The earth Earth’s history multicellular organisms.

Thus,
photosynthesis had already been adding
- began about 4.5 billion years ago. It was oxygen slowly to the atmosphere, but it
formed about the same time as the solar was quickly absorbed in minerals.
system. - The early and late phases of this eon may
- The earth is thought to have been formed have undergone "Snowball Earth" periods,
from a giant cloud of dust and nebula. in which all of the planet suffered below-
- The pieces of evidence that scientist use zero temperatures.
to determine the age of the earth are
found in layers of rocks which serve as Phanerozoic Eon
records of different geologic processes
- is the current geologic eon in the geologic
that have been going on since the earth’s
time scale, and the one during which when
formation.
complex life, including vertebrates, begin
- These processes include such as:
to dominate the Earth's ocean in a
earthquakes, mountain building, volcanic
process known as the Cambrian
activity, weathering, and erosion all of
explosion.
which keep changing the earth through
- It covers 538.8 million years to the
time.
present, and it began with the Cambrian
The four Great Eons Period, when animals first developed hard
shells preserved in the fossil record.
Hadean Eons
Major Events in Geologic Time Scale
- named after the Greek god and ruler of
the underworld Hades, is the oldest eon - Eons
and dates from 4.5–4.0 billion years ago. - Eras
- The Earth is formed out of debris around - Periods
the solar protoplanetary disk. - Epochs
- This time represents Earth’s earliest
history, during which the planet was Eons
characterized by a partially molten - The largest division of geologic time scale;
surface, volcanism, and asteroid impacts. half billion – nearly 2 billion years ago.
- There is no life.
Eras
Archean Eon
- division that span time periods of tens to
- which lasted from 4.0– 2.5 billion years hundreds of million of years. (Paleozoic,
ago, is named after the Greek word for Mesozoic, Cenozoic)
beginning.
- The first form of life, prokaryote life, Period
emerges at the beginning of this eon in a - a division of geologic history with spans of
process known as abiogenesis. no more than 100 million years.
- This eon represents the beginning of the
rock record. Although there is current Epochs
evidence that rocks and minerals existed
- smallest division of the geologic time scale
during the Hadean Eon, the Archean has
a much more robust rock and fossil Precambrian
record.
- Period of time extending from about 4.6
Proterozoic Eon bya (the point at which Earth began to
form) to the beginning of the Cambrian
- meaning “earlier life,” ranges from 2.5
Period. It encompasses the Archean and
billion years old to 541 million years old.
Proterozoic eons, which are formal
- During this time, most of the central parts
geologic intervals that lasted from 4 billion
of the continents had formed and the plate
to about 541 million years ago and the
tectonic process had started.
Hadean eon, which is an informal interval
- Eukaryotes, a more complex form of life,
spanning from 4.6 billion to 4 bya.
emerge, including some forms of
- The earliest evidence for the advent of life Silurian Period
includes Precambrian microfossils that
- Corals appeared in the ocean and fish
resembles algae. The first multicellular
continued to evolved. On land, vascular
organisms evolved and sexual division
plants appeared. With special tissues to
developed. By the end of the
circulate water and other materials, these
Precambrian, conditions were set for the
plants could grow larger than earlier
explosion of life that took place at the start
nonvascular plants. Cooksonia, a
of the Cambrian, the first period of the
branching vascular plant with sporangia at
Phanerozoic eon.
the tips of each branch.
PALEOZOIC ERA
Devonian Period
- The Paleozoic Era is literally the era of
- The first seed plants evolved. Seeds had a
“old life”. It lasted from 544 to 245 mya
protective coat and stored food to help
and is divided into six periods. The era
them survive. Seed plants eventually
began with a spectacular burst of new life.
became the most common type of land
This is called the Cambrian explosion. The
plants. Fish with lobe fins evolved. They
era ended with the biggest mass extinction
could breathe air when they raised their
the world had ever seen. This is known as
heads above water. Breathing would be
the Permian extinction.
necessary for animals to eventually
Cambrian Explosion colonize the land.

