Functional Dependency

The functional dependency is a relationship that exists between two attributes. It typically exists
between the primary key and non-key attribute within a table.

1. X → Y

The left side of FD is known as a determinant, the right side of the production is known as a dependent.

For example:

Assume we have an employee table with attributes: Emp_Id, Emp_Name, Emp_Address.

Here Emp_Id attribute can uniquely identify the Emp_Name attribute of employee table because if we
know the Emp_Id, we can tell that employee name associated with it.

Functional dependency can be written as:

1. Emp_Id → Emp_Name

We can say that Emp_Name is functionally dependent on Emp_Id.

Types of Functional dependency

1. Trivial functional dependency

o A → B has trivial functional dependency if B is a subset of A.

o The following dependencies are also trivial like: A → A, B → B

Example:

1. Consider a table with two columns Employee_Id and Employee_Name.

2. {Employee_id, Employee_Name} → Employee_Id is a trivial functional dependency as

 3. Employee_Id is a subset of {Employee_Id, Employee_Name}.

4. Also, Employee_Id → Employee_Id and Employee_Name → Employee_Name are trivial depe

ndencies too.

2. Non-trivial functional dependency

o A → B has a non-trivial functional dependency if B is not a subset of A.

o When A intersection B is NULL, then A → B is called as complete non-trivial.

Example:

1. ID → Name,

2. Name → DOB

Inference Rule (IR):

o The Armstrong's axioms are the basic inference rule.

o Armstrong's axioms are used to conclude functional dependencies on a relational database.

o The inference rule is a type of assertion. It can apply to a set of FD(functional dependency) to
derive other FD.

o Using the inference rule, we can derive additional functional dependency from the initial set.

The Functional dependency has 6 types of inference rule:

1. Reflexive Rule (IR1)

In the reflexive rule, if Y is a subset of X, then X determines Y.

1. If X ⊇ Y then X → Y

Example:

1. X = {a, b, c, d, e}

2. Y = {a, b, c}

2. Augmentation Rule (IR2)

The augmentation is also called as a partial dependency. In augmentation, if X determines Y, then XZ

determines YZ for any Z.

1. If X → Y then XZ → YZ

Example:

1. For R(ABCD), if A → B then AC → BC

3. Transitive Rule (IR3)

In the transitive rule, if X determines Y and Y determine Z, then X must also determine Z.
 1. If X → Y and Y → Z then X → Z

4. Union Rule (IR4)

Union rule says, if X determines Y and X determines Z, then X must also determine Y and Z.

1. If X → Y and X → Z then X → YZ

Proof:

1. X → Y (given)
2. X → Z (given)
3. X → XY (using IR2 on 1 by augmentation with X. Where XX = X)
4. XY → YZ (using IR2 on 2 by augmentation with Y)
5. X → YZ (using IR3 on 3 and 4)

5. Decomposition Rule (IR5)

Decomposition rule is also known as project rule. It is the reverse of union rule.

This Rule says, if X determines Y and Z, then X determines Y and X determines Z separately.

1. If X → YZ then X → Y and X → Z

Proof:

1. X → YZ (given)
2. YZ → Y (using IR1 Rule)
3. X → Y (using IR3 on 1 and 2)

6. Pseudo transitive Rule (IR6)

In Pseudo transitive Rule, if X determines Y and YZ determines W, then XZ determines W.

1. If X → Y and YZ → W then XZ → W

Proof:

1. X → Y (given)
2. WY → Z (given)
3. WX → WY (using IR2 on 1 by augmenting with W)
4. WX → Z (using IR3 on 3 and 2)
Normalization
A large database defined as a single relation may result in data duplication. This repetition of data may
result in:

o Making relations very large.

o It isn't easy to maintain and update data as it would involve searching many records in relation.

o Wastage and poor utilization of disk space and resources.

o The likelihood of errors and inconsistencies increases.

So to handle these problems, we should analyse and decompose the relations with redundant data into
smaller, simpler, and well-structured relations that are satisfy desirable properties. Normalization is a
process of decomposing the relations into relations with fewer attributes.

What is Normalization?

o Normalization is the process of organizing the data in the database.

o Normalization is used to minimize the redundancy from a relation or set of relations. It is also
used to eliminate undesirable characteristics like Insertion, Update, and Deletion Anomalies.

o Normalization divides the larger table into smaller and links them using relationships.

o The normal form is used to reduce redundancy from the database table.

Why do we need Normalization?

The main reason for normalizing the relations is removing these anomalies. Failure to eliminate
anomalies leads to data redundancy and can cause data integrity and other problems as the database
grows. Normalization consists of a series of guidelines that helps to guide you in creating a good
database structure.

Data modification anomalies can be categorized into three types:

o Insertion Anomaly: Insertion Anomaly refers to when one cannot insert a new tuple into a
relationship due to lack of data.

o Deletion Anomaly: The delete anomaly refers to the situation where the deletion of data results
in the unintended loss of some other important data.

o Updatation Anomaly: The update anomaly is when an update of a single data value requires
multiple rows of data to be updated.
Types of Normal Forms:
Normalization works through a series of stages called Normal forms. The normal forms apply to
individual relations. The relation is said to be in particular normal form if it satisfies constraints.

