Water Wave Theory: Comprehensive

Lecture Notes

Prepared by M.H.Shiri
Sharif University of Technology

[email protected]

Jan 2025
Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

Contents

Preface 2

1 Introduction to Water Waves 2

2 Fundamental Concepts and Assumptions 2

3 Mathematical Framework 3

4 One-Dimensional (1D) Water Waves 4

5 Two-Dimensional (2D) Water Waves 6

6 Three-Dimensional (3D) Water Waves 8

7 Terminology and Definitions 10

8 Summary and Key Takeaways 11

9 Suggested Exercises 12

10 Further Reading 15

Appendix: Detailed Derivations 15

Appendix A: Derivation of the 1D Dispersion Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Appendix B: Incorporating Surface Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Conclusion 17

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

Preface
Certainly! Below is a comprehensive and theoretical treatment of water waves en-
compassing one-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional (2D), and three-dimensional
(3D) waveforms. This material is meticulously structured to serve as lecture notes for
an upper-intermediate physics class, progressing from foundational concepts to advanced
mathematical formulations. All terminology used is defined to ensure clarity and facili-
tate understanding. The content is organized for ease of printing and serves as a complete
guide from ”zero to hero” in water wave theory.

1. Introduction to Water Waves

Water waves are oscillatory motions observed at the interface between water and air.
They are characterized by the periodic movement of water particles and the propagation
of energy across the water surface. Understanding water waves is fundamental in various
disciplines, including oceanography, coastal engineering, and fluid dynamics. This lecture
series delves into the theoretical underpinnings of water wave behavior in one, two, and
three dimensions, providing a thorough mathematical framework and intuitive insights.

2. Fundamental Concepts and Assumptions

To model water waves mathematically, several simplifying assumptions are made.
These assumptions streamline the complex dynamics of fluid motion, allowing for tractable
mathematical formulations while capturing essential physical phenomena.

1. Inviscid Fluid:

• Definition: A fluid with negligible viscosity, meaning internal frictional forces

are ignored.
• Implication: Allows the use of potential flow theory, simplifying the momen-
tum equations.

2. Incompressible Fluid:

• Definition: A fluid whose density remains constant during motion.

• Implication: Simplifies the continuity equation, as density variations can be
neglected.

3. Irrotational Flow:

• Definition: A flow with zero vorticity, meaning the fluid has no rotational
motion.
• Implication: The velocity field can be described by a scalar potential func-
tion.

4. Linear Wave Theory:

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

• Definition: Assumes that wave amplitudes are small compared to their wave-
lengths and water depth.
• Implication: Allows linearization of the governing equations, making them
solvable analytically.

5. Uniform Depth:

• Definition: The water depth is constant and finite.

• Implication: Simplifies boundary conditions at the bottom of the fluid do-
main.

6. No Surface Tension (Initially for Simplicity):

• Definition: Neglects the effects of surface tension at the water-air interface.

• Implication: Simplifies the dynamic boundary condition by focusing solely
on gravity-driven waves.

7. Harmonic Time Dependence:

• Definition: Assumes that wave properties oscillate sinusoidally in time.

• Implication: Facilitates the use of complex exponentials for mathematical
convenience.

Note: Surface tension can be incorporated for a more comprehensive analysis, espe-
cially for short-wavelength waves, as discussed in later sections.

3. Mathematical Framework
The study of water waves relies on the principles of fluid dynamics, particularly potential
flow theory. The mathematical framework involves solving the Laplace equation for
the velocity potential subject to appropriate boundary conditions.

Key Equations and Concepts

1. Velocity Potential (ϕ):

• A scalar function where the fluid velocity u is given by the gradient of ϕ:

u = ∇ϕ

2. Laplace’s Equation:

• Governs the velocity potential in irrotational and incompressible flow:

∇2 ϕ = 0

where ∇2 is the Laplacian operator.

