What do I

know about
this story?

Am I
understanding the
message the
author has
written?

https://www.freepik.com/premium-photo/young-handsome-asian-man-reading-book-thinking-gesture-work-desk-free-time-from-working-home-knowledge-learning-concept_8398409.htm
 PrEd 128n

COGNITIVE
PROCESSES
Learning Outcomes
• Explain the concept of metacognition and
identify some ways to improve children’s
metacognition
• Define concepts and describe strategies
for helping students learn concepts
• Describe problem-solving and identify
ways / strategies to teach problem-solving
• Differentiate the types of transfer of
learning
METACOGNITION
 Metacognition
Metacognition – coined by John Flavell, it refers to higher
order thinking which involves active awareness and control
over the cognitive processes engaged in learning
• “thinking about thinking” or “learning how to learn”

Metacognition
Metacognitive Metacognitive
Knowledge Regulation
Components of Metacognitive Knowledge

1. Declarative knowledge – the learner’s knowledge

about things, as well as understanding of his/her own
abilities and factors affecting his/her performance
Examples: Knowing that Tokyo is the capital of Japan,
knowing that you have limited information on grammar
2. Procedural / task knowledge – the knowledge of how
to do things (how to execute competencies/skills)
Example: A learner is given a problem-solving task and
knows the steps of how to solve the problem.
Components of Metacognitive Knowledge

3. Conditional / strategy knowledge – the ability to know

why and when to apply certain strategies or procedures
Example: Readers skimming a newspaper article to get the
gist or overview of the news.
Metacognitive experiences – experiences that an
individual has through which knowledge is attained or
through which regulation occurs
Example: A learner who has scored high in an English test
becomes aware that he/she has high declarative knowledge.
 Consider this scenario . . .

“I know that I have more difficulty with

my science assignments than English
and find Araling Panlipunan easier, so I
will do my homework in science first,
then English, and then Araling
Panlipunan.” – Student A
 Metacognitive Regulation (Skills)

1. Planning – selection of appropriate strategies,

allocation of resources and time, etc.

2. Monitoring – one’s ongoing awareness of

comprehension and task performance

3. Evaluating – making judgments about the outcomes

and processes of learning
Metacognitive Teaching
✓ Using graphic organizers (e.g., KWL
chart or KWHLAQ chart)
✓ Thinking aloud
✓ Journalizing
✓ Error analysis
✓ Wrapper
✓ Peer mentoring
Other Strategies
• Teach study strategies
TQLR – Tune in, Question, Listen,
Remember
PQ4R – Preview, Question, Read, Recite,
Review, and Reflect
• Have students make predictions.
• Have students relate ideas to existing
knowledge.
• Have students know when to ask for help.
CONCEPT
LEARNING or
CONCEPTUAL
UNDERSTANDING
 Conceptual Understanding
Concepts – group objects, events, and
characteristics on the basis of common properties
Example:
Concept of a “book”
Made of sheets of paper of
uniform size, all bound together,
full of printed words and pictures
in meaningful organization
 Conceptual Understanding
• Concepts aid the process of remembering, making it
more efficient.
Example: When you assign math homework, you won’t
have to explain what math is or what homework is.
• Student form concepts through direct experiences
with objects and events in their world.
Example: In constructing the concept of “cartoons”,
children might initially experience TV cartoon shows, then
read comic strips and later, political caricatures.
 Promoting Concept Formation
1. Learn about the 2. Rule-Example
features of Strategy
concepts (key a. Define the concept
features, attributes or b. Clarify terms in the
definition
characteristics of the
concept) c. Give examples to
illustrate the key
Example: Concept of features.
figurative language d. Provide additional
(non-literal meaning) examples
 Promoting Concept Formation
3. Hierarchical
categorization and
concept maps
• Once a concept is
categorized, it can
take on
characteristics and
features from being
a member of a
category. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-concept-map-giving-one-perspective-on-animals_fig1_287487933
 Promoting Concept Formation
4. Ask students to generate hypothesis about a
concept.
 Promoting Concept Formation

5. Give student
experience in
prototype
matching.
6. Check students’
understanding of
the concept.
 Consider this scenario . . .

