JSS MAHAVIDYAPEETHA

JSS ACADEMY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, BANGALORE – 560060

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

MODULE-2: FRESH CONCRETE

 Fresh Concrete
1) Workability-factors affecting workability.
2) Measurement of workability
a) Slump,
b) Compaction factor
c) Vee-Bee Consistometer tests,
d) Flow tests.
3) Segregation and bleeding.
4) Process of manufacturing of concrete- Batching, Mixing, Transporting,
Placing and Compaction.
5) Curing – Methods of curing
a) Water curing,
b) Membrane curing,
c) Steam curing,
d) Accelerated curing, self curing.
6) Good and Bad practices of making and using fresh concrete and
7) Effect of heat of hydration during mass concreting at project sites.
 Fresh Concrete
 Fresh concrete or plastic concrete is a freshly mixed material which can be
moulded into any shape.
 The relative quantities of cement, aggregates and water mixed together, controls
the properties of concrete in the fresh state as well as in the hardened state.
 Having considered the ingredients of concrete, the properties of freshly mixed
concrete can be address.
 Since the long term properties of hardened concrete: strength, volume stability,
and durability are seriously affected by its degree of compaction.
 It is vital that the consistence or workability of the fresh concrete be such that the
concrete can be properly compacted and also that it can be transported, placed and
finished sufficiently easily without segregation, which would be detrimental to
such compaction.
 Workability of Concrete
 The American Concrete Institute describes workability as “that property of
freshly mixed concrete or mortar that determines the ease with which it can be
mixed, placed, consolidated, and finished to a homogenous condition.”
 The Japanese Association of Concrete Engineers defines workability as “that
property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar that determines the ease and
homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, and compacted due to its
consistency, the homogeneity with which it can be made into concrete, and the
degree with which it can resist separation of materials”.
 Neville, succinctly defines workability as “the amount of useful internal work
necessary to produce full compaction.”
 Workability depends not just on the properties of the concrete, but also on the
nature of the application.
 Factors affecting the workability of concrete
It is apparent that workability depends on a number of interacting
factors:
(a) Water Content
(b) Mix Proportions
(c) Size of Aggregates
(d) Shape of Aggregates
(e) Surface Texture of Aggregate
(f) Grading of Aggregate
(g) Use of Admixtures.
(h) Time and Temperature
1. Water Content
 Water content in a given volume of concrete, will have significant influences on
the workability.
 The higher the water content per cubic meter of concrete, the higher will be the
fluidity of concrete, which is one of the important factors affecting workability.
2. Mix Proportions
 Aggregate/cement ratio is an important factor influencing workability.
 The higher the aggregate/cement ratio, the leaner is the concrete.
 In lean concrete, less quantity of paste is available for providing lubrication, per
unit surface area of aggregate and hence the mobility of aggregate is restrained.
 On the other hand, in case of rich concrete with lower aggregate/cement ratio,
more paste is available to make the mix cohesive and fatty to give better
workability.
3. Size of Aggregate
 The bigger the size of the aggregate, the less is the surface area and hence less
amount of water is required for wetting the surface and less matrix or paste is
required for lubricating the surface to reduce internal friction.
 For a given quantity of water and paste, bigger size of aggregates will give higher
workability. The above, of course will be true within certain limits.
4. Shape of Aggregates
 The shape of aggregates influences workability in good measure.
 Angular, elongated or flaky aggregate makes the concrete very harsh when compared to
rounded aggregates or cubical shaped aggregates.
 Contribution to better workability of rounded aggregate will come from the fact that for the
given volume or weight it will have less surface area and less voids than angular, elongated
or flaky aggregate.
 Not only that, being round in shape, the frictional resistance is also greatly reduced.
 River sand and gravel provide greater workability to concrete than crushed sand and
aggregate.
Round (spherical) Flaky Crushed
concrete aggregate. concrete aggregate concrete aggregate
5. Surface Texture
 The influence of surface texture on workability is again due to the fact that the
total surface area of rough textured aggregate is more than the surface area of
smooth rounded aggregate of same volume.
 It can be inferred that rough textured aggregate will show poor workability and
smooth or glassy textured aggregate will give better workability.
 A reduction of inter particle frictional resistance offered by smooth aggregates
also contributes to higher workability.
6. Grading of Aggregates
 This is one of the factors which will have maximum influence on workability.
 A well graded aggregate is the one which has least amount of voids in a given
volume.
 Other factors being constant, when the total voids are less, excess paste is
available to give better lubricating effect.
 With excess amount of paste, the mixture becomes cohesive and fatty which
prevents segregation of particles.