3. Boundary Conditions:

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

• Kinematic Boundary Condition: Ensures that fluid particles at the free

surface remain on the surface.
• Dynamic Boundary Condition: Relates pressure variations at the free
surface to surface elevation and external forces like gravity and surface tension.
• Bottom Boundary Condition: Enforces impermeability at the fluid’s bot-
tom boundary.

4. Dispersion Relation:

• A fundamental relation connecting wave frequency (ω) with wavenumber (k),

encapsulating how waves propagate through the medium.

5. Phase Velocity (vp ) and Group Velocity (vg ):

• Phase Velocity: Speed at which individual wave crests propagate.

• Group Velocity: Speed at which energy and information propagate, typically
associated with wave packets.

6. Energy Considerations:

• Analysis of kinetic and potential energy distributions within the wave system,
essential for understanding wave dynamics and stability.

The subsequent sections delve into the application of this mathematical framework
across different dimensions, providing detailed derivations and intuitive explanations.

4. One-Dimensional (1D) Water Waves

4.1 Wavefunction and Velocity Potential
In a one-dimensional (1D) scenario, wave properties vary along a single horizontal axis
(e.g., x) and vertically (z). The velocity potential ϕ(x, z, t) and surface elevation η(x, t)
are functions of position and time.
Assumed Forms: { }
ϕ(x, z, t) = ℜ Φ(z)ei(kx−ωt)
{ }
η(x, t) = ℜ η0 ei(kx−ωt)
Definitions:

• ℜ{}: Real part of a complex expression.

• Φ(z): Vertical structure of the velocity potential.

2π
• k: Wavenumber, related to wavelength λ by k = λ
.
2π
• ω: Angular frequency, related to wave period T by ω = T
.

• η0 : Amplitude of the surface elevation.

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

4.2 Boundary Conditions

4.2.1 Kinematic Boundary Condition at the Free Surface (z = η(x, t))
Ensures that the fluid particles at the surface stay on the surface:
∂η ∂ϕ ∂η ∂ϕ
+ = at z = η(x, t)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂z
Linearization for Small-Amplitude Waves (η ≪ λ):

∂η ∂ϕ
= at z = 0
∂t ∂z

4.2.2 Dynamic Boundary Condition at the Free Surface

Balances atmospheric pressure and internal fluid forces:
∂ϕ
+ gη = 0 at z = 0
∂t
Note: g is the acceleration due to gravity.

4.2.3 Boundary Condition at the Bottom (z = −h)

Enforces impermeability at the fluid’s bottom:
∂ϕ
=0 at z = −h
∂z

4.3 Dispersion Relation

Substituting the assumed forms into Laplace’s equation and applying boundary condi-
tions yields the dispersion relation:

ω 2 = gk tanh(kh)

Explanation:

• Dispersion Relation: Connects the angular frequency ω with the wavenumber k,

incorporating the effects of gravity and water depth h.

4.4 Phase and Group Velocities

Phase Velocity (vp ): √
ω g
vp = = tanh(kh)
k k
Group Velocity (vg ):
√ ( )
dω 1 g 2kh
vg = = tanh(kh) 1 +
dk 2 k sinh(2kh)

Behavior in Different Regimes:

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

1. Deep Water (kh ≫ 1):

• tanh(kh) ≈ 1
√
• vp ≈ kg
vp
• vg ≈ 2

2. Shallow Water (kh ≪ 1):

• tanh(kh) ≈ kh
√
• vp ≈ gh
• vg ≈ vp

4.5 Energy Considerations

Total energy E in linear waves comprises kinetic and potential energy:
Kinetic Energy (KE): ∫
1
KE = ρ |u|2 dV
2 V
Potential Energy (PE): ∫
1
PE = ρg η 2 dS
2 S
Key Points:

• For linear waves, the time-averaged KE equals PE: ⟨KE⟩ = ⟨PE⟩.

• Total energy E is proportional to the square of the wave amplitude (η02 ).

