!
print(teacher.teach()) # Output: Teaching

Example 3: Adding More Children

class Device:
def turn_on(self):
return "Device is now on"

class Phone(Device):
 def call(self):
return "Calling"

class Laptop(Device):
def code(self):
return "Coding"

class Tablet(Device):
def draw(self):
return "Drawing"

phone = Phone()
laptop = Laptop()
tablet = Tablet()
print(phone.turn_on()) # Output: Device is now on
print(phone.call()) # Output: Calling
print(laptop.turn_on()) # Output: Device is now on
print(laptop.code()) # Output: Coding
print(tablet.turn_on()) # Output: Device is now on
print(tablet.draw()) # Output: Drawing

Example 4: Real-world Example - Employee Types

class Employee:
def __init__(self, name, emp_id):
self.name = name
self.emp_id = emp_id

def work(self):
return "Working"

class Developer(Employee):
def code(self):
return "Writing code"

class Designer(Employee):
def design(self):
return "Designing graphics"

class Manager(Employee):
def manage(self):
return "Managing team"

developer = Developer("Alice", "D001")

designer = Designer("Bob", "D002")
manager = Manager("Charlie", "M001")

print(developer.work()) # Output: Working

print(developer.code()) # Output: Writing code
print(designer.work()) # Output: Working
print(designer.design()) # Output: Designing graphics
print(manager.work()) # Output: Working
print(manager.manage()) # Output: Managing team

Example 5: Hierarchical Inheritance with Additional Methods

class Vehicle:
def start(self):
return "Starting engine"

class Car(Vehicle):
def drive(self):
return "Driving"

class Motorcycle(Vehicle):
def ride(self):
return "Riding"

car = Car()
motorcycle = Motorcycle()
print(car.start()) # Output: Starting engine
print(car.drive()) # Output: Driving
print(motorcycle.start()) # Output: Starting engine
print(motorcycle.ride()) # Output: Riding

6. Datetime Functions

Example 1: Getting Current Date and Time

from datetime import datetime

now = datetime.now()
print("Current Date and Time:", now)

Example 2: Formatting Date and Time

from datetime import datetime

now = datetime.now()
formatted_date = now.strftime("%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S")
print("Formatted Date and Time:", formatted_date)

Example 3: Parsing Date Strings

from datetime import datetime

date_string = "2024-08-31 10:30:00"

date_object = datetime.strptime(date_string, "%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S")
print("Parsed Date Object:", date_object)

Example 4: Date Arithmetic

from datetime import datetime, timedelta

now = datetime.now()
future_date = now + timedelta(days=10)
print("Current Date:", now)
print("Date 10 Days Later:", future_date)

Example 5: Real-world Example - Time Difference Calculation

from datetime import datetime

start_time = datetime(2024, 8, 31, 9, 0, 0)

end_time = datetime(2024, 8, 31, 17, 0, 0)
work_duration = end_time - start_time
print("Work Duration:", work_duration)

7. Iterator

Example 1: Custom Iterator Class

class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self

def __next__(self):
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x

my_numbers = MyNumbers()
my_iter = iter(my_numbers)

print(next(my_iter)) # Output: 1
print(next(my_iter)) # Output: 2
print(next(my_iter)) # Output: 3

Example 2: Iterating Over a String

my_string = "Hello"
my_iter = iter(my_string)

print(next(my_iter)) # Output: H
print(next(my_iter)) # Output: e
print(next(my_iter)) # Output: l

Example 3: Creating a Reverse Iterator

class Reverse:
def __init__(self, data):
self.data = data
 self.index = len(data)

def __iter__(self):
return self

def __next__(self):
if self.index == 0:
raise StopIteration
self.index -= 1
return self.data[self.index]

rev = Reverse('')
for char in rev:
print(char, end=" ") # Output: n o h t y P

Example 4: Real-world Example - Fibonacci Iterator

class Fibonacci:
def __init__(self, max):
self.max = max

def __iter__(self):
self.a, self.b = 0, 1
return self

def __next__(self):
fib = self.a
if fib > self.max:
raise StopIteration
self.a, self.b = self.b, self.a + self.b
return fib

fib_iter = iter(Fibonacci(10))
for num in fib_iter:
print(num, end=" ") # Output: 0 1 1 2 3 5 8

Example 5: Using iter() with Sentinel

with open('example.txt', 'r') as f:

for line in iter(f.readline, ''):
print(line, end="")

