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10 viewsInheritance, polymorphism and pointer
Unit 7 covers key concepts in object-oriented programming, including inheritance, polymorphism, and pointers. It explains various types of inheritance (single, multi-level, hierarchical, and hybrid), the role of virtual functions in achieving runtime polymorphism, and the use of pointers to manage memory and objects. The unit also includes examples and exercises to reinforce understanding of these concepts.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
10 viewsInheritance, polymorphism and pointer
Unit 7 covers key concepts in object-oriented programming, including inheritance, polymorphism, and pointers. It explains various types of inheritance (single, multi-level, hierarchical, and hybrid), the role of virtual functions in achieving runtime polymorphism, and the use of pointers to manage memory and objects. The unit also includes examples and exercises to reinforce understanding of these concepts.
Uploaded by
HeureuseCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 35
Unit 7: Inheritance, Polymorphism and Pointer
Notes
Structure
7.1 Introduction
72. Inheritance
73 Denived class
734 Access Control
7.4 Type of Inheritance
7.44 Single Inheritance
7.42 Multi Level Inheritance
7.43 Hierarchical Inheritance
7.4.4 Hybnd inhentance
7.5 Polymorphism
76 Pointer
7.6.4 The Pointer Operators
77 Pointer to object
78 This Pointer
79 Pointer to derived class
7.10 Virtual Functions
7.11 Pure virtual funetion With Pointers
7.12 Virtual Base Class
7.13 Abstract Classes
7.14. Constructor in denved class
745 Summary
7.48 Check Your Progress
7.17 Questions and Exercises
718 Key Toms
7.19 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unt, you should be able to
‘© Understand Inheritance
@ Discuss the concept of virtual function.
© Explain the concept of templates
7.1 Introduction
A pointer is variable that holds a memory address. This memory address is the
location of other objects (typically another variable) in memory. For example, if one 144
Notes
‘Object Oriented Programming wit C+
variable contains the address of another variable, the frst variable is said to point to the
second
In this lesson we will going to learn about inheritance, pointer, template,
7.2 Inheritance
Inheritance is 2 key feature of object-oriented programming in which a new class
(derived class) is created from an existing class(base class). The derived class inherits
all feature from a base class and it can have additional features of ts own
7.3 Derived class
A class can be derived from more than one classes, which implies it can acquire data
and capacities from numerous base classes. To characterize a derived class, we ullize
a class determination rundown to indicate the base class(es). A class inference list
‘names one or more base classes and has the structure:
class derived.class: access-specifier base-class
Where access-specifier is one of open, secured, or private, and base-class is the
name of a formerly characterized class. In the event that the entrance specifier is not
utilized, then itis private neturelly
Consider a base class Shape and its derived class Rectangle as take after
include
using namespace std
Base class
class Shape
{
open:
void setWidthiint w)
{
width = w;
}
void setHeight(int h)
{
height = hy
}
secured
int width;
int height,
%
Derived class
class Rectangle: open Shape
{
open Inectance, Polymorphism and Pointer
int getArea()
retum (width * height)
y:
ii
int main(void)
(
Rectangle Rect
Rect setwidth(5)
Rect setHeignt(7)
(Print the zone of the article
cout << "Aggregate zone: " << Rect getArea() << endl
retum 6:
)
At the point when the above code is aggregated and executed, it delivers the
accompanying result
Output : 35
7.3.1 Access Control
We should recollect that a determined class can access all the non-private members of
its base class. Consequently, base-class members that ought not be accessible to the
part functions of inferred classes ought to be proclaimed private in the base class.
We can compress the diverse access sorts as indicated by who can access them in
the accompanying way.
Table 1.1 Different Types of Access
Acces Public | Protected | Private
Same class yes__| ves es
Derivedclasses [yes | Yes no
Outside classes | yes | No no
A derived class inherits all base class methods with the following exceptions:
© Constructors, destructor and copy constructors of the base class
© Overloaded operators of the base class.
© The friend functions of the base class
7.4 Type of Inheritance
While using different type of inheritance, following rules are applied
© Public Inheritance When deriving a class from a public base class, public
members of the base class become public members of the derived class and
protected members of the base class become protected members of the derived
Class. A base class's private members are naver accessible directly from a derived
145
Notes 146
Notes
‘Object Oriented Programming wit C+
class, but can be accessed thraugh calls to the public and protected members of
the base class.