5. Two-Dimensional (2D) Water Waves

5.1 Wavefunction and Velocity Potential
In a two-dimensional (2D) scenario, wave properties vary along two horizontal axes
(e.g., x and y) and vertically (z). The velocity potential ϕ(x, y, z, t) and surface elevation
η(x, y, t) are functions of position and time.
Assumed Forms: { }
ϕ(x, y, z, t) = ℜ Φ(z)ei(k·r−ωt)
{ }
η(x, y, t) = ℜ η0 ei(k·r−ωt)
Definitions:

• k = (kx , ky ): Wavevector, indicating direction and magnitude of wave propagation.

• r = (x, y): Position vector in the horizontal plane.

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

5.2 Boundary Conditions

5.2.1 Kinematic Boundary Condition at the Free Surface (z = η(x, y, t))
∂η ∂ϕ ∂η ∂ϕ ∂η ∂ϕ
+ + = at z = η(x, y, t)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z
Linearization for Small-Amplitude Waves:
∂η ∂ϕ
= at z = 0
∂t ∂z

5.2.2 Dynamic Boundary Condition at the Free Surface

∂ϕ
+ gη = 0 at z = 0
∂t

5.2.3 Boundary Condition at the Bottom (z = −h)

∂ϕ
=0 at z = −h
∂z

5.3 Dispersion Relation

Substituting the assumed forms into Laplace’s equation and applying boundary condi-
tions yields the dispersion relation:

ω 2 = gk tanh(kh)

where k = |k| is the magnitude of the wavevector.

5.4 Phase and Group Velocities

Phase Velocity (vp ): √
ω g
vp = = tanh(kh)
k k
Group Velocity (vg ):
√ ( )
dω 1 g 2kh
vg = = tanh(kh) 1 +
dk 2 k sinh(2kh)

Behavior in Different Regimes:

1. Deep Water (kh ≫ 1):

√
• vp ≈ kg
vp
• vg ≈ 2

2. Shallow Water (kh ≪ 1):

√
• vp ≈ gh
• vg ≈ vp

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

5.5 Energy Considerations

Total energy E in linear waves comprises kinetic and potential energy:
Kinetic Energy (KE): ∫
1
KE = ρ |u|2 dV
2 V
Potential Energy (PE): ∫
1
PE = ρg η 2 dS
2 S
Key Points:

• For linear waves, the time-averaged KE equals PE: ⟨KE⟩ = ⟨PE⟩.

• Total energy E is proportional to the square of the wave amplitude (η02 ).

6. Three-Dimensional (3D) Water Waves

6.1 Wavefunction and Velocity Potential
In a three-dimensional (3D) scenario, wave properties vary along three horizontal
axes (e.g., x, y, and z) and vertically (z). The velocity potential ϕ(x, y, z, t) and surface
elevation η(x, y, t) are functions of position and time.
Assumed Forms: { }
ϕ(x, y, z, t) = ℜ Φ(z)ei(k·r−ωt)
{ }
η(x, y, t) = ℜ η0 ei(k·r−ωt)
Definitions:

• k = (kx , ky ): Wavevector, indicating direction and magnitude of wave propagation.

• r = (x, y): Position vector in the horizontal plane.

6.2 Boundary Conditions

6.2.1 Kinematic Boundary Condition at the Free Surface (z = η(x, y, t))
∂η ∂ϕ ∂η ∂ϕ ∂η ∂ϕ
+ + = at z = η(x, y, t)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z
Linearization for Small-Amplitude Waves:
∂η ∂ϕ
= at z = 0
∂t ∂z

6.2.2 Dynamic Boundary Condition at the Free Surface

∂ϕ
+ gη = 0 at z = 0
∂t

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

6.2.3 Boundary Condition at the Bottom (z = −h)

∂ϕ
=0 at z = −h
∂z

6.3 Dispersion Relation

Substituting the assumed forms into Laplace’s equation and applying boundary condi-
tions yields the dispersion relation:

ω 2 = gk tanh(kh)

where k = |k| is the magnitude of the wavevector.

