Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Machine Learning (CE 40717)

Fall 2024

Ali Sharifi-Zarchi

CE Department
Sharif University of Technology

October 5, 2024

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 1 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

1 Introduction

2 Logistic Regression

3 Summary

4 Extra reading

5 References

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 2 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

1 Introduction

2 Logistic Regression

3 Summary

4 Extra reading

5 References

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 3 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Classification problem

• Classification (binary)
• Email: Spam / Not Spam?
• Online Transactions: Fraudulent / Genuine?
• Tumor: Malignant / Benign?

(
0: “Negative Class” (e.g., benign tumor)
y ∈ {0, 1}
1: “Positive Class” (e.g., malignant tumor)

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 4 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Classification problem (cont.)

• Can we solve the problem using linear regression?

• We could fit a straight line and define a threshold at 0.5:

If hθ (x) ≥ 0.5, predict y = 1

If hθ (x) < 0.5, predict y = 0

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 5 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Classification problem (cont.)

• What about now? (By adding a new data point)

• Classification: y = 0 or y = 1
• hθ (x) can be > 1 or < 0
• Another drawback of using linear regression for this problem
• What we need:

Logistic regression: 0 ≤ hθ (x) ≤ 1

• We also show this function with other notations: f (x; w) = σ(wT x)

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 6 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

1 Introduction

2 Logistic Regression
Fundamentals
Decision surface
ML estimation
Cost function
Gradient descent
Multi-class logistic regression

3 Summary

4 Extra reading

5 References
CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 7 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

1 Introduction

2 Logistic Regression
Fundamentals
Decision surface
ML estimation
Cost function
Gradient descent
Multi-class logistic regression

3 Summary

4 Extra reading

5 References
CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 8 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Introduction

• Suppose we have a binary classification task (so K = 2).

• By observing age, gender, height, weight and BMI we try to distinguish if a person
is overweight or not overweight.
Age Gender Height (cm) Weight (kg) BMI Overweight
25 Male 175 80 25.3 0
30 Female 160 60 22.5 0
...
35 Male 180 90 27.3 1
• We denote the features of a sample with vector x and the label with y.
• In logistic regression we try to find an σ(wT x) which predicts posterior
probabilities P(y = 1|x).

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 9 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Introduction (cont.)

• σ(wT x): probability that y = 1 given x (parameterized by w)

P(y = 1|x, w) = σ(wT x)

P(y = 0|x, w) = 1 − σ(wT x)

• We need to look for a function which gives us an output in the range [0, 1]. (like a
probability).
• Let’s denote this function with σ(.) and call it the activation function.

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 10 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Introduction (cont.)

• Sigmoid (logistic) function.

1
σ(z) =
1 + e−z
• A good candidate for activation function.
• It gives us a number between 0 and 1
smoothly.
• It is also differentiable

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 11 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Sigmoid function & its derivative

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Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Introduction (cont.)

• The sigmoid function takes a number as input but we have:

x = [x0 = 1, x1 , . . . , xd ]
w = [w0 , w1 , . . . , wd ]

• So we can use the dot product of x and w.

• We have 0 ≤ σ(wT x) ≤ 1. which is the estimated probability of y = 1 on input x.
• An Example : A basketball game (Win, Lose)
• σ(wT x) = 0.7
• In other terms 70 percent chance of winning the game.

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 13 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

1 Introduction

2 Logistic Regression
Fundamentals
Decision surface
ML estimation
Cost function
Gradient descent
Multi-class logistic regression

3 Summary

4 Extra reading

5 References
CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 14 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Decision surface

• Decision surface or decision boundary is the region of a problem space in which

the output label of a classifier is ambiguous. (could be linear or non-linear)
• In binary classification it is where the probability of a sample belonging to each
y = 0 and y = 1 is equal.

• Decision boundary hyperplane always has one less dimension than the feature
space.
CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 15 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Decision surface (cont.)

• An example of linear decision boundaries:

Figure adapted from Eric Xing, Machine Learning, CMU

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 16 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Decision surface (cont.)

• Back to our logistic regression problem.

• Decision surface σ(wT x) = constant.

