LEARNING AND COGNITION

TOPIC 3
TOPIC –3

MEMORY, RETENTION
AND LEARNING
MEMORY RETENTION
AND LEARNING
3.0 STRUCTURE

3.1 States and types of memory

3.1.1 Implicit memory and explicit memory
3.1.2 How human memory operates
3.2 Learning and retention
3.2.1 The process of retention
3.3 Learning motor skills
3.4 Encoding Specificity Principle
3.5 Recall from Long-Term Memory is Constructive
3.6 Schema Theory
3.6.1 The constructive nature of memory
3.7 Intelligence and retrieval

3
 Memory,

3
Retention
TOPIC and
Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon completion of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Identify the term ‘memory’

2. Explain concepts related to learning and retention
3. Sketch out the meaning of motor skills
4. Describe what is constructive long-term memory
5. State features of schema theory

5
 3.0 INTRODUCTION

Cognition psychology bears within it many phenomena such as perception,

learning, memory, thinking and two more important aspects of emotion and
motivation.

We remember people whom we meet fleetingly years back, but cannot bring
into our heads, the points the tutor made regarding a subject in class. Why
do these phenomena of memory happen? It is because of the perception and
memory that comes into play while registering anything in our minds. This is
what cognitive psychologists study about.

Psychologists in cognitive psychology say that learning and memory are two
closely related concepts that are interrelated and not separate processes. An
important part of our daily life is to achieve fresh skills. We should go on
learning new and a variety of skills that will help us perform in every facet
of our lives. Activities like cycling, walking, driving, swimming, operating a
computer, etc. are skills that are action oriented and constant practice of it
tunes our motor nerves to work accordingly, therefore, we will never forget
these skills. Learning to stay away from hazardous things, learning about one‟s
own family, learning to speak, etc. are all skills that are acquired through
the learning process and retained in the memory for later use by other brain
processes.

1
Memory is the means by which we retain and draw on our past experiences
to use that information in the present (Tulving & Craik, 2000)

As a practice, memory denotes the active tools related with storing, retaining,
and retrieving information about past experience. More importantly, cognitive
psychologists have recognised three general operations of memory:

• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval
Each of these operations signifies a phase in memory processing.

• In encoding, you transform the sensory data (i.e. the data interpreted by

6
 the senses, as mentioned in the previous chapters) into a form of mental
representation.
• In storage, the mind keeps encoded information in its memory.
• In retrieval, the mind capacitates to pull out or use the information that is
stored in the memory.

3.1 STATES AND TYPES OF MEMORY

Let us first understand the basic difference between learning and memory.
Learning is the acquiring of any new information, and memory is the act of
recalling or bringing back to the surface of the mind whatever has been learnt
for it to be used when required. So in a sense, the consequence of learning
should be the memory to recall it, else the information thus acquired is going
to be lost.

In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed a model of human memory which

2

postulated two different types of memory storage systems, short-term memory,

and long-term memory. This was later followed by the addition of a third
memory, sensory memory.

Sensory Memory

The advent of the sensory memory was a great step in realising the importance
of perception in the process of memory. Sensory memory is a memory system
that works for a brief span of a moment, typically from half to two seconds,
to store information that is received by the receptor cells. For example, if at
a random, a series of numbers are shown to you, the receptor, the visual
stimuli will hold a copy of around nine to twelve numbers as the „iconic
memory‟ for visual information. It is known as the „Echoic memory‟ for
auditory information However, since the information in the sensory memory
is primeval and unanalysed, most of the memory will fade away before we can
do anything with it.

Information that is stored in this way has no meaning until it is selected by the
mind for further work, by adding some physical effort by the mind. The general
principle of the function of sensory information, therefore, is to keep the
information around, although briefly until further processing.

7
 Image 3.1: Stages Of Memory.

If the mind is going to pay attention to it and repeat it several times, this
information goes for further processing of the working memory.