6.4 Phase and Group Velocities

Phase Velocity (vp ): √
ω g
vp = = tanh(kh)
k k
Group Velocity (vg ):
√ ( )
dω 1 g 2kh
vg = = tanh(kh) 1 +
dk 2 k sinh(2kh)
Behavior in Different Regimes:

1. Deep Water (kh ≫ 1):

√
• vp ≈ kg
vp
• vg ≈ 2

2. Shallow Water (kh ≪ 1):

√
• vp ≈ gh
• vg ≈ vp

6.5 Energy Considerations

Total energy E in linear waves comprises kinetic and potential energy:
Kinetic Energy (KE): ∫
1
KE = ρ |u|2 dV
2 V
Potential Energy (PE): ∫
1
PE = ρg η 2 dS
2 S
Key Points:
• For linear waves, the time-averaged KE equals PE: ⟨KE⟩ = ⟨PE⟩.
• Total energy E is proportional to the square of the wave amplitude (η02 ).

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

7. Terminology and Definitions

To ensure clarity, the following terms are defined as they pertain to water wave theory:

1. Velocity Potential (ϕ):

• A scalar function whose gradient gives the fluid velocity vector: u = ∇ϕ.

2. Wavefunction:

• In this context, refers to the combination of velocity potential ϕ and surface

elevation η, describing the state of the wave.

3. Wavenumber (k):
2π
• A measure of spatial frequency of the wave, related to wavelength by k = λ
.

4. Angular Frequency (ω):

2π
• The rate of oscillation of the wave, related to wave period T by ω = T
.

5. Wavevector (k):

• A vector representing the direction and magnitude of wave propagation, with

magnitude k = |k|.

6. Phase Velocity (vp ):

• The speed at which individual wave crests propagate: vp = ωk .

7. Group Velocity (vg ):

dω
• The speed at which wave energy or information propagates: vg = dk
.

8. Dispersion Relation:

• A fundamental equation linking ω and k, encapsulating how waves propagate

through a medium.

9. Kinematic Boundary Condition:

• A condition ensuring fluid particles at the surface remain on the surface during
wave motion.

10. Dynamic Boundary Condition:

• A condition relating pressure variations at the free surface to surface elevation

and external forces.

11. Deep Water:

• A regime where the water depth h is much larger than the wavelength (kh ≫
1).

12. Shallow Water:

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

• A regime where the water depth h is much smaller than the wavelength (kh ≪
1).

13. Laplace’s Equation:

• A second-order partial differential equation: ∇2 ϕ = 0, governing the velocity

potential in irrotational and incompressible flow.

14. Potential Flow Theory:

• A simplification in fluid dynamics where the flow is irrotational and can be

described by a velocity potential.

15. Surface Tension (σ):

• A force arising from the cohesive interactions between liquid molecules, sig-
nificant in short-wavelength waves.

16. Curvature (κ):

• A measure of how sharply a curve deviates from being straight, relevant in

dynamic boundary conditions involving surface tension.

8. Summary and Key Takeaways

This comprehensive overview has systematically explored water wave theory across one,
two, and three dimensions. The key takeaways are:

1. Wavefunction Components:

• Velocity Potential (ϕ): Encapsulates the fluid’s potential flow beneath the
surface.
• Surface Elevation (η): Describes the displacement of the water surface from
equilibrium.

2. Dispersion Relation:

• General Form: ω 2 = gk tanh(kh)

• Inclusion of Surface Tension: ω 2 = gk tanh(kh) + σρ k 3 (primarily for short
wavelengths)
• Connects angular frequency (ω) with wavenumber (k), incorporating gravity
(g), water depth (h), and surface tension (σ).

3. Phase and Group Velocities:

ω
• Phase Velocity (vp ): k
, indicating speed of individual wave crests.
dω
• Group Velocity (vg ): dk
, indicating speed of energy and information trans-
fer.

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

• Behavior:
– Deep Water: vg ≈ v2p
– Shallow Water: vg ≈ vp

4. Energy Distribution:

• Kinetic and Potential Energy: Equally partitioned in linear waves, with

total energy proportional to η02 .