Ana’s food catering business has been

profitable, as there is no competitor. Lately, a
new catering group was put up, offering as
good services similar to hers. With the
presence of the competitor, some clients have
shifted to the new provider. Ana inquires on
how to sustain her customers’ loyalty.
PROBLEM
SOLVING
 Introduction to Problem Solving

Current state Block/obstacle Desired goal

Elements of a problem scenario

Problem solving – cognitive processing directed at
achieving a goal for which the problem solver does not
initially know a solution method (Mayer, 2013).
Cognitive Process Directed Personal
 Introduction to Problem Solving
Well-defined Problem Ill-defined Problem
Provides all the information Aspect(s) of the problem
required to solve it scenario are not well
specified or the problem
descriptions are not definite
Application of a definite There may be many correct
number of rules, principles, answers with the divergent
or concepts circumstances and
experiences.
 IDEAL Model of Problem Solving
Possible Strategies Identify problems
and opportunities
1. Algorithm – using a
series of steps to solve
Look back and
a problem learn
Define goals

2. Heuristic – rule of
thumb or mental
shortcut that suggests
Anticipate
a solution to the outcomes and
Explore possible
strategies
act
problem
 IDEAL Model of Problem Solving
3. Random trial and error Identify problems
– randomly selecting a and opportunities

move, applying it to a new

problem, then repeating Look back and
learn
Define goals
the process until the goal
is reached
4. Hill climbing –
Anticipate
selecting a move that outcomes and
Explore possible
strategies
act
leads the learner closer to
the goal
 IDEAL Model of Problem Solving
5. Means-ends analysis – Identify problems
and opportunities
involves creating goals
and seeking moves that
can accomplish a goal Look back and
learn
Define goals

• If the goal cannot be

directly accomplished, a
sub-goal is created to
Anticipate
remove one or more outcomes and
Explore possible
strategies
act
obstacles.
 Barriers to Problem Solving
• Mental set – the person becomes fixated on the use of a
strategy that previously produced the right solution.
Example: Past tense of look is looked (addition of “–ed”), but the
past tense of go is not “goed” but “went.”
• Functional fixedness – individuals fail to recognize that
objects can have other purposes aside from their traditional
use
Example: A spoon is typically used for eating, but it can also be
used as bottle opener.
• Failure to distinguish relevant from irrelevant information
 Consider these . . .

• Discuss with your seatmate - Will a skilled

typist find it difficult to use the computer
keyboard when he/she encodes?
• Reflect on this - An undergraduate student once
remarked: “Buti na lang, we were required to do
research during our Senior High School years. It
helped me a lot in doing my research now.”
TRANSFER OF
LEARNING
 Transfer of Learning
Transfer of learning –learning
in one context or with one set
of materials affects
performance in another
context or with other related
materials
Example: Playing competitive
games might make someone a https://www.skillshub.com/blog/transfer-of-learning-benefits-models-implementation/

better strategic thinker in other

aspects of life.
 Types of Transfer
Positive Transfer Negative transfer
Learning in one context Learning in one context
improves performance in impacts negatively on the
another context performance in another
Example: A speaker of Example: A Cebuano
Spanish would find it easier speaking child may
to learn Mexican language. frequently interchange the
/e/ and /i/ sound when
speaking English.
 Types of Transfer
Near transfer Far transfer
Transfer between very Transfer between contexts
similar contexts that on appearance seem
remote/alien to each other
Example: A student is able Example: The story of “The
to answer algebra word Goose that Lays the Golden
problems in an exam Eggs” can be applied in
because it is similar to what business management.
he/she had in a seatwork.
 Promoting Transfer of Learning

1. Teach topics in-depth.

2. Provide opportunities for linking new lesson to
what they have learned in the past.
3. Give students varied examples and
opportunities for real-world learning.
4. Encourage students to take responsibility for
their own learning (metacognition).
 References

1. Bulusan, F., Raquepo, M.R., Balmeo, M.L. & Gutierrez, J.C.

(2019). Facilitating learner-centered teaching (1st ed). Rex
Book Store, Inc.
2. Lucas, M.R.D. & Corpuz, B.B. (2014). Facilitating learning:
a metacognitive process. Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
3. Lucas, M.R.D. & Corpuz, B.B. (2020). Facilitating learner-
centered teaching (5th edition). Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
4. Santrock, J. W. (2018). Educational psychology (6th edition).
McGraw-Hill.