Short-term Memory

Paying attention to the sensory memory furthers the information to the working
memory which is the short-term memory system. The capacity of sensory
memory is more (i.e. everything that the eye sees or the ear hears in a wide
spectrum is stored in the echoic or iconic memory for a short span) while the
capacity of the working memory is much less. Ideally, until some information
from the sensory memory is furthered to be in the short-term memory.

As an example, imagine that you are asked to read the dictionary and remember
many words that are new to you. If you read out the words aloud, the visual
stimulus first receives the information, aided by the echo of the words too.
Because the mind is paying a lot of attention to the words, this information
will get „recoded‟ into signals that is retained by the mind. The duration of short-
term memory is 15 – 30 seconds.

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) though not responsible for the storage of
information, plays a key role in protecting the contents of short-term memory.

8
The PFC enables us to know what is happening around our surroundings, and
it brings this information together. It also receives information from the long-
term memories and, therefore, helps in retrieval of information.

For example, when we are answering a question or talking, the information

travels to the working memory to use it as words and expression. This
procedure of finding and bringing back the learned information to the working
memory and using it is called „retrieval‟.

Long-term Memory

Abbot, B. (2002). suggests that long-term memory is the more permanent store,
in which information can reside in a dormant state, out of mind and unused,
until you fetch it back into consciousness.

For registering more and more information into the long-term memory(LTM),
it needs to be in a constant give and take with the working memory. The
important feature of long-term memory is the way the information is organised.
Therefore, to understand the long-term memory we need to understand the
organisation of it.

Organisation of long-term memory:

The idea behind understanding the organisation of long-term memory is

directly concerned with the effectiveness of the retrieval of information. Many
cognitive psychologists believe that there are different types of information that
are stored in the long-term memory. While it is not stipulated how long this
information is stored for long term, it is certain that each memory is structured
in a different way, and the mind makes the decision to categorise it in a certain
way.

3
Storing information in LTM is equal to a computer system storing all the
information on its hard drive, or to a recorder writing outlines of magnetisation
onto a tape to record music. The „writing‟ of information to the long-term
memory is called storage and the „playback‟ called retrieval.

Forgetting occurs when the information is not attended to for a while thus,
the memory fades away or by intrusions that hamper the arrangement of new
information aligning with the existing ones.

9
Long-term memory can be categorised as being:

Declarative

Declarative memory encompasses semantic memory and episodic memory.

Memories stored here can be recalled when intended.

• Semantic Memory – includes basic language concepts, facts, etc.

• Episodic Memory – personal experiences, life events and liaisons that
arrange themselves in a chronological manner
Nondeclarative

Nondeclarative memory encompasses memory that includes methods, like

cycling, playing golf, etc. It involves acquiring, retaining and retrieving the
skills that are performed in order.

3.1.1 Explicit Memory And Implicit Memory

Long term memory can be classified in many ways and one of the ways is to
classify it according to the level of consciousness attached to it.

Image 3.2 Explicit Memory:

Explicit Memory:

These memories are what we have a hold on to remember. This means

that we make a conscious effort to remember these memories. For example,
while answering the exam paper, we use the explicit memory to recall the

10
information. Things that we “know”, which our minds consciously register are
explicit memories.

Explicit memory may be further divided into semantic memories and episodic
memories.

Image 3.3 Implicit Memory

Implicit Memory:

These are memories that unconsciously get stored in our minds and then
influence the way in which we react and behave later. For example, you might
hear a catchy tune and may not acknowledge it at that instant but after a week
when you hear the same tune, there is a possibility that the mind would „like‟
it. Although not giving any specific reason, the mind starts to relish the tune.
This is the effect of implicit memory that unknowingly affects the preferences
of the mind.

Implicit memory can be further categorised as, procedural memory and

conditioning effects.

Procedural memories refers to the memory that gives a scheme of how to

perform an activity, like the non-declarative memory it encompasses activities
like cycling, swimming, riding a bike, etc. whereas, conditioning effects include
memories that are automatically or rather involuntarily registered in the mind
that in turn affects behaviour.