5. Dimensional Analysis:

• 1D, 2D, 3D Waves: The mathematical framework scales with dimensional-

ity, with the dispersion relation retaining its form but wavevector k adapting
to higher dimensions.

6. Physical Implications:

• Long vs. Short Wavelengths: Dominated by gravity and surface tension,

respectively.
• Water Depth: Influences wave speed and energy propagation characteristics.

7. Mathematical Techniques:

• Separation of Variables: Facilitates solving partial differential equations

by assuming harmonic time and spatial dependence.
• Boundary Condition Application: Critical in determining the form of the
velocity potential and deriving the dispersion relation.

8. Terminology Mastery:

• A clear understanding of key terms and their definitions is essential for navi-
gating water wave theory effectively.

This foundation equips students with the necessary theoretical tools to analyze and
comprehend various water wave phenomena, laying the groundwork for more advanced
studies in fluid dynamics and wave mechanics.

9. Suggested Exercises
To reinforce the theoretical concepts discussed, the following exercises are recommended:

Exercise 1: Derive the Dispersion Relation

Objective: Starting from Laplace’s equation and applying boundary conditions, derive
the dispersion relation ω 2 = gk tanh(kh) for 1D water waves.
Steps:
1. Assume harmonic wave solutions for ϕ and η.

2. Substitute into Laplace’s equation.

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

3. Apply boundary conditions at the free surface and bottom.

4. Solve for ω in terms of k and h.

Exercise 2: Incorporate Surface Tension

Objective: Extend the dispersion relation to include surface tension, resulting in ω 2 =
gk tanh(kh) + σρ k 3 .
Steps:

1. Modify the dynamic boundary condition to include surface tension.

2. Follow the derivation steps to incorporate the curvature term.

3. Derive the new dispersion relation.

Exercise 3: Phase and Group Velocity Calculation

Objective: For given values of k, h, g, σ, and ρ, compute the phase and group velocities.
Analyze their behavior in deep and shallow water limits.
Steps:

1. Substitute numerical values into the dispersion relation.

2. Differentiate to find group velocity.

3. Compare results for deep (kh ≫ 1) and shallow (kh ≪ 1) water.

Exercise 4: Wave Superposition

Objective: Superimpose two plane waves with different wavevectors and frequencies.
Determine the resultant wave pattern and discuss interference effects.
Steps:

1. Write expressions for two separate wavefunctions.

2. Add them to find the combined wavefunction.

3. Analyze constructive and destructive interference regions.

Exercise 5: Energy Computation

Objective: Calculate the kinetic and potential energy for a wave with amplitude η0 .
Verify that, for linear waves, the time-averaged KE equals PE.
Steps:

1. Use the expressions for KE and PE.

2. Perform the integrations over the wave domain.

3. Show that ⟨KE⟩ = ⟨PE⟩.

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

Exercise 6: Numerical Visualization

Objective: Use computational software (e.g., MATLAB, Python with Matplotlib) to
plot the surface elevation η(x, t) for plane waves and superimposed waves. Explore how
varying parameters like k and h affect waveforms.
Steps:

1. Implement the wave equations in code.

2. Generate plots for different k and h values.

3. Observe changes in wave speed and shape.

Exercise 7: Exploring Dispersion in Intermediate Depths

Objective: Analyze wave behavior when kh ≈ 1. Compare numerical solutions of the
dispersion relation with deep and shallow water approximations.
Steps:

1. Choose k and h such that kh ≈ 1.

2. Compute ω using the full dispersion relation.

3. Compare with deep and shallow water limits.

Exercise 8: Impact of Surface Tension

Objective: Investigate how varying the surface tension σ affects the dispersion relation
and wave velocities. Consider cases where surface tension is dominant.
Steps:

1. Alter σ in the dispersion relation.

2. Calculate changes in ω, vp , and vg .

3. Discuss physical implications for different σ values.

Exercise 9: Nonlinear Wave Considerations (Advanced)

Objective: Investigate the onset of nonlinear effects by increasing wave amplitude and
observing deviations from linear predictions.
Steps:

1. Introduce higher-order terms in the boundary conditions.

2. Analyze how larger amplitudes affect wave speed and stability.

3. Discuss phenomena like wave steepening and breaking.

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

10. Further Reading

For an in-depth exploration of water wave theory and related phenomena, the following
resources are recommended:

1. ”Waves in Oceanic and Coastal Waters” by Leo H. Holthuijsen

• A comprehensive text covering theoretical and practical aspects of ocean

waves, including wave forecasting and coastal engineering applications.