- For about 40 million years, evolution was

in such high gear, with the sudden
appearance of many new animal body
plans, that this period is called Cambrian
radiation, or more informally, Cambrian
explosion.
Cambrian Period

- Following the Precambrian mass

Carboniferous Period
extinction, there was an explosion of new
kinds of organisms in the Cambrian. Many - Widespread forests of huge plants left
types of primitive animals called sponges massive deposits of carbon that eventually
evolved. Small oceans invertebrates turned to coal. The first amphibians
(animals without backbone ). Called evolved to colonize land, but they had to
trilobites , were very abundant. return to water to reproduce. Soon after
amphibians arose, the first reptiles
evolved. They were the first animals that
could reproduce on dry land.

Ordovician Period

- During the next period, the Ordovician

Permian Period
Period (505-440 mya), the oceans
became filled with invertabrates of many - All the major land masses collided to form
types. Also during this period, the first fish a supercontinent called Pangaea.
evolved and plants colonized the land for Temperature were extreme, and the
the first time but animals still remained in climate was dry. Plants and animals
the water. evolved adaptations to dryness, such as
wax leaves or leathery skin to prevent
 water loss. The Permian ended with a warm, and moist tropical breezes
mass extinction. In the mass extinction has took place in 199 – 145 Million
that ended the Permian, the majority of Years Ago during this period.
species went extinct. Shallow seaways covered many
- Despite the great loss of life, there was a continents, and marine and
light at the end of the tunnel. The Permian marginal marine sediments were
extinction paved the way for another burst
of new life at the start of the following
Mesozoic era. This include the evolution of
the dinosaurs.
MESOZOIC ERA

- Began about 252 mya and lasted some

186 million years. It is divided into the
Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.
deposited, preserving a diverse set
The outstanding feature of the Mesozoic
of fossils.
era was the origin, differentiation and
ultimately the extinction of a large variety
of reptiles. For this reason, the Mesozoic
era is commonly called the “Age of
Reptiles”. Most of the modern orders of
insects appeared during this era.
- This Era is divided into three periods;
o Triassic - Cretaceous Period
o Jurassic o During this period, the Earth was
o Cretaceous relatively warm compared to the
- Triassic Period world today. There were no
o Reptiles underwent an adaptive glaciers on the planet and sea
radiation leading to the formation level was as much as 200 feet
of many groups. On land, the higher that today. Fossils of warm-
dominant Triassic groups were the water organisms are found in rocks
mammal-like theraspids, which that are arctic regions today. Large
ranged from small-sized marine reptiles called Mosasaurs
insectivores to moderately large were the dominant organism in the
herbivores and a diverse group of ocean .
thecodonts, early “ruling reptiles”,
which are primarily carnivores. CENOZOIC ERA
Thecodonts are the ancestral - Literally means the era of “modern life”
reptiles that gave rise to and also called the “Age of Mammals”.
crocodilians, flying reptiles, Mammals took advantage of the extinction
dinosaurs and birds. of the dinosaurs. They flourished and soon

- - Jurassic Period
o Dinosaurs, Birds, rodents, became the dominant animals on Earth.
Crumbling landmasses, inland This era is divided into three periods; The
seas, sharks , blood-red plankton, Paleogene, The Neogene, and The
forest of ferns, cycads, conifers , Quaternary.
- This Era is divided into three periods;
 o Paleogene
o Neogene
o Quaternary