© Protected Inheritance: When deriving from a protected base class, public and
protected members of the base class become protected members of the denved
class
© Private Inheritance: When deriving from a private base class, public and protected
members of the base class become private members of the derivad class,
7.44 Single Inheritance
In single inheritance, there is only one base class and only one derived class.
A Super Class
B Sub Class
Example: Single Level Inheritance
7.4.2 Multi Level Inheritance
In this, there will be a chain of inheritance with @ class derived from only one parent and
will have only one child class. Inectance, Polymorphism and Pointer
Example: Multi Level Inheritance
7.4.3 Hierarchical Inheritance
Hierarchical Inheritance is a method of inheritance where one or more derived classes
are derived from common base class
147
Notes 148 (Object Oriented Programming wit C++
Notes
Syntax
class base_classname
{
properties
methods;
)
class derived_classt visibility mode base_classname
{
properties,
methods,
by
class derived _class2:visibility mode base classname
{
properties
methods,
)
class derived_classN-vsibilty_mode base_classname
{
properties
methods,
% Inectance, Polymorphism and Pointer
7.4.4 Hybrid Inheritance
In this one or more types of inheritance are combined together and used. In this
diagram below combination of Hiererchical and Multilevel Inheritance is shown
A
o
Qa
7.5 Polymorphism
Polymorphism is an important OOP concept Polymorphism means the ability to take
more than one form. For example, an operation may exhibit different behavior in
different instances. The behavior depends upon the types of data used in the operation
For example, consider the operation of addition. For two numbers, the operation will
generate @ sum. If the operands are strings, then the operation will produce a third
string by contention. The diagram given below. illustrates that a single function name
can be used to handle different number and types of arguments. This is something
similar to a particular word having several different meanings depending on the context
Polymorphism plays an important role in following objects having different intemal
structures to share the same external interface. This means that a general class of
operations may be accessed in the same manner even though specific actions
associated with each operation may differ
Polymorphism can be implemented using operator and function overioading, where
the same operator and function works differently on different arguments producing
different results. These polymorphisms are brought into effect at compile time itself,
hence is known as early binding, static binding, static linking or compila time
polymorphism,
However, ambiguity creeps in when the base class and the derived class both have
a function with same name. For instance, let us consider the following code snippet.
149
Notes 150
Notes
‘Object Oriented Programming wit C+
@ display) decived class
Since, both the functions aa cisplay() and bb.display() are same but at in different
classes, there is no overloading, and hence early binding does not apply. The
appropriate function is chosen at the run time run time polymorphism,
C++ supports run-time polymorphism by @ mechanism called virtual function. it
exhibits late binding or dynamic linking.
As slated earlier, polymorphism refers to the property by which objects belonging to
different classes are able to respond to the same message, but in different forms.
Therefore, an essential feature of polymorphism is the ability to refer to objects without
any regard to their classes. It implies that a single pointer variable may refer to object of
different classes.
However, @ base pointer, even if is made to contain the address of the derived
class, ahvays executes the function in the base class. The compiler ignores the content
of the pointer and chooses the member function that matches the type of the pointer.
Thus, the polymorphism stated above cannot be implemented by this mechanism.
C++ implements the runtime abject polymorphism using a function type known as
Virtual function. When a function with the same name is used both in the base class and
the derved class, the function in the base class is declared virtual by attaching the
keyword virtual in the base class preceding its normal declaration. Then C++
datermines which function to use at run time based on the type of abject pointed to by
‘the base pointer rather than the type of the pointer. Thus, by making the base pointer to
point to different objects, one can execute different definitions of the virluel function as
given in the program below.
coue<<”\n print ba
@ show () us Inortanes, Polymorphism and Pointsr
courx<"\n display derived”?
out<<""\n show derived";
basepts -> show/
<<\n\nbaee!
és
basepts -> displ
=> show0)t ‘
?
The output of this program would be
Here, we see that the same abject pointer points to two different objects of different
classes and yet solocts the right function to execute. This is implementation of function
polymorphism. Remember, however, that runtime polymorphism is achieved only when
a virlual function is accessed through a pointer to the base class. It's also intoresting to
note that since, all the C++ classes are derived from the Object class, a pointer to the
Object class can point to any objact of any class in C++
7.6 Pointer
Ifa variable is going to hold a pointer, it must be declared as such. A pointer declaration
consists of a base type, an *, and the variable name. The general form for declaring @
pointer variable is
type * name:
151
Notes 182
Notes
‘Object Oriented Programming wit C+
where type is the base of the pointer and may be any valid type. The name of the
pointer variable is specified by name.