2. ”Introduction to Fluid Mechanics” by Robert W. Fox, Alan T. McDonald,

and Philip J. Pritchard

• Offers foundational knowledge in fluid dynamics, including detailed sections

on wave phenomena and potential flow theory.

3. ”Fluid Mechanics” by L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz

• An advanced treatment of fluid mechanics principles, including potential flow

and wave theory, suitable for deeper theoretical insights.

4. Research Articles:

• Explore scholarly articles on nonlinear wave dynamics, wave-current interac-

tions, and advanced wave modeling techniques for contemporary insights and
applications.

5. Online Resources:

• MIT OpenCourseWare: Courses on fluid dynamics and wave theory.

• NASA’s Oceanography Resources: Practical applications of wave theory in
oceanography.

Appendix: Detailed Derivations

For those seeking a deeper mathematical understanding, the following appendices provide
step-by-step derivations of key equations and relations discussed in the lecture notes.

Appendix A: Derivation of the 1D Dispersion Relation

Objective: Derive the dispersion relation ω 2 = gk tanh(kh) for 1D water waves.
Steps:

1. Assume Harmonic Solutions:

ϕ(x, z, t) = Φ(z)ei(kx−ωt)

η(x, t) = η0 ei(kx−ωt)

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

2. Laplace’s Equation:
∂ 2ϕ ∂ 2ϕ
+ =0
∂x2 ∂z 2
Substituting ϕ:

(−k 2 Φ + Φ′′ )ei(kx−ωt) = 0 ⇒ Φ′′ − k 2 Φ = 0

General solution:

Φ(z) = A cosh(k(z + h)) + B sinh(k(z + h))

3. Boundary Conditions:

• Bottom (z = −h):
∂ϕ
=0 ⇒ B=0
∂z
Thus:
Φ(z) = A cosh(k(z + h))
• Surface (z = 0):
– Kinematic Condition:
∂η ∂ϕ
= ⇒ −iωη0 = ikA sinh(kh)
∂t ∂z
ωη0
A=−
k sinh(kh)
– Dynamic Condition:
∂ϕ
+ gη = 0 ⇒ −iωA cosh(kh) + gη0 = 0
∂t
Substituting A:
ω 2 cosh(kh)
+g =0 ⇒ ω 2 = gk tanh(kh)
k sinh(kh)

Appendix B: Incorporating Surface Tension

Objective: Extend the dispersion relation to include surface tension, resulting in ω 2 =
gk tanh(kh) + σρ k 3 .
Steps:

1. Modify Dynamic Boundary Condition:

∂ϕ σ ∂ 2η
+ gη =
∂t ρ ∂x2

2. Substitute Harmonic Solutions:

σ
−iωA cosh(kh) + gη0 = − k 2 η0
ρ

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Water Wave Theory Lecture Notes

3. Substitute A from Kinematic Condition:

ω 2 cosh(kh) σ
+ g = − k2
k sinh(kh) ρ

4. Solve for ω 2 :
σ 3
ω 2 = gk tanh(kh) + k
ρ

Conclusion
These lecture notes provide a comprehensive and theoretical exploration of water
wave dynamics across one, two, and three dimensions. By systematically building from
fundamental concepts to detailed mathematical formulations, they equip students with
the knowledge and tools necessary to understand and analyze water waves in various con-
texts. The inclusion of exercises and further reading ensures that students can apply and
deepen their understanding, fostering both academic growth and practical competency
in fluid dynamics and wave theory.

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