Following are the various types of Normal forms:

Normal Description
Form

1NF A relation is in 1NF if it contains an atomic value.

2NF A relation will be in 2NF if it is in 1NF and all non-key attributes are fully functional
dependent on the primary key.

3NF A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and no transition dependency exists.

BCNF A stronger definition of 3NF is known as Boyce Codd's normal form.

4NF A relation will be in 4NF if it is in Boyce Codd's normal form and has no multi-valued
dependency.

5NF A relation is in 5NF. If it is in 4NF and does not contain any join dependency, joining should
be lossless.
Advantages of Normalization

o Normalization helps to minimize data redundancy.

o Greater overall database organization.

o Data consistency within the database.

o Much more flexible database design.

o Enforces the concept of relational integrity.

Disadvantages of Normalization

o You cannot start building the database before knowing what the user needs.

o The performance degrades when normalizing the relations to higher normal forms, i.e., 4NF,
5NF.

o It is very time-consuming and difficult to normalize relations of a higher degree.

o Careless decomposition may lead to a bad database design, leading to serious problems

First Normal Form (1NF)

o A relation will be 1NF if it contains an atomic value.

o It states that an attribute of a table cannot hold multiple values. It must hold only single-valued
attribute.

o First normal form disallows the multi-valued attribute, composite attribute, and their
combinations.

Example: Relation EMPLOYEE is not in 1NF because of multi-valued attribute EMP_PHONE.

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_PHONE EMP_STATE

14 John 7272826385, UP
9064738238

20 Harry 8574783832 Bihar

12 Sam 7390372389, Punjab

8589830302
The decomposition of the EMPLOYEE table into 1NF has been shown below:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_PHONE EMP_STATE

14 John 7272826385 UP

14 John 9064738238 UP

20 Harry 8574783832 Bihar

12 Sam 7390372389 Punjab

12 Sam 8589830302 Punjab

Second Normal Form (2NF)

o In the 2NF, relational must be in 1NF.

o In the second normal form, all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on the primary
key

Example: Let's assume, a school can store the data of teachers and the subjects they teach. In a
school, a teacher can teach more than one subject.

TEACHER table

TEACHER_ID SUBJECT TEACHER_AGE

25 Chemistry 30

25 Biology 30

47 English 35

83 Math 38

83 Computer 38
In the given table, non-prime attribute TEACHER_AGE is dependent on TEACHER_ID which is a
proper subset of a candidate key. That's why it violates the rule for 2NF.

To convert the given table into 2NF, we decompose it into two tables:

o In the 2NF, relational must be in 1NF.

o In the second normal form, all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on the primary
key

Example: Let's assume, a school can store the data of teachers and the subjects they teach. In a
school, a teacher can teach more than one subject.

TEACHER table

TEACHER_ID->age SUBJECT TEACHER_AGE

25 Chemistry 30

25 Biology 30

47 English 35

83 Math 38

83 Computer 38

In the given table, non-prime attribute TEACHER_AGE is dependent on TEACHER_ID which is a

proper subset of a candidate key. That's why it violates the rule for 2NF.

To convert the given table into 2NF, we decompose it into two tables:

TEACHER_DETAIL table:

TEACHER_ID TEACHER_AGE

25 30

47 35

83 38
TEACHER_SUBJECT table:

TEACHER_ID SUBJECT

25 Chemistry

25 Biology

47 English

83 Math

83 Computer

Third Normal Form (3NF)

o A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and not contain any transitive partial dependency.

o 3NF is used to reduce the data duplication. It is also used to achieve the data integrity.

o If there is no transitive dependency for non-prime attributes, then the relation must be in third
normal form.

A relation is in third normal form if it holds atleast one of the following conditions for every non-
trivial function dependency X → Y.

1. X is a super key.

2. Y is a prime attribute, i.e., each element of Y is part of some candidate key.

Example:

EMPLOYEE_DETAIL table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_ZIP EMP_STATE EMP_CITY

222 Harry 201010 UP Noida

333 Stephan 02228 US Boston

444 Lan 60007 US Chicago

 555 Katharine 06389 UK Norwich

666 John 462007 MP Bhopal

Super key in the table above:

1. {EMP_ID}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, EMP_ZIP}....so on

Candidate key: {EMP_ID}

Non-prime attributes: In the given table, all attributes except EMP_ID are non-prime.

Here, EMP_STATE & EMP_CITY dependent on EMP_ZIP and EMP_ZIP dependent on EMP_ID. The
non-prime attributes (EMP_STATE, EMP_CITY) transitively dependent on super key(EMP_ID). It
violates the rule of third normal form.

That's why we need to move the EMP_CITY and EMP_STATE to the new <EMPLOYEE_ZIP> table, with
EMP_ZIP as a Primary key.

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_ZIP

222 Harry 201010

333 Stephan 02228

444 Lan 60007

555 Katharine 06389

666 John 462007

EMPLOYEE_ZIP table:

EMP_ZIP EMP_STATE EMP_CITY

201010 UP Noida
02228 US Boston

60007 US Chicago

06389 UK Norwich

462007 MP Bhopal