The base type of the pointer defines what type of variables the pointer can point to.
Technically, any type of pointer can point anywhere in memory. However, all pointer
arithmetic \s done relative to its base type, so it is important to declare the pointer
correctly
7.8. The Pointer Operators
We will tke a closer look at the Pointer operators here, beginning with a review of their
basic operation. There are two special pointer operators: * and & The & is @ unary
‘operator that retumns the memory address of its operand. (Remember, a unary operator
only requires one operand )
For oxamplo,
m= &count
place into m the memory address of the variable count. This address is the computer's
Internal location of the variable. It has nothing to do with the value of count. You can
think of & as returning "the address of * Therefore, the preceding assignment statemant
means “m receives the address of count’.
To understand the above assignment better, assume that the variable count uses
memory location 2000 to store its value. Also assume that count has a value of 100.
Then, after the preceding assignment, m will have the value 2000,
‘The second pointer operator. *, is the complement of & It is @ unary operator that
returns the value located at the address that follows. For example, if m contains the
memory address of the variable count,
q=tm;
places the value of count into g. Thus, q will have the value 100 because 100 is stored
at location 2000, which is the memory address that was stored in m. You can think of
“ac ” at address.” in this case, the preceding statement means "g receives the value at
address m’"
Both & and * have a higher precedence than all other arithmetic operators except
the unary minus, with which they are equal
You must make sure that your pointer variables always point to the correct type of
data, For example, when you declare a pointer to be of type int, the compiler assumes
‘nat any address that it holds point to an integer variable — whether it actually does or
not. Because C allows you to assign any address to @ pointer variable, the following
code fragment compiles with no error messages (or only warnings, depending upon
‘your compiler), but does not produce the desired result
2 inc: o.h>
double x = 100.1, v
pointer) to point
= atetenent causes 5 Inortanes, Polymorphism and Pointsr
‘This will not assign the value of x to y. Because p is declared as an integer pointer,
only or 4 bytes of information will be transferred to y, not the 7 bytes that normally make
up a double.
In C+4, itis illegal to convert one type of pointer into another without the use of an
explicit type cast. For this reason, the preceding program will not even compile if you try
to compile it as a C++ (rather than as a C) program. However, the type of error
ascribed can still occur in G+* in a more roundabout manner.
7.7 Pointer to object
A variable that holds an address value is known as a pointer variable or pointer. Pointer
can point to object, simple data type and arrays. Sometime we did not know about the
number of objects we need at the time when we start writing the program. In that case,
we write new to create objects during program execution,
Consider an example of pointer to object:
#include
#include
using namespace std,
class student
t
private
introlino;
string name
public:
student()rollno(0),name(™)
a
student(intr, string n):rolino(s),name (n)
a
void get()
{
coute<"enter roll no”
cine>rollno;
couts<‘enter name",
cino>name
}
void print()
C
183
Notes 184
Notes
‘Object Oriented Programming wit C+
cout<<"roll no is "<
de
len{strl) : << len << and:
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces result something as
follows:
The String Class in C++:
‘The standard C++ library provides a string class type that supports all the operations
mentioned above, additionally much more functionality. We will study this class in C++
Standard Library but for now lat us check following example Inortanes, Polymorphism and Pointsr
At this point, you mey not understand this example because so far we have not
discussed Classes and Objects. So can have a look and proceed until you have
understanding on Object Oriented Concepts
ude
using nanesp:
xc sted <<
al lenghth of etz3 a
size):
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces result something as
follows:
Helle
ete + at sistiozia
str3.sizeQ) + 10
String Manipulation in C++
The Standard String Class (strings)
We will usually refer to these things as strings, and the other type as c-strings or ntcas.