8. Generator

Example 1: Basic Generator Function

def simple_generator():
yield 1
yield 2
yield 3
for value in simple_generator():
print(value)

Output:

1
2
3

Example 2: Generator for Fibonacci Sequence

def fibonacci(max_value):
a, b = 0, 1
while a <= max_value:
yield a
a, b = b, a + b

for number in fibonacci(10):

print(number, end=" ") # Output: 0 1 1 2 3 5 8

Example 3: Infinite Generator

def infinite_sequence():
num = 0
while True:
yield num
num += 1

gen = infinite_sequence()
print(next(gen)) # Output: 0
print(next(gen)) # Output: 1
print(next(gen)) # Output: 2

Example 4: Generator Expression

squares = (x * x for x in range(5))

for square in squares:

print(square)

Output:

0
1
4
9
16

Example 5: Real-world Example - Reading Large File

def read_large_file(file_path):
with open(file_path, 'r') as file:
while True:
data = file.readline()
if not data:
break
yield data

for line in read_large_file('large_file.txt'):

print(line, end="")

9. Decorator

Example 1: Basic Decorator

def my_decorator(func):
def wrapper():
print("Something is happening before the function is called.")
func()
print("Something is happening after the function is called.")
return wrapper

@my_decorator
def say_hello():
print("Hello!")

say_hello()

Output:

vbnet

Something is happening before the function is called.

Hello!
Something is happening after the function is called.

Example 2: Decorator with Arguments

def my_decorator(func):
def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
print("Arguments passed:", args, kwargs)
return func(*args, **kwargs)
return wrapper

@my_decorator
def add(a, b):
return a + b

print(add(3, 4)) # Output: Arguments passed: (3, 4) {}

# 7

Example 3: Chaining Decorators

def uppercase_decorator(func):
def wrapper():
result = func()
return result.upper()
return wrapper

def split_string_decorator(func):
def wrapper():
result = func()
return result.split()
return wrapper

@split_string_decorator
@uppercase_decorator
def say_hello():
return "hello world"

print(say_hello()) # Output: ['HELLO', 'WORLD']

Example 4: Real-world Example - Timing Function Execution

import time

def timer_decorator(func):
def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
start_time = time.time()
result = func(*args, **kwargs)
end_time = time.time()
print(f"Execution time: {end_time - start_time} seconds")
return result
return wrapper

@timer_decorator
def slow_function():
time.sleep(2)
print("Function complete")

slow_function()

Output:

sql

Function complete
Execution time: 2.000234603881836 seconds

Example 5: Caching Results with Decorator

def cache_decorator(func):
cache = {}
def wrapper(*args):
if args in cache:
return cache[args]
 result = func(*args)
cache[args] = result
return result
return wrapper

@cache_decorator
def slow_addition(a, b):
time.sleep(1)
return a + b

print(slow_addition(3, 4)) # Output: 7 (after 1 second)

print(slow_addition(3, 4)) # Output: 7 (almost instantly)

10. Deque (Double-Ended Queue)

Example 1: Basic Operations with Deque

from collections import deque

d = deque()

d.append(1)
d.append(2)
d.appendleft(3)

print(d) # Output: deque([3, 1, 2])

d.pop()
d.popleft()

print(d) # Output: deque([1])

Example 2: Rotating Elements in Deque

from collections import deque

d = deque([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
d.rotate(2)

print(d) # Output: deque([4, 5, 1, 2, 3])

d.rotate(-1)

print(d) # Output: deque([5, 1, 2, 3, 4])

Example 3: Limiting Deque Size

from collections import deque

d = deque(maxlen=3)
d.append(1)
d.append(2)
d.append(3)

print(d) # Output: deque([1, 2, 3], maxlen=3)

d.append(4)
print(d) # Output: deque([2, 3, 4], maxlen=3)

Example 4: Real-world Example - Browser History

from collections import deque

class BrowserHistory:
def __init__(self, capacity=5):
self.history = deque(maxlen=capacity)

def visit(self, site):

self.history.append(site)
print(f"Visited {site}")

def back(self):
if self.history:
site = self.history.pop()
print(f"Back to {site}")
else:
print("No history")

browser = BrowserHistory()
browser.visit("google.com")
browser.visit("stackoverflow.com")
browser.visit("github.com")
browser.visit(".org")
browser.visit("reddit.com")
browser.visit("youtube.com") # This will remove "google.com" from history
browser.back() # Output: Back to youtube.com