- Paleogene Period
o During this era the continents has
drifted away from each other
forming their modern position.
Dinosaurs , Pterosaurs, and Giant
Marine Reptiles were Oligocene Epoch
conspicuously absent from the - The Oligocene was a time of transition
face of the earth as the Paleogene, when older life forms were replace with life
known as the beginning of the forms that dominate the world today. The
Cenozoic era started. The warmer, more tropical environments of the
Paleogene era is also divided into Eocene Epoch gave way to dryer
three Epochs; The Paleocene, The landscapes dominated by grasslands,
Eocene, and the Oligocene. whereas broad-leaf forests became more
o An explosive radiation of primitive restricted to equitorial realm. Many
mammals occurred. Most of them modern families of mammals evolved,
were small forest dwellers that are including the first apes in Africa.
not closely related to mammals. - Many mammals were larger than earlier
During the Eocene epoch, mammals and had longer legs for running,
mammals continued to diverge, specialized teeth for chewing coarse
and all the modern orders first vegetation or for preying on animals, and
appeared. Again, many of the increases in their relative brain sizes. The
mammals were small, but there indricotheres, for example, are extinct
were also some larger herbivores. relatives of rhinoceros. Paraceratherium
was an indricothere, a hornless relative of
the rhinoceros. This huge land mammal
was about 8 m(26 ft) long and weighed
about 15 to 20 tons. It probably ate leaves
and branches of deciduous trees, much as
a modern-day giraffe does.

Eocene Epoch

- An explosive radiation of birds has

occurred in this epoch which acquired
adaptations for different habitats.
Paleontologists hypothesized that the jaws
and the beak of the flightless giant bird
Diatryma, for example, may have been
adapted primarily for crushing and slicing
Neogene Period
vegetation in Eocene forests, marshes
and grasslands. Other paleontologists - Neogene Period started with the
hypothesized that these giant birds were replacement of vast areas of forest by
carnivores that killed or scavenged grasslands and savannahs. New food
mammals and other vertebrates. sources and niches on the grasslands and
savannahs fostered further evolution of
mammals and birds . Whales diversified in
the seas and sharks reached their largest
size during the Miocene. Complex
patterns of mammalian evolution resulted
 from changing climates and continental large spaces I them that help provide
separations. strength and are filled with blood vessels,
nerves, fat and other specialized cells.
Miocene Epoch
These soft parts decay shortly after death,
- The Miocene comprised most of the leaving open spaces in the bone.
Neogene Period making it the second specialized cells. These soft parts decay
longest Epoch of the Cenozoic Era. Wide shortly after death, leaving open spaces in
expanses of grasslands formed across the the bone. If these spaces in become filled
Northern Hemisphere and supported a in with minerals , it is called
variety of new types of mammals. It began permineralization. Calcite(calcium
with a short warming, followed by a return carbonate), Silica (quartz) are common
to the general Cenozoic cooling trend. The mineral.
once great Tethys ocean was reduced to
the Mediterranean Sea and closed both
ends, bringing the circumglobal circulation
of warm waters to an end.

Replacement

- This type of fossil preservation occurs

WAYS OF FOSSILIZATION when the original mineral that made up the
hard parts of an organism is replaced by
Unaltered Preservation an entirely different mineral. The
- Some organisms produce really hard parts replacement process typically happens
or live in habitats with just the right very slowly over a long time, so the fine
conditions that their skeletal remains are details of a fossil are preserved. Common
unchanged or unaltered from when the replacement minerals include pyrite (fool’s
organism was alive. Examples of this can gold), silica (quartz), iron, opal or
include vertebrate teeth, invertebrate phosphate.
shells or organisms preserved in an amber Carbonization/Coalification
or hardened plant sap or mummified.
- The most common preservation of soft
parts. The undergoes carbonization or
distillation in which the volatile
components (oxygen, hydrogen and
nitrogen) of the original organic
substances are “burned off” during decay
leaving behind more complex and
nonreactive carbon-rich substances.
Carbonization is caused by heating of the
rock as it is buried.

