Networking Technologies

Course Code: BCA303

Course Outcome: -
 To have a thorough understanding of the basic structure and operation of a computer
network.
 To discuss in detail, the operation of the network devices
 To study the different ways of communication and communication devices.

Course Goal
 To understand basic working of computer network.
 To understand working of networking devices.
 To Know the working of OSI and TCP/IP model

Course Learning Outcomes

 The course focuses on understand basic working of computer network, different ways
of data communication with communication devices and understanding of the basic
structure and operation of a OSI and TCP/IP model.
 Syllabus
UNIT-I
Network architecture, configuring network, network strategies, networks types, LAN,
MAN and WAN [Basic concepts, Line configuration, topology, transmission mode,
identify key components of network, categories of network, differentiating between LAN,
MAN, WANS and Internet].
Unit - II
The OSI model, The physical layer (bandwidth limited signals, transmission media,
wireless transmission), the data link layer, error detection and correction, data link
protocols, Bridges, the network layerm routing algorithm, congestion control algorithm,
internet working, the transport layer, the application layer, MAC protocols for high
speedsLANs.
UNIT-III
Introduction to TCP/IP [Understand the TCP/IP Protocol Suite, its history and modification
processes compare TCP/IP to the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model,
Examine a number of TCP/IP applications such as FTP, Telnet, DNS, DHCP, Boot, etc.
connection less Internetworking, IP, IPv6, IP multicasting. Routing protocols, TCP, UDP,
SNMP,SMTP and MIME, HTTP.
UNIT-IV
Circuit Switching: Simple switching Network, Circuit Switching Networks, Brief idea of
following (detail working) not required:
Circuit Switching Concepts: Space Division switching, Time Division Multiplexing,
Routing in circuit switching Networks, Control Signalling, Inchannel & common
channel
signalling, Brief idea of SS7. Packet Switching: Packet switching principles, Routing,X.25
Data Encoding: Spread Spectrum. Asynchrous and Synchronous transmission, Full and
Half duplex, Interfacing, Functional and Procedural aspects of V.24,
UNIT-V
Data Communication Systems, Serial Data formats. encoded data formats, error detection
and correction], information about microwave, information about microwave in
Comunications, Satellite, Geosynchronous Satellites and optical fiber communication
[Basic concept of light propagation, Fiber Cables, Optical fiber versus Metalic cable
facilities, Light sources, Optical Detectors, Fiber cable losses, SONET, ISDN, DSL
Recommended Books :
1. William Stallings: Data & Communications,Sixth Edition
2. A. S. Tanenbaum : Computer Networks
3. Behrouz A Foruzan, Data Communication and Networking; 3 rd Edition; Tata McGraw
Hill., 2004
 CONTENTS

Unit 1 Basics of Networking Technologies

Unit 2 OSI Model
Unit 3 TCP/IP Model
Unit 4 Switching Concepts
Unit 5 Data Communication Systems
Unit 1 Basics of Networking Technologies

Structure:
1.0 Networking Introduction
1.1 Network Types
1.2 Network Topology
1.3 Transmission Modes
1.4 Unit End Questions
1.0 Networking Introduction

Networking refers to the practice of connecting computers and other devices to share
resources and information. It plays a crucial role in today's interconnected world, enabling
communication and collaboration between individuals, organizations, and systems. Here's a
brief introduction to key concepts in networking:

Definition of Networking:
Networking involves the interconnection of multiple devices, such as computers, servers,
routers, and switches, to enable communication and resource sharing.

Key Components:

Devices: Computers, servers, routers, switches, and other hardware that form the network.
Transmission Media: The physical or wireless medium through which data is transmitted,
such as cables (Ethernet, fiber optics) or wireless signals.

Types of Networks:
Local Area Network (LAN): A network that covers a small geographical area, such as within
a single building or campus.
Wide Area Network (WAN): Spans a larger geographic area and typically connects multiple
LANs.
Wireless Networks: Use radio waves or infrared signals for communication, eliminating the
need for physical cables.

Network Topologies:
Bus Topology: All devices share a single communication line.
Star Topology: Devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular fashion.
Mesh Topology: Devices are interconnected, providing multiple paths for data to travel.

Protocols:
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): A set of rules governing data
transmission on the internet and most local networks.
HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure): Used for transferring web pages on the

World Wide Web.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Facilitates the transfer of files between computers.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Manages the sending of emails.

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Internet:
The internet is a global network of networks, connecting millions of computers worldwide.
It operates on the TCP/IP protocol suite and facilitates various services such as the World
Wide Web (WWW), email, and file transfer.
Network Security:

Involves measures to protect data and resources from unauthorized access or attacks.
Includes the use of firewalls, encryption, and secure authentication methods.

Cloud Computing:
Involves accessing and storing data and applications over the internet rather than on local
hardware.
Provides scalability, flexibility, and cost-effective solutions.

IPv4 and IPv6:

IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): The current dominant protocol for internet communication
but has limitations in available addresses.
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): Developed to overcome IPv4 limitations by providing a
larger address space.

Networking Devices:
Router: Connects different networks and directs data between them.
Switch: Connects devices within a local network, allowing them to communicate directly.
Hub: Basic networking device that connects multiple devices in a LAN.
Understanding these networking fundamentals is essential for anyone working with
computers, information technology, or telecommunications. It forms the basis for designing,
implementing, and managing modern communication infrastructures.

1.1 Network Types

Networks can be classified into different types based on their size, geographical coverage,
and the purpose they serve. Here are some common types of networks:

Local Area Network (LAN):

Scope: Limited to a small geographical area, such as a single building, office, or campus.
Purpose: Facilitates communication and resource sharing among devices within the same
organization.

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Wide Area Network (WAN):
Scope: Spans a larger geographical area, often connecting multiple LANs across cities,
countries, or continents.
Purpose: Enables long-distance communication between geographically dispersed offices or
branches.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

Scope: Covers a larger geographical area than a LAN but is smaller than a WAN, typically
within a city or metropolitan area.
Purpose: Connects multiple LANs within a specific region, facilitating communication
between local entities

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1.2 Network Topology
Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices and components
within a computer network. It defines how nodes (computers, servers, routers, etc.) are
connected and how data is transmitted between them. Different network topologies offer
distinct advantages and disadvantages in terms of performance, reliability, and scalability.
Here are some common network topologies:

Bus Topology:
Description: All devices share a single communication line (bus).
Advantages: Simple and easy to implement for small networks.
Disadvantages: Performance degrades as more devices are added, and a failure in the main
line can disrupt the entire network.

Star Topology:
Description: Devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
Advantages: Easy to install and manage, and failure of one device does not affect others.
Disadvantages: Dependence on the central hub; if it fails, the entire network may be affected.

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Ring Topology:
Description: Devices are connected in a circular fashion.
Advantages: Simple and easy to install; data travels in one direction, reducing collisions.
Disadvantages: Failure of one device or connection can disrupt the entire network.

Mesh Topology:
Description: Devices are interconnected, providing multiple paths for data to travel.
Advantages: Redundancy and reliability; multiple paths enhance fault tolerance.
Disadvantages: Complex to set up and manage, and requires more cabling.

Tree Topology:
Description: Combination of star and bus topologies, forming a hierarchy.
Advantages: Scalable and suitable for larger networks; provides a balance between reliability
and complexity.
Disadvantages: Dependence on the central hub; failure can affect a branch of the network.

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Hybrid Topology:
Description: Combines two or more different topologies to meet specific organizational
needs.
Advantages: Offers flexibility and can provide a balance between various topologies.
Disadvantages: Complexity may increase, and proper design is crucial.

Each topology has its own set of characteristics, and the choice of a particular topology
depends on factors such as the size of the network, the type of organization, cost
considerations, and the desired level of redundancy and fault tolerance. As technology
advances, some hybrid and mesh variations are becoming more common to address the
growing complexity and requirements of modern networks.

1.3 Transmission Modes

Transmission modes, also known as communication modes or data transfer modes, describe
the direction in which data flows between devices in a communication system. There are
three primary transmission modes:

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Simplex Mode:
Description: In simplex mode, data travels in one direction only—either from the sender to
the receiver or from the receiver to the sender.
Example: Television broadcasting is an example of simplex communication, where the TV
station sends information to viewers, but viewers do not send data back to the station.