 Aggregate particles will slide past

each other with the least amount of
compacting efforts.
 The better the grading, the less is
the void content and higher the
workability.
7. Use of Admixtures
 Of all the other factors, the most import factor which affects the
workability is the use of admixtures.
 The plasticizers and superplasticizers greatly improve the workability
many folds. It is to be noted that initial slump of concrete mix or what is
called the slump of reference mix should be about 2 to 3 cm to enhance the
slump many fold at a minimum doze.
 Use of air-entraining agent being surface-active, reduces the internal
friction between the particles. They also act as artificial fine aggregates of
very smooth surface.
 It can be viewed that air bubbles act as a sort of ball bearing between the
particles to slide past each other and give easy mobility to the particles.
 Similarly, the fine glassy pozzolanic materials, inspite of increasing the
surface area, offer better lubricating effects for giving better workability.
7. Time and Temperature
 There are two other factors which affect workability: Time and Temperature.
 Freshly mixed concrete stiffens with time but this should not be confused with the
setting of cement.
 It is simply that some of the mixing water is absorbed by the aggregate, some is
lost by evaporation (Particularly if the concrete is exposed to the sun or wind), and
some is removed by initial chemical reactions.
 The stiffing of concrete is effectively measured by a loss of workability with time,
known as Slump loss, which varies with richness of the mix, type of cement,
temperature of concrete, and initial workability.
 Because of this change in apparent workability or consistence and because we are
really interested in the workability at the time of placing, i.e some time after
mixing, it is preferable to delay the appropriate test until, say 15 minutes after
mixing.
 A higher temperature reduces the workability and increases the slump loss. In
practice, when the ambient conditions are unusual, it is best to make actual site
tests in order to determine the workability of the mix.
 Measurement of workability
 Workability test methods have also been classified in terms of the type of flow
produced during the test.
 There are approximately more than 100+ test methods for measuring concrete
workability. Some of the tests, measure the parameters very close to workability
and provide useful information.
 The following tests are commonly employed to measure workability.
a) Slump Test
b) Compacting Factor Test
c) Flow Test
d) Vee Bee Consistometer Test.
 Slump Test
 The slump test is the most well-known and widely used test method to characterize
the workability of fresh concrete.
 The test was developed in the USA around 1910. it is believed that it was first used
by Chapman although in many countries the test is associated with Abrams and is
generally known as Abrams cone.
 The test measures the difference in height of a fresh concrete sample moulded
into the shape of a truncated cone before and after the mould has been removed.
 The test is widely used to assess the workability of medium range fresh concrete
mixes.
Description of Apparatus
 Specifications of slump test
Sl no Slump Description

1 True Slump  The sample of concrete settles but it retains a discernible symmetrical
shape.
 There is a measurable difference between the height of the slump mould
and the height of the slumped sample of fresh concrete.
2 No Slump There is no measurable difference between the height of the mould and the
height of the concrete sample after the removal of the mould (Zero Slump)
3 Collapsed  The slumped concrete sample spreads out on the base and ceases to
Slump retain any clear, discernible traces of its original conical shape.
 Collapsed slump is recorded, without any numerical values or
measurements
4 Shear Slump  Part of the slumped concrete sample collapses: the remaining part retains
the slumped shape. In such cases another slump test is carried out.
 If the additional test produces a true slump, the value is recorded and the
shear slump is disregarded.
 If the additional test produces another shear slump it is recorded as the
test result. It indicates a non cohesion mix which may be unsuitable for
assessment by the slump test.
 Apparent Slump / Workability
Sl No Slump (mm) Apparent slump / workability
1 0 No Slump, Zero Slump
2 0 - 10 Very Low
3 10 - 30 Low
4 30 – 60 / 80 Medium
5 60 / 80 - 120 - 150 High
6 120 / 150 - Collapsed Very High
 Compacting Factor Test
 The test was developed in Great Britain in the late 1940s.
 The compacting factor test is designed primarily for use
in the laboratory but it can also be used in the field.
 It is more precise and sensitive than the slump test and is
particularly useful for concrete mixes of medium
workability as are normally used when concrete is to be
compacted by vibration. Such dry concrete are
insensitive to slump test.
 This test works on the principle of determining the
degree of compaction caused by a standard amount of
work done by allowing the concrete to fall through a
standard height.
 The degree of compaction, called the compacting factor
is measured by the density ratio i.e., the ratio of the
density actually achieved in the test to density of same
concrete fully compacted.
 Description of Apparatus
 The basic apparatus comprises a
heavy duty stand with a base and a
column
 The column supports two funnel-
shaped hoppers made of a non
corroding metal mounted above
each other.
 Each of the hoppers is fitted with a
quick release trap door at its base.
 Inner surfaces of the hoppers are
smooth, preferably polished.
 A removable cylindrical container is
placed on the base of the stand,
directly below the two hoppers.
 Procedure to conduct the Experiment
 Place the apparatus on a strong rigid
base and make sure that it is stable,
the column is in a vertical position
and the stand is not susceptible to
vibrations or other movement.
 The sample of concrete to be tested
is placed in the upper hopper up to
the brim.
 The trap-door is opened so that the
concrete falls into the lower
hopper.
 Then the trap-door of the lower
hopper is opened and the concrete is
allowed to fall into the cylinder.
 Procedure to conduct the Experiment
 The excess concrete remaining above the top level of the cylinder is
then cut off with the help of plane blades supplied with the apparatus.
 The outside of the cylinder is wiped clean. The concrete is filled up
exactly up to the top level of the cylinder. It is weighed to the nearest 10
grams.
 This weight is known as “Weight of partially compacted concrete”. The
cylinder is emptied and then refilled with the concrete from the same sample
in layers approximately 5 cm deep.
 The layers are heavily rammed or preferably vibrated so as to obtain full
compaction. The top surface of the fully compacted concrete is then carefully
struck off level with the top of the cylinder and weighed to the nearest 10 gm.
 This weight is known as “Weight of fully compacted concrete”.