One fact that you want to Keep in mind is that they are indeed of different type, so you
187
Notes 158
Notes
(Object Oriented Programming wit O-+
cannot expect the compiler to understand you if yau start to mix them. There is a set of
functions available to the programmer for the manipulation of standard stings. Some
compilers will have them and some will not In order to access them in the GNU
compiler, you will need to include the system filo string. Thus, when using more
specialized string class functions, put the preprocessor command.
de
at the top of your program with other system includes. | will leave it up to you to
discover the different functions allowing you to manipulate standard stings by looking
‘them up in the text or on-line. They are numerous and varied. But remember, the GNU
compiler may not have them available and you will have to work around them.
.c
character-by-character using get()
Each of these methods has an advantage, but it depends on the requirements of
the problem. Ifyou need to process each cheracter, then read cher-by-char. If you need
to process each word, then use cin=>
‘The put () function is actually fairly useless,
is equivalent to ‘av; End of discussion!
The puck:
stream
(0 function will allow you fo put a charactor back into the input
cin.putbackt(chay var) s
The peek () function will allow you to know what the next character in the input
stream is without extracting from that stream.
All these functions will allow 2 certain degree of manipulation of the input stream
and its contents for single characters,
7.8 This Pointer
When @ member function is called, itis automatically passed an implicit argument that is
a pointer to the invoking object (that is, the object on which the function is called).
This pointer is called this. To understand this, first consider a program that creates
a class called pwr that computes the result of a number raised to some power:
161
Notes 162
Notes
(Object Oriented Programmimg with C+
pwr (double base, i
ble base,
al te:
sget pwr() <<" An":
Within a member function, the members of a class can be accessed directly,
without any object or class qualification. Thus, inside pwr(), the statement
ase;
means that the copy of b associated with the invoking object will be assigned the value
contained in base. However, the same statement can also be written lke this.
this>t
ase,
The this pointer points to the object that invoked pwn). Thus, this-»b rafers to that
object's copy of b. For example, if pwr) had been invoked by x (as in x (4.0,2)), then
this in the preceding statement would have been pointing to x, Writing the statement
without using this ts really just shorthand
Here is the entire pwr() function written using the this pointer Inortanes, Polymorphism and Pointsr
Actually, no C++ programmer would write pwr() as just shown because nothing is
gained, and the standard form is easier. However, the this pointer is very important
when operators are overloaded and whenever a member function must utlize a pointer
to the object that invoked it
Remember that the this pointer is automatically passed to all member functions.
‘Therefore, get_pwri) could also be rewritten as shown here
ouble
pee () [xeturn
In this case, if get_pwr() is invoked lke this
prs ():
Then this will pint to object two final points about this. Fits, fiend functions are not
members of a class and, therefore, are not passed this pointer. Second, state member
funetions do not have a this pointer
7.9 Pointer to derived class
#include
ulilizing namespace st
class BaseCiass {
intx,
public
Void setx(int) {
=I
)
int getx() {
retum x;
)
®
class DerivedClass | public BaseClass {
inty,
public.
163
Notes 164
Notes
‘Object Oriented Programming wit C+
void sety(int I) {
int gety0{
return y,
}
k
int main)
ci
BaseClass "p
pointer to BaseClass type
BasoClass baseObject,/
object of BaseClass
DerivedClass derivedObject,/
object of DerivedClass
p= baseObject; use p to gat to BaseClass object
psatx(10) Jaccess BaseClass object
cout << "Base item x:" << pogetx() << "'
p= 8derivedObject, /point to DerivedClass object
po>setx(99) faccess DerivedClass object
derivedObject sety(38) ‘can't utlize p to set y, so do it specifically
cout << "Determined item x. " << p->getx() <<,
cout << "Determined item y- " << derivedObject gety() <<
return 0
)
7.10 Virtual Functions
Virtual means existing in effect but not in reality. A viual function then is one that does
not really exist but nevertheless appears real to some parts of a program.
Consider an example, which explains the need of virlual function: Suppose you
have a number of objects of different classes but you want to put them all on a list and
perform a particular operation on them by using the same function call. For example,
Suppose @ graphics program include several different shapes: a tangle, a ball, a
square, and so on. Each of these class has a member function draw() that causes the
object to be drawn on the screen.