Half-Duplex Mode:
Description: In half-duplex mode, data can be transmitted in both directions, but not
simultaneously. The communication channel alternates between sending and receiving.
Example: Walkie-talkies operate in half-duplex mode. Users push a button to talk and release
it to listen, but they cannot speak and listen at the same time.

Full-Duplex Mode:
Description: Full-duplex mode allows simultaneous two-way communication. Data can be
sent and received at the same time.

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Example: Telephone conversations and most modern data communication over the internet
operate in full-duplex mode. Both parties can speak and listen simultaneously.

1.4 Unit End Questions

Q.1 Explain the network types.
Q.2 What do you mean by transmission modes? Explain.
Q.3 Explain network topology with suitable diagram.

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Unit 2 OSI Model

Structure:
2.0 Introduction of OSI Model
2.1 Physical Layer
2.2 Data Link Layer
2.3 Network Layer
2.4 Transport Layer
2.5 Session Layer
2.6 Presentation Layer
2.7 Application Layer
2.8 Unit End Questions

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2.0 Introduction of OSI Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that standardizes
the functions of a telecommunication or computing system into seven abstraction layers. It
was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to facilitate
communication and interoperability between different systems and devices. The model
divides the communication process into distinct layers, each responsible for specific
functions, and it helps in understanding and designing complex network architectures.

Here is a brief introduction to each layer of the OSI model:

Physical Layer (Layer 1):

Deals with the physical connection between devices.
Concerned with the transmission and reception of raw bit streams over a physical medium
(e.g., cables, fibers, wireless).
Specifies characteristics such as voltage levels, data rates, and physical connectors.

Data Link Layer (Layer 2):

Responsible for creating a reliable link between two directly connected nodes.
Manages error detection and correction at the data link level.
Provides framing, addressing, and flow control to organize bits into frames for transmission.

Network Layer (Layer 3):

Handles the routing of data packets between devices on different networks.
Determines the optimal path for data transfer and manages logical addressing (IP addresses).
Key protocols at this layer include IP (Internet Protocol) and ICMP (Internet Control
Message Protocol).

Transport Layer (Layer 4):

Ensures reliable and efficient end-to-end communication between devices.
Manages flow control, error checking, and retransmission of lost or corrupted data.
Common transport layer protocols are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol).

Session Layer (Layer 5):

Establishes, maintains, and terminates communication sessions between applications.
Manages dialog control, synchronization, and data exchange between applications.
Handles session setup, data transfer, and session teardown.

Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

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Focuses on translating data between the application layer and the lower layers.
Responsible for data encoding, compression, encryption, and format conversion to ensure
compatibility between different systems.

Application Layer (Layer 7):

Provides network services directly to end-users or applications.
Supports high-level communication functions, such as file transfers, email, and web
browsing.
Interfaces with software applications and provides network services to them.

2.1 Physical Layer

The Physical Layer is the first layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model. It
deals with the physical connection and transmission of raw unstructured bits over a physical
medium. The primary focus of the Physical Layer is to define the hardware elements and
electrical characteristics required for transmitting bits across a physical medium, such as
cables, fibers, or wireless links. Here are key aspects of the Physical Layer:

Bit Transmission:
The Physical Layer is concerned with the actual transmission and reception of raw bit streams
over the physical medium. It doesn't interpret the bits or their meaning; it simply deals with
the electrical or optical signals representing 0s and 1s.

Physical Medium:
Defines the type of physical medium used for communication, such as copper cables, fiber-
optic cables, or wireless transmission. Different media have different characteristics,
including data transfer rates, distance limitations, and susceptibility to interference.
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Physical Topology:
Describes the layout or arrangement of devices and connections in a network. Common
physical topologies include bus, ring, star, and mesh. The Physical Layer is concerned with
how devices are physically connected to form a network.

Voltage Levels and Signalling:

Specifies the voltage levels and signalling methods used to represent binary data. This
includes modulation techniques for analog signals and encoding methods for digital signals.

Data Rate:
Defines the speed at which data is transmitted over the network. It specifies the rate of bit
transmission and is measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per second (kbps), megabits
per second (Mbps), etc.

Transmission Mode:
Determines the direction of data flow between devices. Two primary transmission modes are
simplex (one-way communication), half-duplex (two-way communication but not
simultaneously), and full-duplex (two-way communication simultaneously).

Physical Connectors and Interfaces:

Describes the physical connectors, plugs, and interfaces used to connect devices. It includes
specifications for cables, connectors, and the physical characteristics of connectors to ensure
interoperability.

Physical Addressing:
In some cases, the Physical Layer may involve the assignment of physical addresses to
devices for addressing and identification purposes at this layer. This is distinct from higher-
layer addressing like IP addresses.
The Physical Layer provides the foundation for communication between devices but does not
address issues related to logical addressing, error detection, or data formatting. Its role is to
establish a reliable and efficient physical connection between devices, allowing them to
exchange raw bit streams. Examples of technologies associated with the Physical Layer
include Ethernet, USB, and various physical transmission standards.

2.2 Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is the second layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model. It
is responsible for creating a reliable link between two directly connected nodes over a
physical network. The Data Link Layer manages the flow of data between devices on the

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same network segment, handles error detection and correction at the data link level, and
provides mechanisms for addressing and organizing bits into frames. Here are key aspects of
the Data Link Layer:

Framing:
The Data Link Layer organizes raw bits into frames, which are logical units of data. Frames
typically include header and trailer information that contains control and addressing
information. Framing allows devices to recognize the start and end of each frame.

Addressing:
Devices on the same network segment are identified using physical addresses at the Data
Link Layer. For example, in Ethernet networks, devices have MAC (Media Access Control)
addresses. The Data Link Layer uses these addresses to specify the source and destination of
data frames.

Access Control:
The Data Link Layer manages access to the physical medium to avoid collisions in shared
network environments. Different access control methods, such as Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) in Ethernet, are employed to coordinate access
among devices.

Flow Control:
Flow control mechanisms regulate the flow of data between devices to ensure that a fast
sender does not overwhelm a slower receiver. This is crucial to prevent data loss and
maintain efficient communication.

Error Detection and Correction:

The Data Link Layer includes mechanisms to detect and, in some cases, correct errors that
may occur during data transmission. This is often achieved using techniques like cyclic
redundancy check (CRC) or parity checking.

Acknowledgment and Retransmission:

The Data Link Layer provides mechanisms for acknowledging the successful receipt of
frames and for retransmitting frames in case of errors or frame loss. This contributes to the
reliability of data transfer.

Logical Link Control (LLC) Sublayer:

The LLC sublayer deals with the establishment, maintenance, and termination of logical links
between devices. It manages flow control, error checking, and synchronization.

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Media Access Control (MAC) Sublayer:
The MAC sublayer is responsible for controlling access to the physical medium. It handles
issues related to addressing, framing, and media access methods.

Switching:
In switched networks, such as Ethernet networks with switches, the Data Link Layer
facilitates communication between devices connected to different switches.
Popular Data Link Layer protocols include Ethernet for LANs, PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
for point-to-point connections, and HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control). The Data Link
Layer ensures reliable point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication within the same
network segment while also managing the access to the shared physical medium.

2.3 Network Layer

The Network Layer is the third layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model,
situated above the Data Link Layer and below the Transport Layer. It plays a crucial role in
the end-to-end communication process, focusing on the routing of data packets between
devices across different networks. The key functions and features of the Network Layer
include:

Logical Addressing:
The Network Layer assigns logical addresses, such as IP (Internet Protocol) addresses, to
devices participating in the network. These addresses are used for identifying the source and
destination of data packets.

Routing:
Routing involves determining the optimal path for data packets to reach their destination. The
Network Layer uses routing algorithms and protocols to make decisions about the best routes
based on factors like network topology, congestion, and cost.

Packet Forwarding:
Once the route is determined, the Network Layer is responsible for forwarding data packets
from the source to the destination across multiple networks. Routers operate at this layer and
perform packet forwarding based on the destination IP address.