Sl No Compaction Factor Result Apparent Workability

1 < 0.75 Very Low
2 0.75-0.85 Low
3 0.85-0.92 Medium
4 0.92-0.95 High
5 >0.95 Very high
 Flow Table Test
 The test was originally developed in Germany by Graf in the 1930s
 The test measures the spread of a sample of fresh concrete after it has been
moulded into the shape of a truncated cone and allowed to slump
following the removal of the mould. The slumped concrete is then
subjected to a controlled amount of jolting.
 The test can also be used for fresh mixes of high and very high
workability, where collapsed slumps are recorded.
Description of Apparatus
 Procedure to conduct the Experiment
 Wet and clean the table top and inside of the mould of all the grilling
material and remove all excess moisture with a wet cloth before
commencing the test.
 Center the mould on the table platform and hold firmly in place.
 Fill the mould in two equal layers, each layer being given 25 strokes
shall be distributed in a uniform manner over the cross section of the
mould and for the second layer shall penetrate into the underlying
layer.
 Procedure to conduct the Experiment
 The bottom layer should tamp throughout its depth.
 After the top layer has been rodded struck off level the surface with a trowel so
that the mould is exactly filled.
 Remove the excess concrete which has overflowed the mould and clean the
area of the table outside the mould.
 Remove the mould immediately by lifting it vertically by a steady upward pull.
 Turn the handle 15 times at a rate of 1 revolution per second, such that the
concrete is given a jolt by raising and then dropping it by 12.5 mm.
 Measure the diameter of the spread concrete at six equally spaced
positions along the circumference with measuring scale and record the
average.
 Obtain the flow or consistency of concrete by expressing the increase in
diameter of concrete specimen as the percentage of the original diameter
of 250 mm.
 VEE BEE Consistometer Test
 The test was developed by Victor Bahrner of sweden in 1940s. It is
generally known by his initials the V-B or VeBe test method.
 The test is based on the principle of measuring the time required to
remould a sample of fresh concrete, cast in the shape of a slump test
mould, into a cylindrical container of a larger diameter.
 The test is applicable to low workability, stiff, dry mixes, which show
very low slump (less than 20 mm) or zero slump
Description of Apparatus
 Procedure to conduct the Experiment
 Place the sheet metal slump cone in the cylindrical container of the
Consistometer. Fill the cone in four layers, each approximately one quarter of
the height of the cone.
 Tamp each layer with twenty five strokes of the rounded end of the tamping
rod. The strokes are distributed in a uniform manner over the cross section of
the cone and for the second and subsequent layers the tamping bar should
penetrate into the underlying layer.
 After the top layer has been rodded, struck off level the concrete with a trowel
so that the cone is exactly filled.
 Procedure to conduct the Experiment
 Move the glass disc attached to the swivel arm and place it just on the top of
the slump cone in the cylindrical container. Adjust the glass disc so as to
touch the top of the concrete cone, and note the initial reading on the
graduated rod.
 Remove the cone from the concrete immediately by raising it slowly and
carefully in the vertical direction. Lower the transparent disc on the top of
concrete. Note down the reading on the graduated rod.
 Determine the slump by taking the difference between the readings on the
graduated rod recorded in the steps (2) and (3) above.
 Switch on the electrical vibrations and start the stop watch. Allow the
concrete to remould by spreading out in the cylindrical container. The
vibrations are continued until the concrete is completely remoulded, i.e.,
the surface becomes horizontal and the whole concrete surface adheres
uniformly to the transparent disc.
 Record the time required for concrete for complete remoulding in seconds
which measures the workability expressed as number of Vee-Bee seconds.
Sl No Workability Vee Bee Seconds
1 Very Low Workability > 20 Seconds
2 Low Workability 6-12 Seconds

