Group-A

1. (i) Telnet
(ii) A protocol in a computer network is a set of rules governing the exchange of data
between devices.
(iii) Data Link Layer Switch.
(iv) Source and destination ip address.
(v) leaky bucket algorithm.
(vi) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol).
(vii) 127.0.0.1.
(viii) The two categories of QoS attributes are subjective and objective.
(ix) Generic domains, country domains, and inverse domains.
(x) The function of the application layer is to provide network services directly to the user's
Applications.

Group-B

2. Physical Layer :-

Physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is responsible for the actual transmission of
raw bits over a physical medium. It defines the hardware elements involved in the networking process,
such as cables, switches, and network interface cards, and specifies the electrical, optical, or radio
signals used for communication. This layer
does not concern itself with the meaning of the
data but ensures that the bits are transmitted
accurately from the sender to the receiver. The
physical layer determines the data rate,
synchronization of bits, line configuration, and
physical topology of the network.

Data Link Layer :-

On the other hand, the data link layer sits directly above the physical layer and plays a crucial role in
ensuring reliable node-to-node communication. It is responsible for framing, error detection and
correction, and flow control. The data link layer packages raw bits from the physical layer into frames
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and ensures that these frames are free from errors before they are passed on to the network layer. It also
manages access to the physical medium, especially in shared environments, to prevent collisions and
coordinate data transmission. By adding headers and trailers to the data, the data link layer helps in
identifying the start and end of frames, and mechanisms like acknowledgments and re-transmissions
help maintain the integrity of the communication. In summary, while the physical layer focuses on the
transmission of bits through a medium, the data link layer ensures those bits are grouped into error-free
frames for reliable communication.

3.

4.

A repeater, router, and gateway are three essential network devices that help manage, direct, and
maintain data flow across networks.

A repeater is a physical layer device that regenerates and amplifies signals in a network. When data
travels over long distances, the signal weakens due to attenuation. The repeater receives the weakened
signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise, and retransmits it at its original
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strength. It does not interpret the data or analyze it; it simply ensures that the signal remains strong
enough for accurate transmission, often used in LANs or between network segments in larger
infrastructures.

A router, operating at the network layer, is responsible for directing data packets between different
networks. It analyzes the destination IP address of each packet and determines the best path for it to
reach its target using routing tables and protocols such as RIP, OSPF, or BGP. Routers connect different
networks, such as a home network to the internet, and also provide security functions by filtering traffic
and managing data based on IP addresses. Unlike switches, which work within a network, routers link
multiple networks and facilitate communication between them.

A gateway is a network device that acts as a bridge between two different systems or protocols. It can
operate at any layer of the OSI model, depending on the function it performs. Gateways translate data
formats, communication protocols, or network architectures, enabling communication between
dissimilar systems, such as between an IP network and a Bluetooth network. It’s essentially the
“translator” of the networking world.

Group-C

7. (a)

Twisted pair cable is one of the most commonly used transmission media in computer networking,
especially in Local Area Networks (LANs). It consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted
together in a helical form. Each pair of wires carries signals, and the twisting helps to minimize
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk between adjacent pairs.

A standard twisted pair cable has two conductors (usually copper), each with its own plastic insulation,
twisted together. The twisting can vary in tightness and frequency; more twists per inch result in better
resistance to interference.

Types:

1.UN-shielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Most common type used in LANs (e.g., Cat5e, Cat6 cables).

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Includes shielding (foil or braid) for additional protection against
EMI.
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Working Principle:

Twisting the wires causes the electromagnetic fields generated by current in the wires to cancel each
other out. When both wires carry equal and opposite signals, any external EMI affects both wires
equally. At the receiving end, the differential signal processing eliminates the noise, preserving the data
integrity.

(b) Optical fiber is a high-speed transmission medium that uses light signals to transmit data. It
consists of a very thin strand of glass or plastic fiber that carries light from one end to the other. It is
primarily used for long-distance and high-bandwidth data transmission.

Working Principle:

Optical fiber works on the principle of total internal reflection. When light enters the fiber at a particular
angle, it reflects repeatedly within the core due to the difference in refractive index between the core
and cladding. This keeps the light signal trapped inside and allows it to travel long distances with
minimal signal loss.

Advantages of Optical Fiber in Networking:

 High Bandwidth: Can support very high data rates (up to gigabits per second).
 Long Distance Transmission: Minimal signal loss, suitable for miles of data transmission.
 Immunity to EMI: Not affected by electromagnetic interference.
 High Security: Difficult to tap or intercept signals without detection.
 Lightweight and Durable: Thinner and lighter than copper cables.

8. (a)
(i) Protocol using selective repeat:
Selective Repeat ARQ retransmits only the erroneous or lost packets, not all subsequent packets, using a
sliding window for flow control.

(ii) Stop and Wait protocol:

In this protocol, the sender sends one frame and waits for its acknowledgment before sending the next.
Simple but inefficient for long-distance or high-speed links.

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(b) Discuss about VRC
VRC (Vertical Redundancy Check) adds a parity bit to each data unit to make the number of 1s either
even (even parity) or odd (odd parity).

Example: For data 1101, an even parity VRC would add 0 to make it 11010.

10. (a)

Feature Static Routing Dynamic Routing

Configuration Manual Automatic

Does not adapt to

Adaptability Adapts to network changes
changes

Overhead Low High

Example Used in small networks Used in large networks

(b) Explain the concept of RIP.

RIP (Routing Information Protocol) is a distance-vector routing protocol that uses hop count as a
metric. It updates routing tables every 30 seconds and has a maximum hop count of 15, making it
suitable for small networks.