Fragmentation and Reassembly:

The Network Layer can fragment large data packets into smaller fragments for transmission
over networks with smaller Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) sizes. At the destination,
these fragments are reassembled to reconstruct the original packet.

Logical Network Topology:

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Defines the logical arrangement of devices and networks, specifying how devices are
logically connected. The Network Layer abstracts the underlying physical topology, allowing
for the creation of logical networks regardless of the physical infrastructure.

Subnetting:
Subnetting involves dividing a large network into smaller subnetworks (subnets). This helps
in optimizing network management, improving performance, and providing better security.

Logical Link Control (LLC):

The Network Layer includes a logical link control sublayer that manages communication
sessions between devices on different networks. It handles flow control, error checking, and
synchronization at this layer.

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP):

ICMP is a protocol that operates at the Network Layer and is used for sending error messages
and control information. It is commonly employed for diagnostics, troubleshooting, and
managing network connectivity.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):

ARP operates at the Network Layer and is used for mapping IP addresses to physical MAC
(Media Access Control) addresses on local networks.

Internet Protocol (IP):

IP is a fundamental protocol at the Network Layer, responsible for addressing and routing
packets across networks. IPv4 and IPv6 are the two main versions of the Internet Protocol.

The Network Layer plays a pivotal role in enabling communication between devices on
different networks. It abstracts the underlying complexities of various network technologies
and facilitates interoperability. Routers, which operate at this layer, are key components for
forwarding data between networks, ensuring that packets reach their intended destinations.

2.4 Transport Layer

The Transport Layer is the fourth layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model,
residing above the Network Layer and below the Session Layer. Its primary function is to
provide reliable, end-to-end communication between devices across a network. The Transport
Layer ensures the integrity and efficient flow of data between applications running on
different devices. Key features and responsibilities of the Transport Layer include:

Segmentation and Reassembly:

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The Transport Layer divides data from the upper layers into smaller units known as
segments. This segmentation allows for efficient transmission across the network. At the
receiving end, the Transport Layer reassembles the segments to reconstruct the original data.

Flow Control:
Flow control mechanisms regulate the flow of data between sender and receiver to prevent
congestion and ensure that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver with data. This helps
in maintaining optimal performance and avoiding data loss.

Error Detection and Correction:

The Transport Layer employs error detection mechanisms to identify any errors or corruption
in the transmitted data. While some error detection is done at the lower layers (e.g., CRC in
Data Link Layer), the Transport Layer may provide additional error checking and correction
mechanisms.

Reliability:
The Transport Layer ensures reliable data transfer by using acknowledgments and
retransmissions. It guarantees that data is delivered accurately and in the correct order, even
in the presence of network errors or packet loss.

Connection Establishment and Termination:

In connection-oriented communication, the Transport Layer is responsible for establishing
and terminating connections between devices. Protocols like TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) operate at this layer and provide reliable, connection-oriented communication.

Connectionless Communication:
Some Transport Layer protocols, like UDP (User Datagram Protocol), operate in a
connectionless mode. In this mode, each segment is treated independently, without
establishing a connection first. While connectionless communication is less reliable than
connection-oriented communication, it is often used for real-time applications.

Port Numbers:
The Transport Layer uses port numbers to distinguish between different services or
applications on a device. Port numbers are used in combination with IP addresses to direct
data to the correct application.

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing:

Multiplexing involves combining multiple data streams into a single channel for
transmission, while demultiplexing separates incoming data streams at the receiving end. The
Transport Layer uses port numbers for multiplexing and demultiplexing.

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Quality of Service (QoS):
The Transport Layer may provide mechanisms for implementing Quality of Service, allowing
for prioritization of certain types of traffic based on requirements such as latency, bandwidth,
and reliability.

Protocols:
Common Transport Layer protocols include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP
(User Datagram Protocol). TCP is connection-oriented and provides reliable communication,
while UDP is connectionless and suitable for applications where low overhead and real-time
communication are essential.
The Transport Layer serves as a crucial link between the application layer and the lower
layers, providing reliable and efficient communication services for a wide range of
applications. It balances the need for reliability with the demands of different types of
communication, supporting both connection-oriented and connectionless modes

2.5 Session Layer

The Session Layer is the fifth layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model,
positioned above the Transport Layer and below the Presentation Layer. It is responsible for
managing communication sessions between applications running on different devices. A
session, in this context, refers to a logical connection or interaction between two applications,
allowing them to exchange data. Key functions and features of the Session Layer include:

Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination:

The Session Layer is responsible for establishing, maintaining, and terminating
communication sessions between applications. This involves initiating the session,
coordinating communication, and ensuring a graceful termination when the session is
complete.

Dialog Control:
Dialog control involves managing the flow of communication between two devices during a
session. The Session Layer helps in organizing and structuring the exchange of information,
ensuring that data is transmitted in an orderly and coordinated manner.

Synchronization:
The Session Layer provides mechanisms for synchronizing data exchange between
applications. This includes ensuring that data is sent and received at a pace that both the
sender and receiver can handle, preventing issues such as data overflow or underflow.

Full-Duplex or Half-Duplex Communication:

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The Session Layer can establish communication sessions in either full-duplex mode
(simultaneous two-way communication) or half-duplex mode (one-way communication at a
time). The choice depends on the requirements of the applications involved.

Token Management:
In some network architectures, especially in token-ring networks, the Session Layer may
manage the distribution and control of tokens. Tokens are used to regulate access to the
communication medium.

Remote Procedure Calls (RPCs):

The Session Layer supports mechanisms like Remote Procedure Calls, which allow a
program on one computer to invoke a procedure on another computer as if it were a local
procedure call. This facilitates communication between distributed applications.

NetBIOS and Named Pipes:

In certain networking environments, protocols like NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output
System) and named pipes operate at the Session Layer. These protocols facilitate
communication and resource sharing between devices on a network.

Session Recovery:
The Session Layer provides mechanisms for recovering from interruptions or failures during
a communication session. This ensures that data exchange can resume without loss or
corruption of information.

Checkpointing:
Checkpointing involves saving the current state of a session at certain intervals. If a session is
disrupted, the Session Layer can use checkpoints to resume communication from a known
state.

Security and Authentication:

The Session Layer may incorporate security mechanisms for authentication and encryption to
ensure the confidentiality and integrity of data exchanged during a session.
While the Session Layer is not as distinct in its function as some other layers, it plays a
crucial role in managing and coordinating communication sessions between applications. It
provides a higher-level abstraction to the Transport Layer, allowing applications to establish
and control the logical connections needed for data exchange.

2.6 Presentation Layer

The Presentation Layer is the sixth layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model,
situated above the Session Layer and below the Application Layer. This layer is responsible

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for translating data between the application layer and the lower layers in a way that ensures
compatibility between different systems. The Presentation Layer deals with data
representation, translation, and encryption, making it suitable for communication between
diverse systems. Key functions and features of the Presentation Layer include:

Data Translation and Encryption:

The Presentation Layer is responsible for translating data into a format that can be understood
by the application layer. It may involve character set translation, data compression, and
encryption to ensure secure and efficient communication.

Character Encoding and Translation:

Different systems may use different character sets and encoding schemes. The Presentation
Layer handles the translation between these character sets to ensure that data can be
accurately represented and understood by both the sender and receiver.

Data Compression:
Data compression techniques are applied at the Presentation Layer to reduce the amount of
data that needs to be transmitted over the network. This helps in optimizing bandwidth usage
and improving the efficiency of data transfer.

Encryption and Decryption:

The Presentation Layer provides encryption and decryption services to secure the data being
transmitted. This ensures that data remains confidential and protected from unauthorized
access during transmission.

Syntax and Semantic Validation:

The Presentation Layer may perform syntax and semantic validation of data to ensure that it
adheres to the agreed-upon format and rules. This helps in preventing errors and ensuring the
accurate interpretation of data.

Graphics and Multimedia Handling:

The Presentation Layer can handle the representation of graphics, images, audio, and video
data. It ensures that multimedia data is transmitted in a way that is compatible with the
receiving system.