1
σ(wT x) = T
= 0.5
1 + e−(w x)
• Decision surfaces are linear functions of x
• if σ(wT x) ≥ 0.5 then ŷ = 1, else ŷ = 0
• Equivalently, if wT x + w0 ≥ 0.5 then decide ŷ = 1, else ŷ = 0

ŷ is the predicted label

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 17 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Decision boundary example

σ(wT x) = σ(w0 + w1 x1 + w2 x2 )

Predict y = 1 if − 3 + x1 + x2 ≥ 0

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Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Non-linear decision boundary example

σ(wT x) = σ(w0 + w1 x1 + w2 x2 + w3 x12 + w4 x22 )

We can learn more complex decision boundaries when having higher order terms

Predict y = 1 if − 1 + x12 + x22 ≥ 0

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 19 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

1 Introduction

2 Logistic Regression
Fundamentals
Decision surface
ML estimation
Cost function
Gradient descent
Multi-class logistic regression

3 Summary

4 Extra reading

5 References
CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 20 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

ML estimation

• We had posterior of a sample as:

P(y (i) |x(i) , w)

• Logistic regression should maximize production of all these sample posteriors.

• Maximum (conditional) log likelihood:
n
P(y (i) |x(i) , w)
Y
ŵ = arg max log
w i=1

• Note that in binary classification y is either 1 or 0, So we can have posterior term

simplified as follows:

(i) (i)
P(y (i) |x(i) , w) = σ(wT x(i) )y (1 − σ(wT x(i) ))(1−y )

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 21 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

ML estimation

• Logarithm of the posterior probability:

log P(y (i) |x(i) , w) = y (i) log(σ(wT x(i) )) + (1 − y (i) ) log(1 − σ(wT x(i) ))

• Hence the log likelihood is as follows:

n n
log P(y (i) |x(i) , w) = log P(y (i) |x(i) , w)
Y X
i=1 i=1
n
[y (i) log(σ(wT x(i) )) + (1 − y (i) ) log(1 − σ(wT x(i) ))]
X
=
i=1

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 22 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

1 Introduction

2 Logistic Regression
Fundamentals
Decision surface
ML estimation
Cost function
Gradient descent
Multi-class logistic regression

3 Summary

4 Extra reading

5 References
CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 23 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Cost function

• We should find

ŵ = arg min J(w)

w

• MLE finds parameters that best describe a classification problem so cost function
should be negative of log likelihood term:
n
log P(y (i) |x(i) , w)
X
J(w) = −
i=1
n
−y (i) log(σ(wT x(i) )) − (1 − y (i) ) log(1 − σ(wT x(i) ))
X
=
i=1

• No closed form solution for ∇w J(w) = 0

• However J(w) is convex.
CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 24 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Cost function (cont.)

• Convexity of J(w) can easily be proved:

• We use the lemma that sum of several convex functions is still convex (you can prove
it on your own).
• Each term in the summation is differentiable (twice).
• If you twice get derivative of (with respect to σ):

−y (i) log(σ(wT x(i) )) − (1 − y (i) ) log(1 − σ(wT x(i) ))

• You get:
y 1−y
+
σ2 (1 − σ)2
• Which for both y = 0 and y = 1 is positive.
• Each log P(y (i) |x(i) , w) is convex, hence the summation is convex as well.

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 25 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Cost function (cont.)

• Visualization of each binary cross entropy loss term:

• As you can see if the model predicted value is ŷ = 0.16 and true label is y = 1 then
the error is high but if the true label is y = 0 the error would be low.

Figure adopted from https://towardsdatascience.com/logistic-regression-from-scratch-69db4f587e17

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 26 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

1 Introduction

2 Logistic Regression
Fundamentals
Decision surface
ML estimation
Cost function
Gradient descent
Multi-class logistic regression

3 Summary

4 Extra reading

5 References
CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 27 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Gradient descent

• Remember from previous slides:

n
−y (i) log(σ(wT x(i) )) − (1 − y (i) ) log(1 − σ(wT x(i) ))
X
J(w) =
i=1

• Update rule for gradient descent:

wt+1 = wt − η∇w J(wt )

• With J(w) definition for logistic regression we get:

n
(σ(wT x(i) ) − y (i) )x(i)
X
∇w J(w) =
i=1

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 28 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Gradient descent

• Compare the gradient of logistic regression with the gradient of SSE in linear
regression :

n
(σ(wT x(i) ) − y (i) )x(i)
X
∇w J(w) =
i=1

n
(wT x(i) − y (i) )x(i)
X
∇w J(w) =
i=1

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 29 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Loss function