1
1
 Table 3.1 Arrangement Of Memory
Memory systems Key features
Explicit Realities& events
Grows quickly
Aware and conscious recall
Explicit Expertise & conducts
Stimuli responses
Grows slowly
Conduct is transformed unconsciously
and articulated through act

4
Methods to Increase Short, Working, and Long Term Memory

Short-Term Memory

• Limit the number of lists to be committed to memory at one time

• Be aware that learners remember first and last items on a list rather than
central ones
• Group items into chunks, with less than ten items to be memorised at one
time
• Be conscious of interference between different types of information to be
learned
• Use repetition or rehearsal to retain information for a short period

Working Memory

• Begin with an overview of the material to be learned

• State the objectives for a learning session
• Encourage reflection and meta-cognition
• Link different-to-remember items to more meaningful ones
• Use image representations and mind-mapping techniques
• Use verbal memory aids (such as mnemonics)
• Present content in increasing order of complexity
• Revisit topics to strengthen retention

12
Long Term Memory

• Link materials to cues that can be used to recall them

• Remind learners that cues are sufficient to recall material
• Encourage learners to create their own cues
• Teach revision techniques
• Encourage learners to discover and use their strengths

3.1.2 How Human Memory Works

To put it simply, memory is every piece of information learned, that a learner is

able to save in his mind and retrieve or recall when required. After getting an
idea about the two main memory interfaces, the working memory and the long
term memory, we will now understand the aspects of storage and retrieval.
Just as we buy groceries for the month and store it for future use, the brain
allocates within itself certain compartments to store. Now these compartments
need to be organised so that when the need arises for the mind, again it is
able to give out the required information. Therefore, the aspects to look are
storage, retrieval and also the proper organisation of information.

Image 3.4: How The Brain Works.

Let us now illustrate with the help of an example, if someone asks you your
name, the amount of reaction time for it, will be a fraction of a second. However,
if someone asked you the name of the president of United States, you would

1
3
take some time and effort to get the correct response as it is stored in the long
term memory and needs to be brought to the working memory.

As can be seen from the model above, input from the environment first reaches
the sensory memory. The information here is raw and stays for a very short
while. Here, it is in an un-encoded form. When proper attention and thinking
or even repetition is given to the information, it travels to the working memory
which has limited capacity for the amount of information. However, the
information is attended to and is available for further manipulation and use.
Unless used within a short time, the information is lost.

To this information, when proper cognitive processing is applied to the

information in the working memory and further organising of thoughts occur,
then it goes on to get recorded in the long term memory. The long term memory
has a long duration of memory capacity, and the amount of information that
can be stored is more.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

• What is the first word that comes to your mind when you see the word
dog?
• Now what is the next word that you are reminded of?
• And what does that third word remind you of?
• Starting from the word DOG, trace the trail of your thoughts. For every
sequence write at least one word.
• Does this bring to you any old memory? Of a book, experience etc

3.2 LEARNING AND RETENTION

We have established earlier in this module that learning is a continuous process,

and that learning requires active participation from the learner as one moves
to higher levels. Active learning happens when students talk, interact, writes,
listen and reflect on the information.

14
The stress on active learning has happened over the years because of the fact
that it caters to better retention. It is believed even in traditional learning, that
when the learner participates and acknowledges the information it aides better
retention and, therefore, a better recall when required.

Works of many cognitive psychologists prove that learners showed a higher

possibility of retention when they work with the information given. By this,
we infer that when a learner actively participates in the learning process
and works with the information given by rehearsing, repeating, etc. or any
such methodology, the higher levels of Blooms taxonomy of, synthesis and
evaluation can be achieved.

Image 3.5 The Learning Pyramid

3.2.1 The Process Of Retention

We have seen that learning occurs in different stages. Again in the illustration
here, we will see how retention may slightly vary according to the corresponding
stages of learning.