Data Formatting:
The Presentation Layer is responsible for formatting data in a way that is suitable for
presentation to the user or application. This includes the arrangement of data in tables, lists,
or other structures.

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MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions):
MIME is an example of a protocol that operates at the Presentation Layer. It extends the
capabilities of email by allowing the transmission of multimedia content, such as images and
audio, in email messages.

Common Data Formats:

The Presentation Layer facilitates communication between applications using different data
formats. It ensures that data is presented in a standardized manner, allowing interoperability
between systems.

Protocol Conversion:
In some cases, the Presentation Layer may be involved in protocol conversion, translating
data between different communication protocols to enable communication between systems
with varying protocol support.
The Presentation Layer abstracts the differences in data representation and syntax between
applications, allowing them to communicate seamlessly. It ensures that data is presented in a
standardized and compatible format, promoting interoperability in diverse computing
environments.

2.7 Application Layer

The Application Layer is the seventh and topmost layer of the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model. It is the layer closest to end-users and provides network services
directly to applications. The Application Layer enables communication between software
applications on different devices and supports a wide range of network-related functions. Key
features and responsibilities of the Application Layer include:

Network Services for Applications:

The Application Layer provides a set of network services and protocols that applications use
to communicate over a network. These services include file transfer, email, remote login, and
web browsing.

Interface to the User:

The Application Layer serves as the interface between the network and the end-user or
application. It enables users and applications to interact with the network services and access
resources.

Application Protocols:
Application Layer protocols define the rules and conventions for communication between
applications. Examples of application layer protocols include HTTP (Hypertext Transfer

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Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), and DNS
(Domain Name System).

Data Exchange and Communication:

The Application Layer supports data exchange and communication between software
applications running on different devices. It defines the format of the data exchanged,
ensuring that both the sender and receiver can interpret the information.

Network Virtual Terminal:

The concept of a network virtual terminal allows applications to exchange information as if
they are directly connected, regardless of the underlying network architecture or the types of
devices involved.

File Transfer and Management:

Protocols like FTP (File Transfer Protocol) and SMB (Server Message Block) operate at the
Application Layer, facilitating file transfer and management between devices on a network.

Email Services:
The Application Layer supports email services through protocols such as SMTP for sending
emails, POP3 or IMAP for receiving emails, and protocols like MIME for handling
multimedia content in emails.

Remote Access and Login:

Protocols like Telnet and SSH (Secure Shell) operate at the Application Layer, allowing users
to remotely access and log into devices over a network.

Web Services:
The Application Layer is fundamental to web services, enabling communication between web
browsers and web servers. Protocols such as HTTP and HTTPS (HTTP Secure) facilitate the
exchange of web content.

Domain Name System (DNS):

DNS, which resolves human-readable domain names to IP addresses, operates at the
Application Layer. It is crucial for translating domain names into IP addresses to locate
resources on the internet.

Network Management and Monitoring:

The Application Layer supports network management and monitoring activities. SNMP
(Simple Network Management Protocol) is an example of a protocol used for managing and
monitoring network devices.

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The Application Layer plays a pivotal role in enabling communication between diverse
applications and services across different networks. It abstracts the complexities of lower
layers, providing a standardized interface for applications to access network resources and
services. The diverse set of application layer protocols allows for a wide range of applications
to operate seamlessly on the internet and other networks.

2.8 Unit End Questions

Q.1 Explain OSI model in detail.
Q.2 Write down about error correction and detection method.
Q.3 What are the responsibilities of data link layer?
Q.4 Discuss about application layer in detail.

23
Unit 3 TCP/IP Model

Structure:
3.0 Introduction of TCP/IP Model
3.1 TCP/IP Model Layers
3.2 Protocols of TCP/IP
3.3 Applications of TCP/IP
3.4 Unit End Questions

24
3.0 Introduction of TCP/IP Model

The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) model is a conceptual

framework that standardizes the protocols used for communication in computer networks.
Developed by the United States Department of Defense in the 1970s, it has become the
foundation for the Internet and is widely used in various networking technologies.

The TCP/IP model consists of four layers, each with its specific set of protocols, and it
provides a systematic approach to network communication. The layers, from bottom to top,
are:

Link Layer (or Network Interface Layer):

This layer deals with the physical connection between devices on the same network.
It is responsible for the transmission and reception of raw data frames over a physical
medium.
Common protocols in this layer include Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol).

Internet Layer:
The Internet Layer focuses on the routing of data packets between devices across different
networks.
Its primary protocol is the Internet Protocol (IP), which provides addressing and routing
functions.
Other protocols, such as Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), help manage network
errors and perform diagnostics.

Transport Layer:
The Transport Layer ensures end-to-end communication, handling data segmentation, flow
control, error correction, and retransmission.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) are the two main
protocols in this layer.
TCP provides reliable, connection-oriented communication, while UDP offers
connectionless, lightweight communication.

Application Layer:
The Application Layer represents the interface between the network and the software
applications running on the end devices.
It encompasses a variety of protocols that support specific applications, such as email
(SMTP), file transfer (FTP), web browsing (HTTP), and domain name resolution (DNS).
One of the key advantages of the TCP/IP model is its flexibility and scalability. It allows for
the integration of new technologies and protocols without requiring a complete redesign of

25
the network architecture. The model's design principles have contributed to the success and
growth of the Internet, making it a fundamental framework for modern networking.

3.1 TCP/IP Model Layers

Link Layer (or Network Interface Layer):
Function: This layer is responsible for the physical connection between devices on the same
network and ensures that data is reliably delivered over the local link.
Protocols: Ethernet is a common protocol in this layer, used for wired networks. For wireless
networks, Wi-Fi standards (such as 802.11) are employed. Other protocols include Point-to-
Point Protocol (PPP) for point-to-point connections.

Internet Layer:
Function: The Internet Layer handles the routing of data packets between devices across
different networks, regardless of the physical medium. It enables devices to find the best path
to reach their destination.
Protocols: The Internet Protocol (IP) is the primary protocol in this layer. It provides logical
addressing (IP addresses) and routing functions. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is
also part of this layer, used for error reporting and network diagnostics.

Transport Layer:
Function: The Transport Layer is responsible for end-to-end communication and ensures
reliable data transfer between applications. It manages flow control, error detection, and
correction.
Protocols: Two main protocols operate in this layer:

26
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Connection-oriented and reliable protocol. It ensures
that data is delivered without errors and in the correct order. It includes features like flow
control and error recovery.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Connectionless and lightweight protocol. It provides a
simple way to send data without the overhead of establishing a connection and without the
guarantees of reliability offered by TCP.

Application Layer:
Function: The Application Layer serves as the interface between the network and the
software applications running on end devices. It supports various application-level protocols
that facilitate communication between applications.
Protocols: Numerous protocols operate in this layer, including:
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): Used for web browsing.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Used for file transfers.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): Used for email transmission.
Domain Name System (DNS): Resolves domain names to IP addresses.
Post Office Protocol (POP) and Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP): Used for email
retrieval.
Many other application-specific protocols.

3.2 Protocols of TCP/IP

The TCP/IP model is associated with several protocols that operate at different layers to
facilitate communication in computer networks. Here's a list of some key protocols associated
with each layer of the TCP/IP model:

Link Layer (or Network Interface Layer):

Ethernet (IEEE 802.3): A widely used protocol for wired LANs, defining how data is placed
on the network medium for transmission.
Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): Defines wireless standards for local area networking.

Internet Layer:
Internet Protocol (IP): Provides logical addressing (IPv4 or IPv6) and is responsible for
routing packets between networks.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): Used for error reporting, diagnostics, and
network management.

Transport Layer:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): A reliable, connection-oriented protocol that ensures
the delivery of data without errors and in the correct order. It includes features like flow
control and error recovery.

27
User Datagram Protocol (UDP): A connectionless, lightweight protocol that provides a
simple way to send data without the overhead of establishing a connection. It doesn't
guarantee reliability.