3 Medium Workability 3-6 Seconds

4 High Workability 0-3 Seconds
 Table: Test Methods Appropriate to Mixes of Different Workability

Sl NO Workability Test Methods

1 Very Low VeBe Time
2 Low VeBe Time, Compaction factor
3 Medium Compaction factor, Slump
4 High Compaction factor, Slump, Flow table
5 Very High Flow table
 Segregation
 Segregation can be defined as separation of the constituents of a
heterogeneous mixture so that their distribution is no longer uniform.
 In the case of concrete, it is the differences in the size of particles and in
the specific gravity of the mix constituents that are the primary causes of
segregation, but its extent can be controlled by the choice of suitable
grading and by care in handling.
 There are two forms of segregation. In the first, the coarser particles tend
to separate out because they tend to travel further along a slope or to settle
more than finer particles.
 The second form of segregation, occurring particularly in wet mixes, is
manifested by the separation of grout (cement plus water) from the mix.
 With some gradings, when a lean mix is used, the first type of segregation
may occur if the mix is too dry; addition of water would improve the
cohesion of the mix, but when the mix becomes too wet the second type of
segregation would take place.
 Segregation depends on the method of handling and placing of concrete.
 If the concrete does not have far to travel and is transferred directly from the
skip or bucket to the final position in the form, the danger of segregation is
small.
 On the other hand, dropping concrete from a considerable height, passing
along a chute, particularly with changes of direction, and discharging
against an obstacle – all these encourage segregation so that under such
circumstances a particularly cohesive mix should be used.
 With a correct method of handling, transporting and placing, the likelihood
of segregation can be greatly reduced:
 Bleeding
 Bleeding, known also as water gain, is a form of segregation in which some of
the water in the mix tends to rise to the surface of freshly placed concrete.
 This is caused by the inability of the solid constituents of the mix to hold all of the
mixing water when they settle downwards, water having the lowest specific
gravity of all the mix constituents, will rise to the surface.
 The initial bleeding proceeds at a constant rate, but subsequently the rate of
bleeding decreases steadily.
 Bleeding of concrete continues until the cement paste has stiffened sufficiently to
put an end to the process of sedimentation.
 If the bleeding water is remixed during finishing of the top surface, a weak
wearing surface, consisting of laitance (an accumulation of fine particles on the
surface of fresh concrete due to an upward movement of water), will be formed.
 This can be avoided by delaying the finishing operations until the bleed water has
evaporated, and also by the use of wood floats and avoidance of overworking the
surface.
 On the other hand, if evaporation of water from the surface of the concrete
is faster than the bleeding rate, plastic shrinkage cracking may result.
 Some of the rising water becomes trapped on the underside of coarse
aggregate particles or of reinforcement, thus creating zones of poor bond.
This water leaves behind air pockets or lenses, and because all the voids
are oriented in the same direction, the permeability of the concrete in a
horizontal plane may be increased.
 The tendency to bleeding depends largely on the properties of cement.
Bleeding is decreased by increasing the fineness of cement, possibly
because finer particles hydrate earlier and also because their rate of
sedimentation (Process of Settling) is lower.
 Process of Manufacturing of Concrete
 Production of quality concrete requires meticulous care exercised at every
stage of manufacture of concrete.
 It is interesting to note that the ingredients of good concrete and bad
concrete are the same.
 If meticulous care is not exercised, and good rules are not observed, the
resultant concrete is going to be of bad quality.
 With the same material if intense care is taken to exercise control at every
stage, it will result in good concrete.
 Therefore, it is necessary for us to know what are the good rules to be
followed in each stage of manufacture of concrete for producing good
quality concrete.
 The various stages of Manufacture of Concrete
The various stages of manufacture of concrete are:
1. Batching
2. Mixing
3. Transporting
4. Placing
5. Compacting
6. Curing
7. Finishing.
 1) Batching
The measurement of materials for making concrete is known as Batching.