Stage I: Declarative

Knowledge concepts are a declarative memory and when not used frequently,

1
5
it degrades, at a fast rate indicated by catastrophic memory failure leading
to inability, to perform tasks. This confirms that with the absence of use, the
strength of declarative memory items decline. Decreased memory strength

Image 3.6 Showing The Stages Of Learning And Retention

leads to increase in the time to respond and therefore, decreased retention

and performance accuracy

Stage II: Associative

Here we see the stages of procedural and declarative memory. With the lack
of use, we see that declarative memory is forgotten by the mind. However, the
procedural memory is basically unharmed by the effect of its use. This suggests
that a mixed training is essential for an effective learning process.

Stage III: Procedural

Here knowledge is available in both formats, declarative and procedural. But,

procedural knowledge mainly pushes performance. With lack of use, declarative
knowledge gets degraded. However, if all the knowledge is procedure oriented
the learner can perform the task and does not need any new inputs for it..

3.3 LEARNING MOTOR SKILLS

Learning motor skills is an active learning process that is important in the

elementary learning years. However, the applicability is witnessed even in skill

16
based learning in higher education. The development of motor skill learning
helps learners engage in the use of their physical movements in such a way
that eases working, decreases errors and increases performance.

5
Motor Skill acquisition has been defined as “the changes associated with
practice or experience, in internal processes, that determine a person‟s capability
for responding or producing a motor skill”. ( Schmidt & Risberg, 2008, p.
11Schmidt, R. A., &Wrisberg, C. A. (2008). Motor learning and performance: A
situation-based learning approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.)

It is important to note here that it is essential for an instructor to know how

and why the motor skills can be nourished while tutoring for effective teaching.

Learning of Motor skills is an active process, interrelated with cognition. These

skill-based concepts aid in understanding the physicality of how the body
should coordinate in a manner that increases maximum efficiency of work by
the person.

Motor skill learning can be understood at two levels:

Sensory motor adaptation:

Here the members alter actions or movements in such a way so as to adjust

to the changes. An example would be while learning to drive a car. Here the
driver must understand the coordination of the movements of his/her legs in
the amount of acceleration and the magnitude of rotation of the wheel of the
car.

Sequence Learning:

This refers to an association of a series of movements that give a final output

of movement, therefore, allowing for a sequence of activities to take place, for
example, the movement involved in serving a ball in a tennis game.

DID YOU KNOW:

Hippocampus means the extended edges on the base of each lateral ventricle
of the brain, assumed to be the centre of emotion, memory and the autonomic
nervous system.

1
7
 3.4 ENCODING SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE

The specificity principle suggests that memory is improved, or the recall of any
information is more effectively done, when the information and environment
that was available while the information was encoded by the mind is made
available during the time of retrieval. Tulving and Thomson (1973) define this
as ”The encoding specificity principle of memory provides a 6general theoretical
framework for understanding how contextual information affects memory.
Specifically, the principle states that memory is improved when information
available at encoding is also available at retrieval”.

Image 3.7 A Sketch Showing Recording And Retention Of Information

It is highly possible that when students are made to attend an exam or evaluated
on subjects in the same ambience where they have been taught the subjects,
the retrieval is more effective.

18
Encoding specificity sketches three fundamental aspects of memory:

1. Essentials of encoding information

2. Features of tracing such a memory
3. Features of retrieval of the information

While encoding is a part of the memory process as we have seen earlier in

this chapter, it is the beginning of the perception level of any information.
Tracing the memory involves recording the aspects of this encoded memory
in the long term memory so as to make it available for a longer duration of
time in the mind. And lastly, retrieval involves the process that begins with a
retrieval prompt that is observed by the mind and ends with the validation of
the recollected event.