Application Layer:
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): Used for web browsing.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Allows for the transfer of files between systems.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): Used for email transmission.
Post Office Protocol (POP): Retrieves emails from a server.
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP): Retrieves emails from a server with more features
than POP.
Domain Name System (DNS): Resolves domain names to IP addresses.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): Used for network management and
monitoring.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP): Assigns IP addresses dynamically to devices
on a network.
Telnet: Allows remote access to a device's command-line interface.
Secure Shell (SSH): Provides secure remote access and control.
These are just a few examples, and there are many other application-specific protocols that
operate within the Application Layer of the TCP/IP model. Each protocol plays a specific
role in enabling the diverse range of networked applications and services we use today.

3.3 Applications of TCP/IP

The TCP/IP model is widely used as the networking protocol suite for communication in
computer networks, and its applications are vast and diverse. Here are some key applications
of the TCP/IP model:

Internet Communication:
The TCP/IP model is the foundation of the Internet. It enables communication between
devices across the globe, facilitating the exchange of data, information, and services.

World Wide Web (WWW):

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), operating in the Application Layer of the TCP/IP
model, is the protocol used for web browsing and accessing websites. It allows the transfer of
text, images, videos, and other web content.

Email Communication:

28
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used for sending emails, and POP (Post Office
Protocol) and IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) are used for retrieving emails. These
protocols operate in the Application Layer.

File Transfer:
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) and its secure counterpart, SFTP (Secure File Transfer
Protocol), facilitate the transfer of files between devices. These protocols operate in the
Application Layer.

Domain Name System (DNS):

DNS resolves human-readable domain names to IP addresses. It operates in the Application
Layer and is crucial for translating website names into numerical IP addresses.

Remote Access:
Protocols like Telnet and SSH (Secure Shell) enable remote access to devices' command-line
interfaces, allowing administrators to manage and configure systems remotely.

Network Management:
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) is used for monitoring and managing devices
on a network. It allows administrators to collect information and control network devices.

Dynamic IP Address Assignment:

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) automatically assigns IP addresses to devices
on a network, simplifying the process of network configuration.

VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol):

TCP/IP supports real-time voice and video communication over the Internet using protocols
like SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) for call setup and RTP (Real-Time Transport Protocol)
for media transport.

Security Protocols:
Protocols like SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security) operate in the
Application Layer to provide secure communication over the Internet, ensuring the
confidentiality and integrity of data.
These applications highlight the versatility of the TCP/IP model, making it a fundamental
framework for modern networking and communication technologies. Its layered architecture
allows for the development of specialized protocols catering to various communication needs
in a scalable and interoperable manner.

3.4 Unit End Questions

29
Q.1 Explain about TCP/IP model in detail.
Q.2 Write down the difference between OSI model and TCP/IP model.
Q.3 Explain about the TCP/IP protocols in detail.

Unit 4 Switching Concepts

Structure:
4.0 Circuit Switching
4.1 Types of Circuit Switching
4.2 Control Signalling
4.3 SS7
4.4 Packet Switching
4.5 X.25
4.6 Spread Specturm
4.7 V.24
4.8 Unit End Questions

4.0 Circuit Switching

Circuit switching is a telecommunication technology that has played a significant role
in the history of communication systems. It is a method of establishing a dedicated
communication path or circuit between two devices for the duration of their
conversation. Unlike packet switching, where data is broken into packets and
transmitted independently over a network, circuit switching creates a continuous,
dedicated link between the communicating parties.

Here's a brief introduction to circuit switching:

Overview:
Circuit switching is a traditional approach to communication that predates modern
packet-switched networks. In a circuit-switched network, a physical path is
established and reserved for the entire duration of a conversation. This dedicated
connection ensures a constant and reliable link between the communicating parties,
making it suitable for voice communication, such as traditional telephone calls.

Key Features:
Dedicated Connection: A circuit-switched network establishes a dedicated
communication path between the sender and receiver. This path remains exclusively
allocated to the conversation for its entire duration.

30
 Fixed Bandwidth: The bandwidth of the circuit is reserved and fixed, providing a
consistent data rate throughout the communication. This predictability is beneficial
for real-time applications like voice calls.

Connection Setup: Before data transmission begins, a connection setup phase occurs.
During this phase, resources are reserved, and the path is established, ensuring a
continuous link for the duration of the communication.

Examples: Traditional telephone networks, such as the Public Switched Telephone

Network (PSTN), primarily used circuit switching. In these networks, a dedicated
circuit is established from the caller to the recipient for the duration of the call.

Advantages:
Predictable Performance: Circuit switching offers a constant and predictable
connection, making it suitable for applications that require a consistent data rate, such
as voice communication.

Simple Routing: Since the dedicated path is established during the connection setup,
routing is relatively straightforward, contributing to low latency.

Disadvantages:
Inefficient Use of Resources: Circuit switching ties up resources for the entire
duration of the communication, even if no data is being transmitted. This can be
inefficient compared to packet switching, where resources are utilized only when data
is sent.

Scalability Challenges: Adding more users to a circuit-switched network can be

challenging as it requires the allocation of dedicated resources for each connection,
limiting scalability.

While circuit switching is less prevalent in modern computer networks, it laid the
groundwork for telecommunication systems and has influenced the development of
communication technologies over the years.

4.1 Types of Circuit Switching

1. Space Division Switching

Space-division switching is a method used in telecommunication networks to establish

connections between different communication paths. It involves physically separating the
pathways within a switch, and each pathway corresponds to a different communication

31
channel. Space-division switching is distinct from time-division and frequency-division
switching, as it relies on the physical separation of channels.

Here's an overview of space-division switching:

1. Principle:
In space-division switching, multiple paths or channels are created within a switch, and each
path is dedicated to a specific communication connection.
The switch physically separates these paths to prevent interference and ensure that each
channel remains independent.
2. Implementation:
Crossbar Switches: One common implementation of space-division switching is the crossbar
switch. A crossbar switch consists of a grid of vertical and horizontal conductors that can be
connected to form individual paths.
Matrix Switches: Another approach is the use of matrix switches, where different pathways
are formed by the intersection of rows and columns in a matrix.

3. Operation:
During a communication session setup, the switch establishes a physical connection between
the input and output ports corresponding to the desired communication path.
The physical separation of pathways ensures that each communication channel has its
dedicated route, preventing crosstalk and interference.

4. Advantages:
Low Interference: Space-division switching minimizes interference between different
communication channels since they are physically separated.
High Capacity: It can support a high number of simultaneous connections, making it suitable
for scenarios with a large number of users.

5. Disadvantages:
Complexity: Building and maintaining large-scale space-division switches can be complex
and expensive.
Scalability Challenges: Expanding the capacity of a space-division switch may involve
physical modifications, making scalability challenging compared to some other switching
techniques.

6. Applications:
Space-division switching has been historically used in telephone exchanges and other
communication systems where dedicated paths are required for each communication session.

32
2. Time Division Switching

Time-division switching is a telecommunication switching technique where multiple

communication channels share the same physical pathway, but they are allocated different
time slots to transmit data. This method involves dividing time into discrete intervals and
allowing each channel to utilize the pathway exclusively during its assigned time slot. Time-
division switching is a common approach in various communication systems, including
telephone networks and digital data transmission.

Here's an overview of time-division switching:

1. Principle:
Time-division switching divides time into fixed intervals or slots.
Different communication channels are assigned specific time slots during which they can
transmit data.
Each channel takes turns using the shared physical pathway.
2. Implementation:
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): TDM is a common technique used in time-division
switching. It involves interleaving the data from multiple channels by assigning each channel
a specific time slot.
Time Slots: The time slots are typically very short, and the switching equipment ensures that
each channel's data is transmitted during its designated time slot.
3. Operation:
During the connection setup phase, each communication channel is assigned a specific time
slot.
The switch or multiplexer sequentially allows each channel to transmit its data during its
allocated time slot.
Channels are synchronized to ensure proper data reception at the destination.
4. Advantages:

33
Efficient Use of Bandwidth: Time-division switching optimizes bandwidth utilization by
allowing multiple channels to share the same physical pathway.
Simplicity: The concept of time slots simplifies the scheduling of communication channels.
5. Disadvantages:
Synchronization Challenges: Proper synchronization is crucial to ensure that the receiving
end can accurately separate and interpret the data from different channels.
Fixed Time Slots: The fixed allocation of time slots may not be flexible enough to adapt to
varying data transmission requirements.
6. Applications:
Time-division switching has been widely used in traditional telephone networks, particularly
in the implementation of TDM-based systems like the Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN).
It is also used in digital communication systems, including synchronous digital hierarchies
(SDH) and synchronous optical networks (SONET).