Example 5: Implementing a Queue with Deque

from collections import deque

class Queue:
def __init__(self):
self.queue = deque()

def enqueue(self, item):

self.queue.append(item)

def dequeue(self):
if not self.is_empty():
return self.queue.popleft()
return "Queue is empty"

def is_empty(self):
return len(self.queue) == 0

q = Queue()
q.enqueue(1)
q.enqueue(2)
q.enqueue(3)
print(q.dequeue()) # Output: 1
print(q.dequeue()) # Output: 2
print(q.dequeue()) # Output: 3
print(q.dequeue()) # Output: Queue is empty

11. namedtuple

Example 1: Basic Usage of namedtuple

from collections import namedtuple

Point = namedtuple('Point', 'x y')

p = Point(1, 2)

print(p.x) # Output: 1
print(p.y) # Output: 2

Example 2: namedtuple with Default Values

from collections import namedtuple

Point = namedtuple('Point', 'x y z', defaults=[0, 0])

p1 = Point(1, 2)
p2 = Point(1, 2, 3)

print(p1) # Output: Point(x=1, y=2, z=0)

print(p2) # Output: Point(x=1, y=2, z=3)

Example 3: Unpacking namedtuple

from collections import namedtuple

Point = namedtuple('Point', 'x y z')

p = Point(1, 2, 3)

x, y, z = p
print(x, y, z) # Output: 1 2 3

Example 4: Real-world Example - Employee Record

from collections import namedtuple

Employee = namedtuple('Employee', 'name age department')

emp1 = Employee('Alice', 30, 'HR')

emp2 = Employee('Bob', 25, 'IT')
print(emp1) # Output: Employee(name='Alice', age=30, department='HR')
print(emp2) # Output: Employee(name='Bob', age=25, department='IT')

Example 5: Using namedtuple for 3D Coordinates

from collections import namedtuple

Coordinate = namedtuple('Coordinate', 'x y z')

point1 = Coordinate(3, 4, 5)
point2 = Coordinate(-1, 2, -3)

def euclidean_distance(p1, p2):

return ((p1.x - p2.x)**2 + (p1.y - p2.y)**2 + (p1.z - p2.z)**2) ** 0.5

print(euclidean_distance(point1, point2)) # Output: 8.774964387392123

12. ChainMap

Example 1: Basic Usage of ChainMap

from collections import ChainMap

dict1 = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}

dict2 = {'b': 3, 'c': 4}
chain = ChainMap(dict1, dict2)

print(chain['a']) # Output: 1
print(chain['b']) # Output: 2 (from dict1, since it appears first)
print(chain['c']) # Output: 4

Example 2: Updating ChainMap

from collections import ChainMap

dict1 = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}

dict2 = {'b': 3, 'c': 4}
chain = ChainMap(dict1, dict2)

chain['a'] = 10
chain['c'] = 40

print(dict1) # Output: {'a': 10, 'b': 2}

print(dict2) # Output: {'b': 3, 'c': 40}

Example 3: Adding a New Dictionary to ChainMap

from collections import ChainMap

dict1 = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
dict2 = {'b': 3, 'c': 4}
dict3 = {'d': 5, 'e': 6}

chain = ChainMap(dict1, dict2)

chain = chain.new_child(dict3)

print(chain['d']) # Output: 5
print(chain['b']) # Output: 2 (from dict1, since it appears first)

Example 4: Real-world Example - Configurations Management

from collections import ChainMap

default_config = {'theme': 'light', 'language': 'EN', 'show_tips': True}

user_config = {'theme': 'dark', 'show_tips': False}

config = ChainMap(user_config, default_config)

print(config['theme']) # Output: dark (user preference overrides default)

print(config['language']) # Output: EN
print(config['show_tips']) # Output: False

Example 5: Merging Dictionaries with ChainMap

from collections import ChainMap

dict1 = {'x': 10, 'y': 20}

dict2 = {'y': 30, 'z': 40}
dict3 = {'z': 50, 'w': 60}

chain = ChainMap(dict1, dict2, dict3)

merged = dict(chain)

print(merged) # Output: {'x': 10, 'y': 20, 'z': 40, 'w': 60}

13. Counter

Example 1: Basic Counter Usage

from collections import Counter

data = [1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4]
counter = Counter(data)

print(counter) # Output: Counter({4: 4, 3: 3, 2: 2, 1: 1})

Example 2: Counting Characters in a String

from collections import Counter

string = "abracadabra"
counter = Counter(string)

print(counter) # Output: Counter({'a': 5, 'b': 2, 'r': 2, 'c': 1, 'd': 1})