Now suppose you plan to make a picture by grouping a number of these elements
together, and you want to draw the picture in a convenient way. One approach is to
create an array that holds pointers to all the different objects in the picture. The array
might be defined like this.
shape" ptrass [100]; !/ array of 100 pointers to shapes Inortanes, Polymorphism and Pointsr
If you insert pointers to all the shapes into this array, you can then draw an entire
Picture using a simple loop:
for(int
jeN, j++)
ptrass{] > draw)
In virtual function, completely different functions are executed by the same function
call. If the pointer in ptrass points to a ball, the function that draws @ ball is called: fit
points to a triangle, the triangle-drewing function is drawn. This is an important example
of polymorphism, or giving different meanings to the same thing.
However, for this polymorphic approach to work, several conditions must be met
First, all the different classes of shapes, such as balls and trangles, must be derived
from a single base class. Second, the draw ( ) function must be declated to be virtual in
the base class.
Consider the program given below to clearly understand the virtual function:
ude
3 enor)
<<"\n show base
show()
show
165
Notes 166
Notes
‘Object Oriented Programming wit C+
Derived 2; // Declarations
Base *bper?
pointe te Derived \n"s
Note that when bptr is made to point tothe object D, the statement
bptr ->display(),
calls only the function associated with the Base (i.e. Base = display( } ) whereas the
statement
bptr ->show()
Calls the Derived version of show ( ). This 's because the function display ( ) has
not been made virtual in the Base class.
One important point to remember is that, we must access virtual functions through
‘the use of @ pointer declared as a pointer to the base class. Why cant we use the
object name (with the dot operator) the same way as any other member function to call
‘the virtual function? We can, but remember, runtime polymorphism is achieved only
when a virtual function is accessed through a pointer to the base class,
7.11 Pure virtual function With Pointers
Let's make a single change in our program. Weill place the keyword virtual in front of
‘the declarator for the show () function in the base class. Here's the listing for the
resulting program, VIRT Inortanes, Polymorphism and Pointsr
W vires opp
<<"\n Base
// devived class1
<<"\n Dervt
/ derived cla
167
Notes 168
Notes
‘Object Oriented Programming wit C+
The output of this program is,
Now, as you can see. th member functions of the derived classes, not the base
class, are executed. We change the contents of ptr from the address of Dervt to that of
Derv2, and the particular instance of show ( ) that is executed also changes. So the
same function call, ptr >show ( )
executes different functions, depending on the contents of ptr. The rule is that the
compiler selects the function based on the contents of the pointer pir, not on the type of
‘the pointer, as in NOT VIRTUAL.
7.12 Virtual Base Class
‘Assume you have two derived classes B and C that have a common base class A, and
‘you additionally have another class D which is inheritad from B and C. You can declare
‘the base class A as virtual to guarantee that B and C share the same subobject of A
In the accompanying illustration, an object of class D has two particular subobjects
of class L, one through class B1 and another through class B2. You can use the
keyword virtual before the base class specifiers in the base lists of classes B1 and 82 to
show that one and only subobject of type L, shared by class 61 and class B2, exists.
For example:
vir
class L (/"..*/}; (V indirect base class.
class 81 virtual public L{/* ..*/}:
class B2: virtual public L{/" ..*!};
class D public B1, public B2 (/*... */); {f valid
L
Using the keyword virtual in this example ensures that an object of class D inherits
only one subobject of class L
7.13 Abstract Classes
Abstract Class is a class which contains alleast one Pure Virtual function in il, and is
use to give an Interface to its sub classes. Classes acauiring an Abstract Class must
provide definition to the pure viral function, else they will also become abstract class Inertance, Polymorphism and Pointer
Characteristics of Abstract Class
© Abstract class can't be instantiated
Abstract class can have normal functon and variables along wih a pure vitual
junction
An interface describes the behavior or capabilities of a G++ class without
committing to @ particular implementation of that class
‘The C++ interfaces are implemented using abstract classes and these abstract
classes should not be confused with data abstraction which is a concept of keeping
implementation details separate from associated data
A class is made abstract by declaring at least one of its functions as pure
virtual function. A pure virtual functon is specified by placing "= 0" in tts declaration as
follows:
es Box
ach
J) Beis!
‘The purpose of an abstract class (often referred to as an ABC) is to provide an
appropriate base class fram which other classes can inherit, Abstract classes cannot be
used fo instantiate objects and serves only as an interface Attempting to instantiate an
object of an abstract class causes a compilation error.
‘Thus, if @ subclass of an ABC needs to be instantiated, it has to imploment each of
the virtual functions, which means that it supports the interface declared by the ABC.