4.2 Control Signalling

Control signalling is a crucial aspect of telecommunication systems that involves the
exchange of information between network elements to establish, manage, and release
communication connections. It plays a vital role in coordinating the flow of information and
resources within a network, ensuring proper communication and efficient use of network
resources. Control signalling is responsible for managing call setup, call maintenance, and
call release processes. Here are key aspects of control signalling:

1. Call Setup:
Purpose: Control signalling is used to initiate a communication session, establishing a
connection between the calling and receiving parties.
Process: The signalling protocols facilitate the exchange of messages between network
elements to allocate resources, determine routing, and set up the necessary parameters for the
communication session.
2. Call Maintenance:
Purpose: During an active communication session, control signalling is responsible for
managing and maintaining the established connection.

34
Process: Signalling messages are exchanged to monitor the status of the connection, address
any issues that may arise (such as signal quality problems), and adjust parameters if
necessary.
3. Call Release:
Purpose: When the communication session is completed, control signalling facilitates the
orderly release of allocated resources and terminates the connection.
Process: Signalling messages are exchanged to inform network elements that the call is
ending, and resources can be freed up for other connections.
4. Signalling Protocols:
SS7 (Signalling System No. 7): Commonly used in telecommunication networks, SS7 is a set
of signalling protocols that enable the exchange of control information between network
elements.
SIP (Session Initiation Protocol): Widely used in Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
systems, SIP is a signalling protocol for initiating, modifying, and terminating
communication sessions.
5. Types of Signalling:
In-Band Signalling: Signalling information is transmitted within the same communication
channel used for user data. Traditional telephone networks often used in-band signalling.
Out-of-Band Signalling: Signalling information is transmitted on a separate, dedicated
channel. SS7 is an example of out-of-band signalling.
6. Error Handling and Fault Recovery:
Control signalling protocols include mechanisms for error detection and recovery. If errors or
faults are detected during the signalling process, the protocols help in managing these
situations to maintain reliable network operation.
7. Security Considerations:
Control signalling often involves sensitive information related to call setup, user
authentication, and network management. Security measures are implemented to protect
against unauthorized access and potential threats.
8. Integration with Network Management:
Control signalling is closely integrated with network management systems, allowing for the
monitoring, configuration, and optimization of the overall network performance.
In summary, control signalling is a fundamental component of telecommunication systems,
responsible for managing the establishment, maintenance, and release of communication
connections. It ensures the efficient use of network resources and enables seamless
communication between users within the network. The choice of signalling protocols and
methods depends on the specific requirements and technologies implemented in a given
telecommunication system.

4.3 SS7

35
SS7 (Signalling System No. 7) is a set of telecommunication signalling protocols that are
used to set up and manage telephone calls in public switched telephone networks (PSTNs). It
is also commonly used in mobile networks for call setup, text messaging, and various other
signalling purposes. SS7 is designed to enable the exchange of control information between
network elements, facilitating the establishment, maintenance, and release of communication
sessions.

Here are key aspects of SS7:

1. Architecture:
Network Elements: SS7 involves several network elements, including Signal Transfer Points
(STPs), Service Switching Points (SSPs), and Service Control Points (SCPs).
Links: Communication between these elements occurs over SS7 links.
2. Signalling Points:
Service Switching Point (SSP): The SSP is responsible for initiating or terminating a call. It
interfaces with the end users and uses SS7 signalling to communicate with other network
elements.
Signal Transfer Point (STP): The STP acts as a router for SS7 messages, relaying signalling
information between different SSPs and SCPs.
Service Control Point (SCP): The SCP contains databases and provides information needed
for call setup and routing decisions.
3. Signalling Links:
SS7 uses dedicated signalling links to transmit signalling information between network
elements. These links are separate from the voice/data channels used for actual
communication.
4. Functions of SS7:
Call Setup and Teardown: SS7 is essential for establishing, maintaining, and releasing
telephone calls.
Number Translation: It provides services like Local Number Portability (LNP) and Global
Title Translation (GTT).
Mobile Services: SS7 is widely used in mobile networks for functions like roaming, text
messaging (SMS), and call handover between cells.
Intelligent Network (IN) Services: SCPs in SS7 are crucial for implementing intelligent
network services, allowing for advanced call features and customization.
5. Signalling Messages:
SS7 uses a set of signalling messages to exchange information between network elements.
These messages include IAM (Initial Address Message), ACM (Address Complete Message),
and REL (Release Message), among others.
6. Out-of-Band Signalling:

36
SS7 uses out-of-band signalling, meaning that signalling information is transmitted on a
separate network from the voice/data traffic. This enhances efficiency and reliability.
7. Security:
Security measures, such as encryption and authentication, are essential in SS7 to protect
against potential threats and unauthorized access to signalling information.
8. Global Standard:
SS7 is a global standard, and its protocols are defined by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) and the Telecommunication Standardization Sector of the
International Electrotechnical Commission (ITU-T).
9. Evolution:
While SS7 remains fundamental in traditional telecommunication networks, its use is
evolving, and newer technologies, like Diameter for signalling in IP-based networks, are
being introduced.
SS7 plays a critical role in ensuring the efficient and reliable operation of telecommunication
networks, especially in traditional PSTNs and mobile networks. Its standardized protocols
enable interoperability among different vendors' equipment and facilitate a wide range of
telecommunication services.

4.4 Packet Switching

Packet switching is a method of digital communication in which data is broken into small
units, called packets, for transmission over a network. Unlike circuit switching, where a
dedicated communication path is established for the entire duration of a conversation, packet
switching allows data to be divided into discrete packets that can be individually routed to

37
their destination. This approach is fundamental to the functioning of the Internet and many
modern computer networks. Here's an overview of packet switching:

1. Packetization:
Data is divided into fixed-size packets before transmission. Each packet typically includes a
header with information like source and destination addresses, sequencing information, and
error-checking data.
2. Store-and-Forward:
Each packet is independently transmitted through the network from source to destination. At
each intermediate node (router or switch), the entire packet is received, stored briefly, and
then forwarded to the next node.
3. Routing:
Packets may take different routes to reach the destination. Routing decisions are made
dynamically based on current network conditions, congestion levels, and the availability of
different paths.
4. Connectionless Communication:
Packet switching is often connectionless, meaning that each packet is treated independently.
This allows for greater flexibility and adaptability in network usage.
5. Efficient Use of Resources:
Bandwidth is shared among multiple users, and packets from different sources can be
interleaved and transmitted over the network simultaneously, making more efficient use of
available resources.
6. Scalability:
Packet switching is inherently scalable. As the number of users or devices in a network
increases, the network can adapt by efficiently routing packets and accommodating diverse
traffic patterns.
7. Protocols:
Internet Protocol (IP): The most widely used protocol for packet switching on the Internet. It
provides a standardized way for data to be sent in packets across networks.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Often used in conjunction with IP to ensure reliable
delivery of data by managing packet sequencing and retransmission.
8. Types of Packet Switching:
Datagram Switching: Each packet is treated independently, and the network dynamically
determines the route for each packet.
Virtual Circuit Switching: A pre-established route (virtual circuit) is created before data
transmission begins. Packets follow this predetermined path.
9. Advantages:
Flexibility: Packet switching supports various types of data and services, including voice,
video, and text.

38
Robustness: If a network link or node fails, packets can take alternative routes to reach their
destination.
Scalability: Well-suited for handling a large number of users and diverse data traffic.
10. Disadvantages:
Overhead: The packet header adds overhead to each packet, which can reduce the effective
data transfer rate.
Variable Delays: Different packets may take different routes and experience varying
transmission delays, leading to variable end-to-end delays.
Packet switching is the foundation of modern computer networks, enabling global
communication through the Internet. It provides a flexible and scalable approach to data
transmission, allowing for efficient use of network resources and supporting diverse
applications and services.