Example 3: Finding the Most Common Elements

from collections import Counter

data = ['apple', 'banana', 'apple', 'orange', 'banana', 'apple']

counter = Counter(data)

print(counter.most_common(2)) # Output: [('apple', 3), ('banana', 2)]

Example 4: Real-world Example - Word Frequency in Text

from collections import Counter

text = "the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog the quick brown fox"
words = text.split()
counter = Counter(words)

print(counter) # Output: Counter({'the': 3, 'quick': 2, 'brown': 2, ...})

Example 5: Subtracting Counters

from collections import Counter

inventory = Counter(apples=10, oranges=5, bananas=7)

sold = Counter(apples=4, oranges=1, bananas=6)

inventory.subtract(sold)
print(inventory) # Output: Counter({'apples': 6, 'oranges': 4, 'bananas':
1})

14. OrderedDict

Example 1: Maintaining Insertion Order

from collections import OrderedDict

od = OrderedDict()
od['one'] = 1
od['two'] = 2
od['three'] = 3

print(od) # Output: OrderedDict([('one', 1), ('two', 2), ('three', 3)])

Example 2: Comparing OrderedDicts

from collections import OrderedDict

od1 = OrderedDict({'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3})

od2 = OrderedDict({'a': 1, 'c': 3, 'b': 2})

print(od1 == od2) # Output: False (order matters)

Example 3: Reordering OrderedDict

from collections import OrderedDict

od = OrderedDict({'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3})

od.move_to_end('one')

print(od) # Output: OrderedDict([('two', 2), ('three', 3), ('one', 1)])

Example 4: Real-world Example - LRU Cache

from collections import OrderedDict

class LRUCache:
def __init__(self, capacity: int):
self.cache = OrderedDict()
self.capacity = capacity

def get(self, key: int) -> int:

if key not in self.cache:
return -1
self.cache.move_to_end(key)
return self.cache[key]

def put(self, key: int, value: int) -> None:

if key in self.cache:
self.cache.move_to_end(key)
self.cache[key] = value
if len(self.cache) > self.capacity:
self.cache.popitem(last=False)

lru_cache = LRUCache(2)
lru_cache.put(1, 1)
lru_cache.put(2, 2)
print(lru_cache.get(1)) # Output: 1
lru_cache.put(3, 3)
print(lru_cache.get(2)) # Output: -1 (evicted)

Example 5: Sorting an OrderedDict

from collections import OrderedDict

od = OrderedDict({'banana': 3, 'apple': 4, 'pear': 1, 'orange': 2})
sorted_od = OrderedDict(sorted(od.items(), key=lambda t: t[1]))

print(sorted_od) # Output: OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('orange', 2),

('banana', 3), ('apple', 4)])

15. defaultdict

Example 1: defaultdict with List

from collections import defaultdict

d = defaultdict(list)

d['fruits'].append('apple')
d['fruits'].append('banana')

print(d) # Output: defaultdict(<class 'list'>, {'fruits': ['apple',

'banana']})

Example 2: defaultdict with int for Counting

from collections import defaultdict

word_count = defaultdict(int)
text = "hello world hello hello world"

for word in text.split():

word_count[word] += 1

print(word_count) # Output: defaultdict(<class 'int'>, {'hello': 3,

'world': 2})

Example 3: Grouping Items by Key

from collections import defaultdict

names = [('John', 'A'), ('Jane', 'B'), ('Jack', 'A'), ('Jill', 'B')]

grade_group = defaultdict(list)

for name, grade in names:

grade_group[grade].append(name)

print(grade_group) # Output: defaultdict(<class 'list'>, {'A': ['John',

'Jack'], 'B': ['Jane', 'Jill']})

Example 4: Real-world Example - Creating an Adjacency List

from collections import defaultdict

edges = [('A', 'B'), ('A', 'C'), ('B', 'D'), ('C', 'D')]

adjacency_list = defaultdict(list)

for start, end in edges:

adjacency_list[start].append(end)

print(adjacency_list) # Output: defaultdict(<class 'list'>, {'A': ['B',

'C'], 'B': ['D'], 'C': ['D']})

Example 5: defaultdict with a Custom Factory Function

from collections import defaultdict

def default_factory():
return "Unknown"

city_country = defaultdict(default_factory)
city_country['Paris'] = 'France'
city_country['Berlin'] = 'Germany'

print(city_country['Paris']) # Output: France

print(city_country['London']) # Output: Unknown

16. Datetime Functions

Example 1: Getting Current Date and Time

from datetime import datetime

current_datetime = datetime.now()
print(current_datetime) # Output: e.g., 2024-08-31 14:25:32.123456