(or) Batching of concrete means measuring different ingredients of

concrete (i.e. cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water) before mixing it.
There are two methods of batching:
1) Volume Batching
2) Weigh Batching
 a) Volume Batching
 When the measurement of concrete ingredients is done on the basis of
volume, it is known as Volume Batching.
 Volume batching is not a good method for proportioning the material
because of the difficulty it offers to measure granular material in terms
of volume.
 Volume of moist sand in a loose condition weighs much less than the
same volume of dry compacted sand.
 The amount of solid granular material in a cubic metre is an indefinite
quantity. Because of this, for quality concrete material have to be
measured by weight only.
 However, for unimportant concrete or for any small job, concrete may
be batched by volume.
 b) Weigh Batching
 When the measurement of concrete ingredients is done on the basis of
Weigh of the ingredients, it is known as Weigh Batching.
 Strictly speaking, weigh batching is the correct method of measuring the
materials. For important concrete, invariably, weigh batching system
should be adopted.
 Use of weight system in batching, facilitates accuracy, flexibility and
simplicity. Different types of weigh batchers are available, The particular
type to be used, depends upon the nature of the job.
 Large weigh batching plants have automatic weighing equipment. The use
of this automatic equipment for batching is one of sophistication and
requires qualified and experienced engineers.
 On large work sites, the weigh bucket type of weighing equipments are
used. This fed from a large overhead storage hopper and it discharges by
gravity, straight into the mixer.
 2. Mixing
Thorough mixing of the materials is essential for the production of uniform
concrete. The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous,
uniform in colour and consistency.
There are two methods adopted for mixing concrete:
1. Hand Mixing
2. Machine Mixing
a) Hand Mixing
 Hand mixing is practised for small scale unimportant concrete works. As the
mixing cannot be thorough and efficient, it is desirable to add 10 per cent more
cement to cater for the inferior concrete produced by this method.
 Spread out the measured quantity of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate in
alternate layers. Pour the cement on the top of it, and mix them dry by shovel,
turning the mixture over and over again until uniformity of colour is achieved.
a) Hand Mixing
 This uniform mixture is spread out in thickness of about 20 cm. Water is taken in a
water-can fitted with a rose-head and sprinkled over the mixture and
simultaneously turned over.
 This operation is continued till such time a good uniform, homogeneous concrete
is obtained. It is of particular importance to see that the water is not poured but it is
only sprinkled.
a) Hand Mixing
 Water in small quantity should be added towards the end of the mixing to get the
just required consistency. At that stage, even a small quantity of water makes
difference.
b) Machine Mixing
 Mixing of concrete is almost invariably carried out by machine,
for reinforced concrete work and for medium or large scale mass
concrete work.

 Machine mixing is not only efficient, but also economical, when

the quantity of concrete to be produced is large.

 Many types of mixers are available for mixing concrete. They can
be classified as batch-mixers and continuous mixers.

 Batch mixers produce concrete, batch by batch with time

interval, whereas continuous mixers produce concrete
continuously without stoppage till such time the plant is working.
b) Machine Mixing
 In continuous mixers, materials are fed continuously by screw
feeders and the materials are continuously mixed and
continuously discharged.

 continuous mixers are used in large works such as dams. In

normal concrete work, it is the batch mixers that are used. Batch
mixer may be of pan type or drum type.