4.5 X.25

X.25 is a widely used standard for packet-switched communication networks. It was

developed by the International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication
Standardization Sector (ITU-T) and has been fundamental in the establishment of early wide-
area networks (WANs). X.25 specifies the interface between data terminal equipment (DTE)
and data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) for terminals operating in the packet mode on
public data networks. Here's an overview of X.25:

1. Basic Components:
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE): The end-user device, such as a computer or terminal, that
interfaces with the packet-switched network.
Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment (DCE): The equipment that interfaces between the DTE
and the packet-switched network. It manages the transmission of data packets.
2. Packet Structure:
X.25 packets consist of a header and data field.
Header: Contains control information such as the virtual circuit identifier, addressing
information, and error-checking information.

39
Data Field: Carries the actual user data.
3. Virtual Circuits:
X.25 uses the concept of virtual circuits, which are logical connections between two DTEs
across a packet-switched network.
Virtual circuits provide a reliable, error-checked communication path between two
communicating devices.
4. Error Handling:
X.25 includes error detection and correction mechanisms to ensure the reliability of data
transmission over potentially error-prone networks.
5. Flow Control:
X.25 provides flow control mechanisms to manage the rate of data transmission between the
sender and receiver to prevent network congestion.
6. Network Layer Protocol:
X.25 operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model. It defines protocols for
packet-switched networks, providing network-layer connectivity.
7. Protocols and Services:
X.25 Packet Layer Protocol (PLP): The primary protocol used by X.25 for transferring
packets between DTE and DCE.
X.28, X.29, X.3: Additional protocols and services that complement X.25, providing features
such as terminal control, error recovery, and directory services.
8. Connection Establishment and Release:
X.25 supports the establishment and release of virtual circuits dynamically. Connections are
set up before data transfer and released afterward.
9. Public Data Networks:
X.25 was widely used in public data networks, forming the basis for early packet-switched
services like public switched data networks (PSDNs).

4.6 Spread Spectrum

40
Spread Spectrum is a communication technique that spreads the signal energy over a wide
frequency band. It is designed to enhance the reliability, security, and anti-jamming
capabilities of wireless communication systems. Spread Spectrum technology is widely used
in various wireless communication applications, including wireless LANs, Bluetooth, GPS,
and military communication systems. There are two primary types of Spread Spectrum:
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) and Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS).

1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

Overview:
FHSS involves rapidly switching the carrier frequency among a set of predefined channels.
The frequency hopping sequence is known to both the transmitter and receiver.
The hopping rate is typically much faster than the data rate.

Advantages:
Resistance to interference and jamming, as the signal is spread across different frequencies.
Enhanced security due to the difficulty of intercepting and decoding a signal that is rapidly
changing frequencies.

Applications:
Bluetooth technology uses FHSS for short-range wireless communication.
Military and tactical communication systems.

2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):

Overview:
DSSS spreads the signal by modulating it with a much higher data rate pseudo-random
sequence known as a spreading code.
The spreading code is used at both the transmitter and receiver to encode and decode the
signal.
The signal appears as wideband noise to an unintended receiver not synchronized with the
spreading code.
Advantages:
Improved resistance to interference and jamming.
Increased capacity for multiple users to share the same frequency band.

Applications:
Wireless LANs based on standards like IEEE 802.11b/g/n often use DSSS.
Some versions of CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) cellular systems.

3. Applications of Spread Spectrum:

41
Wireless LANs (WLANs):
Spread Spectrum is commonly used in Wi-Fi networks to provide reliable and secure wireless
connectivity.
Bluetooth:

FHSS is used in Bluetooth technology for short-range wireless communication between

devices.
Global Positioning System (GPS):

GPS employs Spread Spectrum to allow multiple satellites to transmit signals on the same
frequency without interference.
Military Communication:

Spread Spectrum is widely adopted in military communication systems due to its resistance
to interference and jamming.
Satellite Communication:

Some satellite communication systems utilize Spread Spectrum techniques for signal
transmission.
4. Advantages of Spread Spectrum:
Resistance to Interference: Spread Spectrum signals are more robust against narrowband
interference and jamming.
Security: Spread Spectrum offers a level of security as the signal appears as noise without
knowledge of the spreading code.
Multipath Fading Mitigation: It helps mitigate the effects of multipath fading in wireless
communication.

4.7 V.24
V.24, also known as the RS-232 standard, is a widely used interface standard for serial
communication between data terminal equipment (DTE) and data circuit-terminating
equipment (DCE). It defines the electrical characteristics and functional requirements for
serial communication, primarily used in the connection between computers and peripheral
devices such as modems, printers, and serially controlled instruments. Here's an overview of
the V.24/RS-232 standard:

1. Physical Characteristics:
Voltage Levels: V.24 specifies voltage levels for logical "1" and "0" as typically being +3 to
+15 volts for a logical "1" and -3 to -15 volts for a logical "0."
Signaling: It uses bipolar signaling (positive and negative voltages) for data transmission.
2. Connectors and Pin Assignments:

42
DB-25 Connector: The standard originally used a 25-pin connector, commonly known as a
DB-25. However, it is also possible to use a smaller 9-pin variant (DB-9) for many
applications.
Pin Assignments: The standard defines the functions of each pin, including transmit data,
receive data, ground, control signals (such as RTS - Request to Send and CTS - Clear to
Send), and others.
3. Data Transmission:
Asynchronous Communication: RS-232 is commonly used in asynchronous communication,
where each character is framed by start and stop bits.
Data Rate (Baud Rate): The data rate can vary, but common baud rates include 9600, 19200,
and 115200 bits per second (bps).
4. Handshaking and Flow Control:
RTS/CTS Flow Control: V.24 supports hardware flow control using Request to Send (RTS)
and Clear to Send (CTS) signals to manage the flow of data between devices.
Software Flow Control: In addition to hardware flow control, RS-232 also supports software-
based flow control using XON/XOFF characters.
5. Error Detection:
Parity Bit: RS-232 supports optional parity bit for error detection. Common parity settings
include none, even, and odd.
6. Applications:
Computer Peripherals: RS-232 has been widely used for connecting computers to various
peripherals, such as modems, printers, and serially controlled instruments.
Configuration and Debugging: It is often used for configuring and debugging networking
equipment and embedded systems.
7. Limitations and Challenges:
Limited Distance: RS-232 is designed for short-distance communication, typically up to a
few meters.
Sensitivity to Electrical Noise: The standard is sensitive to electrical noise, and long cables or
noisy environments may impact signal integrity.

4.8 Unit End Questions

Q.1 Explain about circuit switching with types.
Q.2.What do you mean by Packet Switching?
Q.3 Write down about the following:
1. SS7
2. V.24
3. X.25
Q.4 Discuss about spread spectrum.

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Unit 5 Data Communication System

Structure:
5.0 Introduction Data Communication System
5.1 Basics of Microwave Communication
5.2 Satellite and Types of Satellite
5.3 Unit End Questions

5.0 Introduction Data Communication System

A Data Communication System (DCS) is a network or system that enables the

exchange of data between different devices or entities through a communication
medium. This process involves the transmission of digital or analog signals, allowing
information to be transferred from one point to another. Data communication systems
are fundamental to the functioning of modern telecommunications, computer
networks, and various other technologies that rely on the exchange of data.

Key components of a Data Communication System:

Message: The information or data that needs to be communicated from one device to
another. It could be in the form of text, numbers, images, or any other type of
information.

Sender: The device or entity that originates and sends the message. This could be a
computer, smartphone, sensor, or any other source generating data.

Receiver: The device or entity that receives the message. It could be another
computer, display device, storage system, or any destination for the transmitted data.

Transmission Medium: The physical path through which the data travels from the
sender to the receiver. Transmission media can be wired, such as copper cables or
optical fibers, or wireless, like radio waves or infrared signals.

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 Protocol: A set of rules and conventions that govern the format and behavior of data
during transmission. Protocols ensure that the sender and receiver can interpret and
process the information correctly.