Example 2: Formatting Dates

from datetime import datetime

now = datetime.now()
formatted_date = now.strftime("%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S")
print(formatted_date) # Output: e.g., 2024-08-31 14:30:00

Example 3: Parsing Strings into Dates

from datetime import datetime

date_str = "2024-08-31 14:30:00"

parsed_date = datetime.strptime(date_str, "%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S")
print(parsed_date) # Output: 2024-08-31 14:30:00
Example 4: Calculating Time Differences

from datetime import datetime, timedelta

now = datetime.now()
future_date = now + timedelta(days=5)
difference = future_date - now

print(f"Days until future date: {difference.days}") # Output: 5

Example 5: Real-world Example - Deadline Calculation

from datetime import datetime, timedelta

def calculate_deadline(start_date_str, days_to_add):

start_date = datetime.strptime(start_date_str, "%Y-%m-%d")
deadline = start_date + timedelta(days=days_to_add)
return deadline.strftime("%Y-%m-%d")

start_date = "2024-08-31"
print(calculate_deadline(start_date, 7)) # Output: 2024-09-07

17. Iterator

Example 1: Creating a Custom Iterator

class Counter:
def __init__(self, start, end):
self.current = start
self.end = end

def __iter__(self):
return self

def __next__(self):
if self.current > self.end:
raise StopIteration
else:
self.current += 1
return self.current - 1

counter = Counter(1, 5)
for number in counter:
print(number) # Output: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Example 2: Implementing a Reverse Iterator

class Reverse:
def __init__(self, data):
self.data = data
 self.index = len(data)

def __iter__(self):
return self

def __next__(self):
if self.index == 0:
raise StopIteration
self.index -= 1
return self.data[self.index]

rev = Reverse('')
for char in rev:
print(char) # Output: n o h t y P

Example 3: Iterating Over a Dictionary

my_dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}

for key in my_dict:

print(key, my_dict[key]) # Output: a 1, b 2, c 3

Example 4: Real-world Example - File Line Iterator

class FileLineIterator:
def __init__(self, file_name):
self.file = open(file_name, 'r')

def __iter__(self):
return self

def __next__(self):
line = self.file.readline()
if not line:
self.file.close()
raise StopIteration
return line.strip()

file_iter = FileLineIterator('sample.txt')
for line in file_iter:
print(line)

Example 5: Using Iterator to Iterate Over Two Lists Simultaneously

list1 = [1, 2, 3]
list2 = ['a', 'b', 'c']

iter1 = iter(list1)
iter2 = iter(list2)

for _ in range(len(list1)):
print(next(iter1), next(iter2)) # Output: (1, 'a'), (2, 'b'), (3, 'c')
18. Multilevel Inheritance

Example 1: Basic Multilevel Inheritance

class Grandparent:
def __init__(self):
print("Grandparent Constructor")

class Parent(Grandparent):
def __init__(self):
super().__init__()
print("Parent Constructor")

class Child(Parent):
def __init__(self):
super().__init__()
print("Child Constructor")

child = Child()

Output:

Grandparent Constructor
Parent Constructor
Child Constructor

Example 2: Overriding Methods in Multilevel Inheritance

class A:
def show(self):
print("A")

class B(A):
def show(self):
print("B")

class C(B):
def show(self):
print("C")

obj = C()
obj.show() # Output: C

Example 3: Calling Parent Class Methods in Multilevel Inheritance

class Animal:
def sound(self):
print("Animal makes sound")

class Mammal(Animal):
def sound(self):
 super().sound()
print("Mammal makes sound")

class Dog(Mammal):
def sound(self):
super().sound()
print("Dog barks")

dog = Dog()
dog.sound()

Output:

Animal makes sound

Mammal makes sound
Dog barks

Example 4: Real-world Example - Company Hierarchy

class Company:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name

class Department(Company):
def __init__(self, name, department_name):
super().__init__(name)
self.department_name = department_name

class Employee(Department):
def __init__(self, name, department_name, employee_name):
super().__init__(name, department_name)
self.employee_name = employee_name

def get_details(self):
return f"Employee: {self.employee_name}, Department:
{self.department_name}, Company: {self.name}"

emp = Employee("TechCorp", "IT", "Alice")

print(emp.get_details()) # Output: Employee: Alice, Department: IT,
Company: TechCorp