3.5 RECALL FROM LONG-TERM MEMORY

IS CONSTRUCTIVE

Remembering and bringing back to memory any information involves

replicating the pattern in which the information was first made available to
the mind. This we learnt in encoding specificity. Going one step further, we
state that it depends on the neural activity that occurred when the memory was
formed, creating certain cues by the mind. These cues are the ones which later
on help during retrieval. For example, we meet someone after a long time and
cannot remember the person‟s name. However, the mind recalls that this lady‟s
name starts with the letter „I‟. How this association with the letter happens,
is the constructive aspect of long term memory. The mind has created a cue
with the letter „I‟ during the time of encoding the information and relates it
to you in time.

To be accessible, a memory needs to have multiple and relevant cues. This

is important in terms of the study methods adopted by students when they
learn. When something is learnt and preserved in the mind for long term, a
set of pattern that would kindle these cues is essential for the leaner to have
an effective recall of the information.

Therefore, for a constructive recall from the long term memory two processes
are involved, recalling cues and recognition of it.

1
9
While, recall cues practically involves the effort of the mind to record all the
stimuli that can be associated with any information that the mind is set to
perceive in the long term memory, the recognition involves comparing the
current stimuli and relating it with the previous experiences.

Encoding in LTM – Schemas and scripts

Schemas: Memory arrangements that help establish material about fixed

situations.
Example: Office schema, bathroom schema, bedroom schema, etc.

Scripts: Memory arrangements that help establish information about vibrant

situations.
Example: Classroom script, Morning routine script.

3.5.1 The Constructive Nature Of Memory

Going by all the material that we have tried to imbibe here, we can say that
memory is not perfect. The mind sometimes misrepresents things based on
our expectations and external stimuli. However, it can be said that schemas
and scripts are believed to be mainly accountable for the constructive nature
of memory.

The more intensely we develop a part of information, the more intensely the
information will be encoded in memory.

People remember memories that are related to them more than memories that
do not involve them.

The more any piece of information is expounded about, the more likely it will
be remembered by the mind in a future date and set up.

Constructive memory has the following characteristics (i) the notion that
some aspects of memory misrepresentations reveal the course of a cognitive
process that contributes to the efficient functioning of memory (ii) the part of
a constructive memory system is in imagining or pretending possible future
events (iii) the differences between true and false memories that have been
exposed by functional neuroimaging techniques.

20
 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

• Study the picture here until you can reproduce them accurately from
memory.

3.6 SCHEMA THEORY

Schema typically means, plan or an outline that can be offered to any given
context. This theory that was suggested by Richard .C. Anderson, in 1977-78
outlaid that organised knowledge frames an intricate yet extravagant network
of schemata, abstract mental structures (concepts) which signifies one‟s
understanding of the world.

The term „Schema‟ was actually coined by Piaget as we saw in Chapter 1.

However, Anderson found this concept of intellectual process in particular,
to be very perceptive and he adopted Piaget‟s term integrating for schema
usage and accommodation for schema change. But he expanded on the original
meaning of schema in his theory.

2
1
 Image 3.8 Schema Theory

According to Anderson‟s Schema, a common group (schema) will comprise of

different spaces for all its components, or features, included in it. Schemata (the
plural form) are implanted one within another at different levels of intellection.
Relationships among them are considered as webs (rather than grading).Thus,
each one is interconnected with many others.

Each Schema is well organised and is meaningfully attached to the schemata.

The components of the schemata can be added to and developed as every
individual gains more and more experience. Each schema is entrenched in
other schemata and contains the subschema in itself. Schemata changes minute
by minute as information is received. They may also be reorganised when
incoming data discloses a need to be restructured.

Schallert, a student of Anderson deliberated that children:

• Show a sure development in their gaining of knowledge.

• Exhibit an understanding of the structure of stories between the ages of five
and seven years. (Complexity of elaboration increases thereafter)
• Move towards greater narrowing of concepts and expansion of concepts
originally understood too narrowly.

22
Here are a few features of the Schema theory that can be outlined:

• Knowledge is put in storage in networks called schema.