Encoder and Decoder: These are components responsible for converting the message
into a suitable format for transmission (encoder) and converting it back to its original
form at the receiver's end (decoder).

Modem (Modulator-Demodulator): In cases where the transmission medium is analog

(e.g., telephone lines), a modem is used to modulate digital signals into analog for
transmission and demodulate analog signals back into digital at the receiving end.

Switching and Routing: In networked environments, switching and routing devices

are used to direct data traffic between multiple interconnected devices.

Error Detection and Correction: Mechanisms and algorithms are employed to detect
and correct errors that may occur during data transmission.

Network Interface Cards (NICs): Hardware components that connect devices to a

network and facilitate communication by implementing data link layer protocols.

Data communication systems play a crucial role in various domains, including

telecommunication networks, the internet, satellite communication, and local area
networks (LANs). As technology advances, the efficiency, speed, and reliability of
data communication systems continue to improve, enabling the seamless exchange of
information across the globe.

5.1 Basics of Microwave Communication

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Microwave communication is a form of wireless communication technology that uses high-
frequency radio waves in the microwave frequency range for transmitting data, voice, and
video signals. It is widely employed in various applications, including point-to-point
communication, satellite communication, radar systems, and wireless networks. Here are the
basics of microwave communication:

Frequency Range:

Microwave communication typically operates in the frequency range of 1 gigahertz (GHz) to

300 gigahertz (GHz). This range falls between the radio frequency (RF) and infrared
frequency bands.
Propagation Characteristics:

Microwaves travel in a straight line and are subject to the line-of-sight communication
principle. This means that obstacles like buildings and geographical features can obstruct the
signal path.
Line-of-Sight Communication:

Microwave communication requires an unobstructed line of sight between the transmitting

and receiving antennas. This limitation is due to the fact that microwaves do not bend around
obstacles like lower frequency radio waves.
Transmitting and Receiving Antennas:

Parabolic dish antennas are commonly used in microwave communication systems. The
transmitting antenna focuses the signal into a narrow beam, and the receiving antenna
captures the signal at the other end.
Point-to-Point Communication:

Microwaves are often employed for point-to-point communication links. This is common in
long-distance communication links, such as those used for connecting network nodes,
backhauling in telecommunications, and establishing links between buildings.
Satellite Communication:

Microwaves are utilized in satellite communication systems. Ground stations transmit signals
to satellites in geostationary orbit, which then relay the signals back to other ground stations.
This enables global communication coverage.
Microwave Transmitters and Receivers:

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Transmitters generate microwave signals by modulating an RF carrier wave. Receivers
demodulate the received signals to extract the original information. Both components are
designed to operate at microwave frequencies.
Multiplexing:

Microwave communication systems often use frequency division multiplexing (FDM) or time
division multiplexing (TDM) to transmit multiple signals over the same channel.
Advantages:

High data transmission rates.

Narrow beamwidth allows for efficient use of bandwidth.
Low signal attenuation in the atmosphere compared to lower frequency bands.
Challenges:

Susceptibility to atmospheric effects, such as rain and atmospheric absorption.

Limited ability to penetrate obstacles due to the line-of-sight requirement.
Licensing requirements for specific frequency bands.
Microwave communication is a crucial technology for long-distance, high-capacity links, and
it continues to play a significant role in various communication and data transmission
applications. Advances in technology have led to the development of millimeter-wave
communication systems, expanding the capabilities of microwave communication.

5.2 Satellite and Types of Satellite

Satellites are artificial objects placed in orbit around celestial bodies, commonly Earth, for
various purposes, including communication, Earth observation, navigation, scientific

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research, and space exploration. Satellites play a crucial role in modern technology and have
become integral components of various sectors. Here are key aspects about satellites:

Orbit Types:
Satellites can be placed in different orbits, including low Earth orbit (LEO), medium Earth
orbit (MEO), and geostationary orbit (GEO). Each orbit serves specific purposes based on the
satellite's intended function.

Communication Satellites:
Communication satellites relay signals for television, radio, internet, and telephone services.
Geostationary communication satellites remain fixed relative to a specific point on Earth,
providing continuous coverage to a specific region.

Earth Observation Satellites:

Earth observation satellites are equipped with sensors and cameras to monitor and collect
data about Earth's surface, atmosphere, and oceans. This data is used for weather forecasting,
environmental monitoring, agriculture, and disaster management.

Navigation Satellites:
Navigation satellites, such as those in the Global Positioning System (GPS), provide accurate
positioning and timing information for navigation purposes. They are widely used in aviation,
maritime, and terrestrial navigation systems.

Scientific Satellites:
Scientific satellites are designed for various research purposes, including studying space
phenomena, cosmic rays, and other celestial bodies. They contribute to our understanding of
the universe and its underlying physics.

Weather Satellites:
Weather satellites monitor atmospheric conditions and collect data to facilitate weather
forecasting. They provide valuable information about cloud cover, precipitation, temperature,
and other meteorological parameters.

Spy Satellites:
Military and intelligence agencies deploy reconnaissance satellites for surveillance and
intelligence-gathering purposes. These satellites capture high-resolution images and monitor
activities on the ground.

Space Telescopes:

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Satellites like the Hubble Space Telescope and other observatories in space are used for
astronomical observations. They capture clear images of distant galaxies, nebulae, and other
celestial objects without the interference of Earth's atmosphere.

Launch Vehicles:
Satellites are launched into space using rockets or launch vehicles. Various space agencies
and private companies are involved in launching satellites into orbit.

Satellite Lifespan:
The lifespan of a satellite varies depending on its design and purpose. Communication
satellites in GEO may have lifespans of 10 years or more, while scientific satellites and Earth
observation satellites in lower orbits may have shorter lifespans.

Space Debris:
Satellites contribute to the growing issue of space debris. Discarded rocket stages and defunct
satellites in orbit pose challenges for space traffic management and can potentially collide
with operational satellites.
Types of Satellites:
Satellites serve diverse purposes, and they can be categorized into various types based on
their functions, orbits, and applications. Here are some common types of satellites:

Communication Satellites:
These satellites are designed to relay signals for telecommunications, broadcasting, and
internet services. Geostationary communication satellites, positioned in geostationary orbit
(GEO), are commonly used for this purpose.

Earth Observation Satellites:

Earth observation satellites are equipped with sensors and cameras to monitor and collect
data about Earth's surface, atmosphere, and oceans. They are used for environmental
monitoring, agriculture, disaster management, and urban planning.

Navigation Satellites:
Navigation satellites provide accurate positioning, navigation, and timing information. The
Global Positioning System (GPS) is a well-known example, and other systems include
GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou.

Weather Satellites:
Weather satellites monitor atmospheric conditions and collect data for weather forecasting
and meteorological research. They provide information about cloud cover, precipitation,
temperature, and atmospheric phenomena.

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Scientific Satellites:
Scientific satellites are used for various research purposes, including studying space
phenomena, cosmic rays, and other celestial bodies. They contribute to our understanding of
the universe and its underlying physics.

Spy or Reconnaissance Satellites:

These satellites are used for military and intelligence purposes to gather information, monitor
activities, and capture high-resolution images of specific areas on the Earth's surface.

Space Telescopes:
Space telescopes, such as the Hubble Space Telescope, are placed in orbit to observe celestial
objects without the distortion caused by Earth's atmosphere. They provide clear images of
distant galaxies, nebulae, and other cosmic phenomena.

Navigation and Timing Satellites:

Apart from global navigation systems, some satellites are specifically designed to provide
accurate timing signals. These signals are essential for synchronization in various
technologies, including telecommunications and financial transactions.

Satellite Constellations:
Constellations consist of multiple small satellites working together to provide continuous
global coverage. Examples include the Starlink constellation for internet services and the
Iridium constellation for satellite phone communication.

Remote Sensing Satellites:

Remote sensing satellites capture data from a distance using various sensors. They are crucial
for applications such as agriculture monitoring, environmental assessment, and disaster
response.

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5.3 Unit End Questions
Q.1 Explain data communication in detail.
Q.2 Write down about satellite communication.
Q.3 What do you mean by microwave communication.
Q.4 Explain types of satellite which we use in daily life.

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