• Loss function is a single overall measure of loss incurred for taking our decisions
(over entire dataset).
• We have:

Loss(y, σ(wT x)) = −y × log(σ(wT x)) − (1 − y) × log(1 − σ(wT x))

• Since in binary classification either y = 1 or y = 0 we have:

(
T − log(σ(wT x)) if y = 1
Loss(y, σ(w x)) = T
− log(1 − σ(w x)) if y = 0

• How is it related to zero-one loss? (ŷ is the predicted label and y is the ture label)
(
1 if y ̸= ŷ
Loss(y, ŷ) =
0 if y = ŷ

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 30 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

1 Introduction

2 Logistic Regression
Fundamentals
Decision surface
ML estimation
Cost function
Gradient descent
Multi-class logistic regression

3 Summary

4 Extra reading

5 References
CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 31 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Multi-class logistic regression

• Now consider a problem where we have K classes and every sample only belongs
to one class (for simplicity).

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 32 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Multi-class logistic regression (cont.)

• For each class k, σk (x; W) predicts the probability of y = k.

• i.e., P(y = k|x, W)
PK
• For each data point x0 , P(y = k|x0 , W) must be 1
k=1
• W denotes a matrix of wi ’s in which each wi is a weight vector dedicated for class
label i.
• On a new input x, to make a prediction, we pick the class that maximizes σk (x; W):

α(x) = arg max σk (x; W)

k=1,...,K

if σk (x; W) > σj (x; W) ∀j ̸= k then decide Ck

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Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Multi-class logistic regression (cont.)

• K > 2 and y ∈ {1, 2, . . . , K }

exp (wkT x)
σk (x, W) = P(y = k|x) = PK T
j=1 exp (wj x)

• Normalized exponential (Aka Softmax)

• if wT x ≫ wT x for all j ̸= k then P(Ck |x) ≈ 1 and P(Cj |x) ≈ 0
k j
• Note : remember from Bayes theorem:

P(x|Ck )P(Ck )
P(Ck |x) = PK
j=1 P(x|Cj )P(Cj )

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Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Multi-class logistic regression (cont.)

• Softmax function smoothly highlights the maximum probability and is

differentiable.
• Compare it with max(.) function which is strict and non-differentiable
• Softmax can also handle negative values because we are using exponential function
• And it gives us probability for each class since:

K
X exp(wkT x)
PK T
=1
k=1 j=1 exp(wj x)

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Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Multi-class logistic regression (cont.)

• An example of applying softmax (note that zi = wT xi ):

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Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Multi-class logistic regression (cont.)

• Again we set J(W ) as negative of log likelihood.

• We need Ŵ = arg min J(W )
W

n
P(y (i) |x(i) , W)
Y
J(W ) = − log
i=1
n YK (i)
σk (x(i) ; W)yk
Y
= − log
i=1 k=1
n X
K
yk(i) log(σk (x(i) ; W))
X
=−
i=1 k=1

• If i-th sample belongs to class k then y (i) is 1 else 0.

k
• Again no closed-from solution for Ŵ

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 37 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Multi-class logistic regression (cont.)

• From previous slides we have:

n X
K
yk(i) log(σk (x(i) ; W))
X
J(W ) = −
i=1 k=1

• In which:
  (1)
yK(1)

y (1) y1 ...

 y (2)   y (2) ... yK(2) 

   1
W = [w1 , w2 , . . . , wK ], Y =
 ..  =  ..
 
.. .. 
 .   . . . 

y (n) y (n) ... yK(n)
1
• y is a vector of length K (1-of-K encoding)
• For example y = [0, 0, 1, 0]T when the target class is C3 .

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 38 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Multi-class logistic regression (cont.)

• Update rule for gradient descent:

wjt+1 = wjt − η∇W J(W t )

n
(σj (x(i) ; W) − yj(i) )x(i)
X
∇wj J(W ) =
i=1

• wt denotes the weight vector for class j (since in multi-class LR, each class has its
j
own weight vector) in the t-th iteration

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 39 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

1 Introduction

2 Logistic Regression

3 Summary

4 Extra reading

5 References

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 40 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Logistic regression (LR) summary

• LR is a linear classifier
• LR optimization problem is obtained by maximum likelihood
• No closed-form solution for its optimization problem
• But convex cost function and global optimum can be found by gradient ascent

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 41 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

1 Introduction

2 Logistic Regression

3 Summary

4 Extra reading
Probabilistic view in classification
Probabilistic classifiers

5 References

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 42 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