• Early knowledge is imperative to learning a new concept and must be
activated so that connections can be made.
• Knowledge must be fastened to be recalled, to a schema with many
connections thus, instructors must infer upon the use of a lot of media.
• A well-ingrained schema has a greater chance of assimilation.
• Schema increases and grows as new information is established.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Make groups of four each. Let one group narrate a story or recite a poem.
Then, question the listening groups and see the time span within which you
receive answers. Are all participants answering equally? Why do you think
this happens?

3.7 INTELLIGENCE AND RETRIEVAL

In this unit, we have established that aspects of memory are nothing but
information retrieval capacity of the mind. So if a person is more capable of
retrieval of information, is he/she more developed in intellect?

This is a question that many educators have tried and tested regarding
cognition.

Although it does seem that there is a relation between the retrieval time and
intelligence, they, however may not be related to the learning process. However,
it is important to establish that, intelligence fundamentally has a direct relation
to the learning process.

Intelligence includes two main aspects. They are:

• The capacity of an individual, to learn from his/her life experiences and

2
3
 encounters that are stored in the long term memory.
• The ability to adapt oneself to the surrounding and environment.

Interaction plays a pivotal role in the intelligence and retrieval process. It acts
as a major incorporation in the process and has some significant implications
on how we may consider using the information.

SUMMARY

• Psychologists in cognitive psychology say that learning and

memory are two closely related concepts that are
interrelated and not separate processes.
• As a practice, memory denotes the active tools related with storing, retaining,
and retrieving information about past experience. More importantly,
cognitive psychologists have recognised three general operations of memory:
• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval
• In 1968 Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed a model of human
memory which postulated two different types of memory
storage systems, short-term memory and long-term memory.
This was later followed by the addition of a third memory,
sensory memory.
• The idea behind understanding the organisation of long term
memory is directly concerned with the effectiveness of the
retrieval of information. Many cognitive psychologists believe
that there are different types of information that is stored in
the long term memory.
• Implicit memory can be further categorised as, procedural
memory and conditioning effects.
• Explicit Memory: These memories are what we have a hold on
to remember. This means that we make a conscious effort to
remember these. For example, while answering the exam
paper, we use the explicit memory to recall the information.
• Works of many cognitive psychologists prove that learners
showed a higher possibility of retention when they work
with the information given.
• The development of motor skill learning helps learners engage in
the use of
24
 their physical movements in such a way that eases working,
decreases errors and increases performance.
• It is highly possible that when students are made to attend an
exam or evaluated on subjects in the same ambience where
they have been taught the subjects, the retrieval is more
effective.
• When something is learnt and preserved in the mind for long
term, a set
of pattern that would kindle these cues is essential for the
leaner to have an effective recall of the information.

KEY TERMS

Retrieval processes Retention

Episodic Explicit
memory learning
Implicit Effective
learning memory
False memory Distortion

Neuroimaging Cognitive
tests

EXERCISE

Short Answer Questions

1. Describe what memory is. Elaborate with an example of your own.

2. Outline how learning, retention and memory are related.
3. Retrieving from long term memory is a constructive process. Summarise.

Long Answer Questions

1. Learning process and retention process go hand in hand in cognitive

sciences. Discuss in detail.
2. Recall the various stages and types of memory. Elaborate on this.
3. Write a detailed account of the Schema theory.

2
5
 References

Atkinson and Shiffrin. (1968). Retrieved from www.ucd.ie/t4cms/ucdtlt0018.

pdf

Neurocognitive Contributions to Motor Skill Learning: The ... (n.d.).

Retrieved from http://gazzaleylab.ucsf.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/
Neurocognitive-Contributi

Teaching Toolkit - University College Dublin. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://

www.ucd.ie/t4cms/ucdtlt0018.pdf

Tulving & Craik. (2000). The Oxford handbook of memory. Retrieved from
www.ucd.ie/t4cms/ucdtlt0018.pdf

Tulving, E., & Thomson, D.M., (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval
processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 352-373.

26