Example 5: Multilevel Inheritance with Init Method

class Base:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
print("Base class constructor")

class Intermediate(Base):
def __init__(self, name, age):
super().__init__(name)
self.age = age
print("Intermediate class constructor")
class Derived(Intermediate):
def __init__(self, name, age, role):
super().__init__(name, age)
self.role = role
print("Derived class constructor")

obj = Derived("Alice", 30, "Developer")

Output:

Base class constructor

8. Ordered Dictionary

Example 1: Preserving Insertion Order

from collections import OrderedDict

# Creating an OrderedDict
order_dict = OrderedDict()

# Adding items
order_dict['apple'] = 2
order_dict['banana'] = 3
order_dict['orange'] = 1

# Iterating over the OrderedDict

for key, value in order_dict.items():
print(key, value)

Example 2: Comparing Two Dictionaries

from collections import OrderedDict

# Two OrderedDicts with different insertion orders

dict1 = OrderedDict([('apple', 2), ('banana', 3), ('orange', 1)])
dict2 = OrderedDict([('orange', 1), ('banana', 3), ('apple', 2)])

# Comparing them
print(dict1 == dict2) # False, order matters

Example 3: Move Elements to the End or Start

from collections import OrderedDict

# Creating an OrderedDict
order_dict = OrderedDict([('apple', 2), ('banana', 3), ('orange', 1)])
# Moving 'apple' to the end
order_dict.move_to_end('apple')

print(order_dict) # Output: OrderedDict([('banana', 3), ('orange', 1),

('apple', 2)])

Example 4: Implementing a Simple LRU Cache

from collections import OrderedDict

class LRUCache:
def __init__(self, capacity):
self.cache = OrderedDict()
self.capacity = capacity

def get(self, key):

if key in self.cache:
self.cache.move_to_end(key)
return self.cache[key]
return -1

def put(self, key, value):

if key in self.cache:
self.cache.move_to_end(key)
self.cache[key] = value
if len(self.cache) > self.capacity:
self.cache.popitem(last=False)

# Usage
lru = LRUCache(2)
lru.put(1, 1)
lru.put(2, 2)
print(lru.get(1)) # returns 1
lru.put(3, 3) # evicts key 2
print(lru.get(2)) # returns -1

Example 5: Maintaining a Sorted Dictionary

from collections import OrderedDict

# Dictionary with unsorted keys

unsorted_dict = {'banana': 3, 'apple': 2, 'orange': 1}

# Creating an OrderedDict sorted by keys

sorted_dict = OrderedDict(sorted(unsorted_dict.items()))

print(sorted_dict) # Output: OrderedDict([('apple', 2), ('banana', 3),

('orange', 1)])

9. Default Dictionary

Example 1: Counting Frequencies

from collections import defaultdict

# Creating a defaultdict for counting

freq = defaultdict(int)

# Counting frequencies
for char in "banana":
freq[char] += 1

print(freq) # Output: defaultdict(<class 'int'>, {'b': 1, 'a': 3, 'n': 2})

Example 2: Grouping Items

from collections import defaultdict

# Creating a defaultdict for grouping

grouped = defaultdict(list)

# Grouping items
items = [('apple', 2), ('banana', 3), ('apple', 5)]
for key, value in items:
grouped[key].append(value)

print(grouped) # Output: defaultdict(<class 'list'>, {'apple': [2, 5],

'banana': [3]})

Example 3: Building a Multi-Value Dictionary

from collections import defaultdict

# Creating a defaultdict
multi_dict = defaultdict(set)

# Adding multiple values to a key

multi_dict['fruit'].add('apple')
multi_dict['fruit'].add('banana')

print(multi_dict) # Output: defaultdict(<class 'set'>, {'fruit':

{'banana', 'apple'}})

Example 4: Missing Key Handling

from collections import defaultdict

# Creating a defaultdict with default value of 0

zero_dict = defaultdict(lambda: 0)

# Accessing a missing key

print(zero_dict['missing']) # Output: 0

Example 5: Accumulating Results

from collections import defaultdict

# Creating a defaultdict for accumulating results

accum = defaultdict(int)

# Simulating a series of operations

transactions = [("apple", 10), ("banana", 5), ("apple", -3)]
for fruit, amount in transactions:
accum[fruit] += amount

print(accum) # Output: defaultdict(<class 'int'>, {'apple': 7, 'banana':

5})