1 Introduction

2 Logistic Regression

3 Summary

4 Extra reading
Probabilistic view in classification
Probabilistic classifiers

5 References

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 43 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Probabilistic view in classification problem

• In a classification problem:
• Each feature is a random variable (e.g. a person’s height)
• The class label is also considered a random variable (e.g. a person could be
overweight or not)
• We observe the feature values for a random sample and intend to find its class label
• Evidence: Feature vector x
• Objective: Class label

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 44 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Definitions

• Posterior probability : The probability of a class label Ck given a sample x

P(Ck |x)

• Likelihood or class conditional probability : PDF of feature vector x for samples of

class Ck
P(x|Ck )
• Prior probability : Probability of the label be Ck

P(Ck )
• P(x): PDF of feature vector x
• From total probability theorem:

K
X
P(x) = P(x|Ck )P(Ck )
k=1

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 45 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

1 Introduction

2 Logistic Regression

3 Summary

4 Extra reading
Probabilistic view in classification
Probabilistic classifiers

5 References

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 46 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Probabilistic classifiers

• Probabilistic approaches can be divided in two main categories:

• Generative
• Estimate PDF P(x, Ck ) for each class Ck and then use it to find P(Ck |x). Alternatively
estimate both PDF P(x|Ck ) and P(Ck ) to find P(Ck |x).
• Discriminative
• Directly estimate P(Ck |x) for class Ck

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Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Probabilistic classifiers (cont.)

• Let’s assume we have input data x and want to classify the data into labels y.
• A generative model learns the joint probability distribution P(x, y).
• A discriminative model learns the conditional probability distribution P(y|x)

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Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Discriminative vs. Generative : example

• Suppose we have the following dataset in form of (x, y):

(1, 0), (1, 0), (2, 0), (2, 1)

• P(x, y) is :
y=0 y=1
1
x=1 2 0
1 1
x=2 4 4
• P(y|x) is :
y=0 y=1
x=1 1 0
1 1
x=2 2 2

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Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Discriminative vs. Generative : example (cont.)

• The distribution P(y|x) is the natural distribution for classifying a given sample x
into class y.
• This is why that algorithms which model this directly are called discriminative
algorithms.
• Generative algorithms model P(x, y), which can be transformed into P(y|x) by
Bayes rule and then used for classification.
• However, the distribution P(x, y) can also be used for other purposes.
• For example we can use P(x, y) to generate likely (x, y) pairs

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Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Generative approach

1 Inference
• Determine class conditional densities P(x|Ck ) and priors P(Ck )
• Use Bayes theorem to find P(Ck |x)
2 Decision
• Make optimal assignment for new input (after learning the model in the inference
stage)
• if P(Ci |x) > P(Cj |x)∀j ̸= i, then decide Ci .

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 51 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Generative approach (cont.)

• Generative approach for a binary classification problem:

Figures adapted from Machine Learning and Pattern Recognition, Bishop

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Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Discriminative approach

1 Inference
• Determine the posterior class probabilities P(Ck |x) directly.
2 Decision
• Make optimal assignment for new input (after learning the model in the inference
stage)
• if P(Ci |x) > P(Cj |x)∀j ̸= i, then decide Ci .

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 53 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Discriminative approach (cont.)

• Discriminative approach for a binary classification problem:

Figures adapted from Machine Learning and Pattern Recognition, Bishop

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 54 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Discriminative approach (cont.)

• Logistic regression is a discriminative approach.

• We directly want to specify the class label with σ(wT x)

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 55 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

1 Introduction

2 Logistic Regression

3 Summary

4 Extra reading

5 References

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 56 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Contributions

• These slides are authored by:

• Danial Gharib

CE Department (Sharif University of Technology) Machine Learning (CE 40717) October 5, 2024 57 / 59
Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

[1] M. Soleymani Baghshah, “Machine learning.” Lecture slides.

[2] A. Ng, “Ml-005, lecture 6.” Lecture slides.
[3] C. M. Bishop, Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning.
Information Science and Statistics, New York, NY: Springer, 1 ed., Aug. 2006.
[4] S. Fidler, “Csc411.” Lecture slides.
[5] A. Ng and T. Ma, CS229 Lecture Notes.
Updated June 11, 2023.

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Introduction Logistic Regression Summary Extra reading References

Any Questions?

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