 The drum type may be further classified as tilting, non-tilting,

reversing or forced action type.
 Non Tilting Drum

Tilting Drum

Pan Mixer
 3. Transporting
 Concrete can be transported by a variety of methods and equipments.
 The precaution to be taken while transporting concrete is that the
homogeneity obtained at the time of mixing should be maintained while
being transported to the final place of deposition.
The methods adopted for transportation of concrete are:
a) Mortar Pan
b) Wheel Barrow, Hand Cart
c) Crane, Bucket and Rope way
d) Truck Mixer and Dumpers
e) Belt Conveyors
f) Chute
g) Skip and Hoist
h) Transit Mixer
i) Pump and Pipe Line
a) Mortar Pan
Use of mortar pan for transportation of concrete is one of the common
methods adopted in this country. It is labour intensive. In this case, concrete is
carried in small Quantities.
b) Wheel Barrow, Hand Cart
 Wheel barrows is employed for hauling concrete for comparatively longer
distance as in the case of concrete road construction.
 If concrete is conveyed by wheel barrow over a long distance, on rough
ground, it is likely that the concrete gets segregated due to vibration.
 The coarse aggregates settle down to the bottom and matrix moves to the
top surface. To avoid this situation, sometimes, wheel barrows are
provided with pneumatic wheel to reduce vibration.
 A wooden plank road is also provided to reduce vibration and hence
segregation.
c) Crane, Bucket and Rope Way
 Crane and bucket is one of the right equipment for transporting concrete
above ground level.
 Crane can handle concrete in high rise construction projects and are
becoming a familiar sites in big cities.
 Cranes are fast and versatile to move concrete horizontally as well as
vertically along the boom and allows the placement of concrete at the exact
point.
c) Crane, Bucket and Rope Way
 Rope way and bucket of various sizes are used for transporting concrete to
a place, where simple method of transporting concrete is found not
feasible.
 For the concrete works in a valley or the construction work of a pier in the
river or for dam construction, this method of transporting by rope way and
bucket is adopted.
d) Truck Mixer and Dumpers
 For large concrete works particularly for concrete to be placed at ground
level, trucks and dumpers or ordinary open steel-body tipping lorries can
be used.
 As they can travel to any part of the work, they have much advantage over
the jubilee wagons, which require rail tracks.
 Dumpers are of usually 2 to 3 cubic metre capacity, whereas the capacity
of truck may be 4 cubic metre or more.
 Before loading with the concrete, the inside of the body should be just
wetted with water.
 Tarpaulins or other covers may be provided to cover the wet concrete
during transit to prevent evaporation.
e) Belt Conveyors
 Belt conveyors have very limited applications in concrete construction.
 The principal objection is the tendency of the concrete to segregate on steep
inclines, at transfer points or change of direction, and at the points where the belt
passes over the rollers.
 Another disadvantage is that the concrete is exposed over long stretches which
causes drying and stiffening particularly, in hot, dry and windy weather.
Segregation also takes place due to the vibration of rubber belt.
 It is necessary that the concrete should be remixed at the end of delivery before
placing on the final position.
f) Chute
 Chutes are generally provided for transporting concrete from ground level
to a lower level.
 The lay-out is made in such a way that the concrete will slide evenly in a
compact mass without any separation or segregation.
 The required consistency of the concrete should not be changed in order
to facilitate chuting.
 This is not a good method of transporting concrete. However, it is adopted,
when movement of labour cannot be allowed due to lack of space or for
fear of disturbance to reinforcement or other arrangements already
incorporated. (Electrical conduits or switch boards etc.,).
g) Skip and Hoist
 This is one of the widely adopted methods for transporting concrete vertically up
for multistorey building construction.
 Employing mortar pan with the staging and human ladder for transporting
concrete is not normally possible for more than 3 or 4 storeyed building
constructions.
 For laying concrete in taller structures, chain hoist or platform hoist or skip hoist
is adopted
h) Transit Mixer
 Transit mixer is one of the most popular equipments for transporting concrete over a long
distance particularly in Ready Mix Concrete plant (RMC)
 Transit mixer is a equipment that is used for transporting concrete/ mortar or ready mix
material from a concrete batching plant directly to the site where it is to be utilized.