Failure to override’ a pure virluel function in a derived class, then attempting to
instantiate objects of that class, is a compilation error.
Classes that can be used to instantiate objects are celled conerete classes.
Abstract Class Example:
Consider the following example where parent class provides an interface to the
base class to implement a function called getArea()
ueing nanesp:
169
Notes 170
Notes
(Object Oriented Programmimg with C+
void setmideh (int w)
inc widchr
int getarea()
ei Inortanes, Polymorphism and Pointsr
©
* << tri,
2a) << en
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
Total Rectangle area: 35
jotel Triangle area: 17
You can see how an abstract class defined an interface in terms of gotArea() and
two other classes implemented same function but with different algorithm to calculate
the area specific to the shape
Designing Strategy:
‘An object-oriented system might use an abstract base class to provide a common and
standardized interface appropriate for all the external applications. Then, through
inheritance from that abstract base class, derived classes are formed that all operate
similarly.
The capabiities (ie, the public functions) offered by the extemal applications are
provided as pure virtual functions in the abstract base class. The implementations of
these pure virtual functions are provided in the derived classes that correspond to the
‘specifi types of the application
This architecture also allows new applications to be added to a system easily, even
after the system has been defined
7.14 Constructor in derived class
Acconstructor assumes a vital part in initializing an object. An essential note, while using
constructors during inheritance, is that, as long as a base class constructor does not
take any arguments, the derived class need not nave a constructor function. However. if
a base class contains a constructor with one or more arguments, then itis necessary for
the derived class to have a constructor and pass the arguments to the base class
constructor. Keep in mind, while applying inheritance, we usually create objects using
derived class. Thus denved class pass arguments fo the base class constructor. , the
base constructor is executed first and then the constructor in the derived class is
executed,
Illustration: Program to show now constructor aré invoked in derived class
#include
171
Notes 172
Notes
class alpha
(
private
intx:
public:
alpha(int i)
{
xi,
cout << "\n alpha initialized \n"
y
void show_x0
{
cout << "Inx = "ex;
}
)
class beta
(
private:
float y,
public:
beta(fioat j)
{
yeh
cout <<"tn beta initialized \n"
y
void show_y()
{
cout << "ny = "cy;
,
x
class gamma public beta, public alpha
(
private
inta.m,
public:
gammatint a, float b, int c, int d): alpha(a), beta(b)
(Object Oriented Programmimg with C+ Inhoctancs, Polymorphism and Point 173
t
mSE Notes
n=d;
cout << "in gamma initialized \n"
3
Void show_mn()
t
void main()
£
gamma g(5, 7.65, 30, 100):
cout <<
g.show_x0;
gshow_y()
g.show_mn()
}
Output
beta initialized
alpha intialzed
gamma initialized
xe8
y=705
m=30
n= 100
7.15Summary
In this chapter we studied about pointer, inheritance, types of inheritance, use of
constructor in derived class and about tompiate
Pointers provide an essential tool for increasing the power of C++. Whereas
inheritance allow us to get the features of base class in derived class by various means 174
Notes
‘Object Oriented Programming wit C+
7.16 Check Your Progress
Multiple Choice Questions
1. To what does the function pointer point to?
a) variable
b). constants
©) function
d) absolute variables
2. What we will not do with function pointers?
a) allocation of memory
b) de-allocation of memory
©) both a&b
) none of the mentioned
3. What is the defautt calling convention for a compiler in c++?
a) _sdecl
b) _stdcall
©) __pascal
@) _testcal
4. What is the output of this program?
#include
using namespace std
Int add(int frst, int second)
C
return frst + second + 15)
int operation(int first, int second, int *functocall}int, int))
t
retum (“functocall)first, second);
}
int main()
{
inte
int *plus}(int, int) = add;
a= operation(16, 10, plus)
cout < Inortanes, Polymorphism and Pointsr 175
using namespace std,
void func(int x) Notes
t
cout
using namespace sta
int n{char, int);
int*p) (cher, int
intmaing
(
Cone, 9;
(10, 9)
retum 0
)
int n(char int)
(
cout << <<:
return 0,
}
a) doo
b) dec
©) do
d)_ compile time error
7. What is the output of this program?
#include
using namespace std,
Int func (inta, int b)
{
cout <