Permineralization / Petrification

- The hard parts of an organism are usually

part of its skeleton and most skeletons
have some percentage of soft tissue
incorporated into their structure. Human
bones for example, they are not solid
structures but have numerous small and
Recrystallization fill that cavity and lithify into a cast. An
imprint is formed when an organism is
- The originally fine-grained material of a pressed into soft sand or mud sediments
hard part may reorganized into larger and then later removed. The impression
crystals of the same mineral. No material then fills up and an imprint of an organism
is added or taken away and so no is preserved
alteration in the external form of the fossil
takes place. However, any internal
structures within the hard parts are usually
destroyed. Many carbonate shells (clams,
oysters) are composed of aragonite, which
is less stable crystal form with the same
chemistry as calcite. Aragonite will
typically reorganize into larger crystals of
calcite.

Dating Fossils
Dating rocks

- refers to the process of determining their

age. There are various methods like
radiometric dating, which measures the
decay of radioactive isotopes in rocks, or
relative dating, where rocks are dated in
comparison to each other based on their
Compression position or the fossils they contain. This
- If the fossil remains have been flattened, helps scientists understand the Earth's
so the original three-dimensional shape of history and the timing of geological events.
an organism has been lost, this is called Relative Dating
compression. Sometimes, the weight of
the overlying rock or sediment covering - This method estimates the age of rocks by
the organism can compress it so much comparing them to other surrounding rock
that only a thin film or an impression of the layers. Principles like superposition (older
organism is left. This type of preservation rocks are usually found beneath younger
is common with plants, fish and ones) and cross-cutting relationships
sometimes with organisms that are (features cutting across rock layers are
entirely composed of soft-tissue like younger than the layers they cut through)
jellyfish, squids, or worms. are used.

Authigenic Preservation (Molds, Casts and

Imprints)
Absolute Dating
- When an organism is buried and
- Absolute dating is used to determine a
sediments lithify around it, the organism
precise age of a fossil by using radiometric
creates a mold in the surrounding
dating to measure the decay of isotopes,
material. If the organism decays and
either within the fossil or more often the
creates a cavity (hollow), sediments may
rocks associated with it. Absolute dating
 methods measure the physical properties Principle of cross cutting relationship
of an object itself and use these
Where a fault cuts across other rock layers, the
measurements to calculate its age.
fault is younger than the layers it cuts.
Additionally, where an igneous intrusion cuts
across or bakes other rock units, the intrusion is
younger than the units it cuts across or bakes.
Contact magmatism
Igneous intrusions will alter the rock they intrude
into. If rock shows contact metamorphism the
rock must be older than the intrusion
Unconformities
Radiometric Dating
Previously deposited rock can be weathered and
- This method measures the decay of
eroded away. When new rock is deposited in the
radioactive isotopes in rocks to determine
area a gap time exist between rocks
their age. Common types include Carbon-
14 dating for younger samples and By applying these principles and analyzing the
methods like Potassium-Argon, Uranium- features of a sequence of events, we can piece
Lead, and Rubidium-Strontium dating for together the timeline of occurrences.
older rocks.
- Comparing the amount of radioactive & The five principles behind geologic time:
nonradioactive isotopes to determine rock Uniformitarianism
age.
The principle that the processes observed today
have operated in the past at the same rate
Relative Dating
Determining the age of a rock or fossil based on
its position compared to other layers of rock
Superposition
Luminescene Dating The principle that in undisturbed rock layers, the
- This technique measures the amount of oldest rocks are on the bottom and the youngest
rocks are on top
light released from minerals in rocks due
to natural radiation, providing a way to Original Horizontality
date when the mineral was last exposed to
sunlight or heat. The principle that sedimentary rocks are originally
deposited in horizontal layers
Cross-cutting Relationships
In sequencing an event in geological cross
section we use these 5 principle: The principle that a rock layer or feature that cuts
across another rock layer or feature is younger
Principle of Superposition than the rock layer or feature it cuts across
In undisturbed rock layers, the oldest rocks are in
the bottom and the youngest rocks are on the top
Original horizontality Principle
Sedimentary and volcanic units are also typically
deposited on the Earth's surface in horizontal or
nearly horizontal layers. Thus, if these rocks are
tilted or dipping, then the layers must have been
disturbed by fault rotation or folding sometime
after the rocks were deposited