 Transit mixer is loaded with dry material and water. The interior of the transit drum is
fitted with a spiral blade. Spiral blade is able to move in two directions.
 During clockwise movement drum is charged with concrete and in counter clockwise
direction concrete discharge out from the transit drum.
 Concrete mixing drum ensures the liquid state of materials through rotation of the drum
about its own axis.
i) Pump and Pipe Line
 Pumping of concrete is universally accepted as one of the main methods of concrete
transportation and placing.
 Adoption of pumping is increasing throughout the world as pumps become more
reliable and also the concrete mixes that enable the concrete to be pumped are also
better understood.
 The modern concrete pump is a sophisticated, reliable and robust machine. In the
past a simple two-stroke mechanical pump consisted of a receiving hopper, an inlet
and an outlet valve, a piston and a cylinder. The pump was powered by a diesel
engine.
 It is not enough to have an efficient pump. It is equally important to have correct
diameter of pipeline with adequate wall thickness for a given operating pressure and
well designed coupling system for trouble free operation.
 A poor pipeline can easily cause blockages arising from leakage of grout. Pushing of
abrasive material at high pressure, through pipeline inevitably creates a great deal of
wear. Continuous handling, frequent securing and releasing of couplings creates wear at
joints. All these must be maintained well for trouble free function and safety.
 4. Placing Concrete
 It is not enough that a concrete mix correctly designed, batched, mixed
and transported, it is of utmost importance that the concrete must be
placed in systematic manner to yield optimum results.
 5. Compaction of Concrete
 Compaction of concrete is the process adopted for expelling the
entrapped air from the concrete.
 In the process of mixing, transporting and placing of concrete air is
likely to get entrapped in the concrete.
 The lower the workability, higher is the amount of air entrapped.
 In other words, stiff concrete mix has high percentage of entrapped
air and, therefore , would need higher compacting efforts than high
workable mixes.
 If this air is not removed fully, the concrete loses strength
considerably.
The following methods are adopted for compacting the concrete:
(a) Hand Compaction
i. Roding
ii. Ramming
iii. Tamping
b) Compaction by Vibration
i. Internal vibrator (Needle vibrator)
ii. Formwork vibrator (External vibrator)
iii. Table vibrator
iv. Platform vibrator
v. Surface vibrator (Screed vibrator)
vi. Vibratory Roller.
c) Compaction by Pressure and Jolting
d) Compaction by Spinning.
The following methods are adopted for compacting the concrete:
(a) Hand Compaction
i. Roding
ii. Ramming
iii. Tamping
b) Compaction by Vibration
i. Internal vibrator (Needle vibrator)
ii. Formwork vibrator (External vibrator)
iii. Table vibrator
iv. Platform vibrator
v. Surface vibrator (Screed vibrator)
vi. Vibratory Roller.
c) Compaction by Pressure and Jolting
d) Compaction by Spinning.
 6. Curing of Concrete
Curing of concrete is defined as the process of maintaining the moisture and
temperature conditions of concrete for hydration reaction to normally so that
concrete develops hardened properties over time.
The main components which needs to be taken care are moisture, heat and
time during curing process.
What is the right time for curing of concrete
 The time to start curing of concrete depends on the evaporation rate of
moisture from the concrete.
 The evaporation rate is influenced by wind, radiant energy from sunshine,
concrete temperature, climatic conditions, relative humidity.
 The evaporation of moisture is driven by the difference in vapour pressure
on concrete surface and the in surrounding air.
 Why curing of concrete is required
Curing of concrete is required for the following reasons:
 To prevent the concrete to dry out prematurely due to solar
radiation and wind. This prevents plastic shrinkage of concrete.
 It helps to maintain the concrete temperature by allowing the
hydration process. Hydration process requires water to carry on and
releases heat.
 Curing helps the concrete to harden and bond with internal
materials and reinforcement. This helps to prevent damage to bond
between concrete and reinforcement due to vibration and impact.
 This helps development of impermeable, crack free and durable
concrete.
 Curing Methods
Curing methods may be divided broadly into four categories:
1. Water curing
a) Immersion
b) Ponding
c) Spraying or Fogging
d) Wet covering
2. Membrane curing
3. Application of heat
4. Miscellaneous
 a) Immersion Curing:
 The Laboratory specimens or precast concrete elements are normally
immersed in water/ curing tanks for a certain duration.

 This method is advocated for concrete members of limited size.

Immersion Curing
 b) Ponding Curing
 Flat surfaces like slabs or Pavements are cured by ponding.
 The dyke wall of small height is constructed along the perimeter and inside the
concrete surface is divided into a number of cells.
 The water is flooded inside the cells. The water layer on concrete is effective in
preventing the loss of moisture and controlling thermal stresses which causes
cracking.
 Ponding requires considerable labour and supervision and hence is recommended
for small works.
Ponding Curing
 c) Spraying or Fogging
 Fogging and spraying water is suggested when ambient temperature is above
freezing and humidity is low. The water is sprayed through nozzles in the
form of fine mist or fog to maintain humidity on the concrete surface.
 Fogging is effective in controlling the plastic shrinkage.
 Vertical retaining wall or plastered surfaces or concrete columns etc., are
cured by spraying water.
Spraying or Fogging Curing
 d) Wet covering:
 Wet coverings such as wet gunny bags, hessian cloth, jute matting, straw
etc., are wrapped to vertical surface for keeping the concrete wet.

 For Horizontal surfaces, saw dust, earth or sand are used as wet covering
to keep the concrete in wet condition for a longer time so that the concrete
is not unduly dried to prevent hydration. In some cases,
Wet covering Curing
 2. Membrane Curing
 Sometimes, concrete works are carried out in places where there is acute
shortage of water. The lavish application of water for water curing is not
possible for reasons of economy.
 It has been pointed out earlier that curing does not mean only application
of water, it means also creation of conditions for promotion of
uninterrupted and progressive hydration.
 It is also pointed out that the quantity of water, normally mixed for making
concrete is more than sufficient to hydrate the cement, provided this water
is not allowed to go out from the body of concrete.
 For this reason, concrete could be covered with Plastic sheet (or) water
proof building paper (or) membrane which will effectively seal off the
evaporation of water from concrete.
 It is found that the application of membrane or a sealing compound, after
a short spell of water curing for one or two days is sometimes beneficial.
 Sometimes, concrete is placed in some inaccessible, difficult or far off
places. The curing of such concrete cannot be properly supervised. The
curing is entirely left to the workmen, who do not quite understand the
importance of regular uninterrupted curing.
 In such cases, it is much safer to adopt membrane curing rather than to
leave the responsibility of curing to workers.
 Large number of sealing compounds have been developed in recent years.
The idea is to obtain a continuous seal over the concrete surface by means
of a firm impervious film to prevent moisture in concrete from escaping by
evaporation.
 3. Application of heat
 The development of strength of concrete is a function of not only time but
also that of temperature.
 When concrete is subjected to higher temperature it accelerates the hydration
process resulting in faster development of strength.
 Concrete cannot be subjected to dry heat to accelerate the hydration process
as the presence of moisture is also an essential requisite.
 Therefore, subjecting the concrete to higher temperature and maintaining the
required wetness can be achieved by subjecting the concrete to steam curing.
The exposure of concrete to higher temperature is done in the following manner:
a) Steam curing at ordinary pressure.
b) Steam curing at high pressure.
c) Curing by Infra-red radiation.
d) Electrical curing.
 4. Membrane Forming Compounds
 Wax, bitumen emulsion, resins or chlorinated rubber is sprayed on the
concrete surface to minimize the loss of water from the concrete during
curing.
 The membrane acts as physical barrier to the evaporation of moisture.
 The membrane should be harmless and free from pinholes.
 The application of curing compounds over intermediate layers is not
recommended because it may affect the adhesion with the upper layer.
 5. Miscellaneous
 Calcium chloride is used either as a surface coating or as an admixture. It
has been used satisfactorily as a curing medium.
 Both these methods are based on the fact that calcium chloride being a
salt, shows affinity for moisture. The salt, not only absorbs moisture from
atmosphere but also retains it at the surface. This moisture held at the
surface prevents the mixing water from evaporation and thereby keeps the
concrete wet for a long time to promote hydration.
 Formwork prevents escaping of moisture from the concrete, particularly,
in the case of beams and columns.
 Keeping the formwork intact and sealing the joint with wax or any other
sealing compound prevents the evaporation of moisture from the
concrete.
 This procedure of promoting hydration, can be considered as one of the
miscellaneous methods of curing.
 7. Finishing of Concrete
 Finishing operation is the last operation in making concrete. Finishing in
real sense does not apply to all concrete operations.
 For a beam concreting, finishing may not be applicable, whereas for the
concrete road pavement, airfield pavement or for the flooring of a
domestic building, careful finishing is of great importance.
 Concrete is often dubbed as a drab material, incapable of offering
pleasant architectural appearance and finish.
 This shortcoming of concrete is being rectified and concretes these days
are made to exhibit pleasant surface finishes.
 Particularly, many types of prefabricated concrete panels used as floor slab
or wall unit are made in such a way as to give very attractive architectural
affect. Even concrete claddings are made to give attractive look.
 Effect of Heat of Hydration
 The compounds of Portland cement are nonequilibrium products of high
temperature reactions and are therefore in a high energy state.

 When a cement is hydrated, the compounds react with water to acquire

stable, low energy states and the process is accompanied by the release of
energy in the form of heat. In other words, the hydration reactions of
portland cement compounds are exothermic.

 The significance of heat of cement hydration in concrete technology is

mainfold.

 The heat of hydration can sometimes be a hindrance (e.g., mass concrete

structures), and at other times a help (e.g., winter concreting when ambient
temperatures may be too low to provide the activation energy for hydration
reactions).
 Effect of Heat of Hydration
 The total amount of heat liberated and the rates of heat
liberation from hydration of the individual compounds can be
used as indices of their reactivity.

 The data from heat of hydration studies can be used for

characterizing the setting and hardening behaviour of cements,
and for predicting the temperature rise.

 By using a conduction calorimeter, Mr Lerch recorded the rate of

heat evolution from cement pastes during the setting and early
hardening period. Atypical plot of the data is shown in Figure .
 In general, on mixing cement with water, a rapid heat evolution (ascending
portion of peak A) lasting a few minutes occurs. This probably represents
the heat of solution of aluminates and sulfates. This initial heat evolution
ceases quickly (descending portion of peak A) when the solubility of
aluminates is depressed in the presence of sulfate in the solution.

 The next heat evolution cycle, culminating in the second peak after about 4
to 8 h of hydration for most Portland cements, represents the heat of
formation of ettringite (ascending portion of peak B).

Figure: Heat liberation rate of a Portland cement paste during the setting and early hardening
period.
 Researchers believe that the heat evolution period includes some heat of
solution due to C3S and heat of formation of C-S-H.

 The paste of a properly retarded cement will retain much of its plasticity
before the commencement of this heat cycle and will stiffen and show the
initial set (beginning of solidification) before reaching the apex at B,
which corresponds to the final set (complete solidification and beginning
of hardening).

Figure: Heat liberation rate of a Portland cement paste during the setting and early hardening period.
 From analysis of the heat of hydration data on a large number of cements,
Verbeck and Foster computed the relative rates of heat evolution due to the four
principal compounds of portland cement (Table ).
TABLE: Heat of Hydration of Portland Cement Compounds

 The values of the coefficients will be different for the various ages of hydration.
 For a typical portland cement, it appears that approximately 50 percent of the
potential heat is liberated within the first 3 days, and 70 percent within the first 7
days of hydration.
% of HOH generated from cement main ingredients
THANK YOU