2.

0 COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Specific objectives
By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to;
a) Describe a computer system
b) Explain the functional organization of the elements of a computer system
c) Describe input devices of a computer system
d) Describe the Central Processing Unit (CPU)
e) Describe the output devices of a computer system
f) Describe the types of secondary storage devices and media
g) Distinguish between power and interface cables
h) Explain basic computer setup and cabling
i) Distinguish between system software and application software
j) Evaluate the criteria for selecting a computer system.

Introduction
Computer systems will include the computer along with any software and
peripheral devices that are necessary to make the computer function. A
computer is made up of two main components Hardware and Software while a
computer system has three namely: Hardware, software and liveware
(computer user).A system is a collection of different entities that collectively
work together to achieve a desired goal. Examples of systems are human
body, social system, school system etc.
A computer system is a collection of three components namely hardware,
software and liveware entities that work together to receive, process, manage
and present information in a meaningful format using computers.

2.1 Components of a Computer System

The computer system consists of three major parts namely
i). Hardware
These are the physical or tangible components of a computer system, which
one can touch and feel/see. They consist of the mechanical , electrical and
electronic parts of the system e.g monitor, system unit, keyboard and mouse,
etc.
ii). Software
Is a set of instructions that direct a computer on what to do. They guide the
computer in each and every activity that happens inside the computer during
data processing. The programs are also written to help the computer users
perform various tasks using the computer. The software is intangible, flexible
and changeable in nature. They are mainly classified into two categories
namely system software and application software.
iii). Liveware (computer user)
Refers to users who have computer knowledge and hence can properly utilize
the computer hardware and software as well as in participation in hardware
and software selection.
Computer Hardware
The computer hardware is classified into four categories namely input
devices, central processing unit, output devices and storage devices.

2.2 Input devices

These are devices which accept data and send it to the CPU. The input devices
have two tasks to perform:
i). Read data from the medium from which it is stored
ii). Code it into a form that can be understood by the computer
Input devices are classified according to how they are used to enter data as
follows:
1) Keying devices i.e. keyboard, keypad
2) Pointing devices i.e. mouse, joy stick, light pen, track ball.
3) Scanning and other data capture devices
4) Speech recognition or voice input devices
5) Touch screen, digitizer and digital cameras

Keying devices

Keying or typing is the most common way to input data. A keying device
converts typed numbers, letters and special characters into machine readable
form before processing takes place.
Keyboard and keypad
They enter into a computer by typing (pressing its keys). A keypad is a tiny
keyboard which is mostly used on small portable computers, calculators,
mobile phones etc.
Common types of keying devices include:
Traditional keyboard : It is a full sized rigid keyboard as discussed in
Chapter 1 of the Handout.

Flexible / Rollup Keyboard: It is a more portable type of keyboard that

can be folded and packed into a bag. Rollup
computer keyboards are extremely good for
traveling. Simply roll them up and then unroll
them when you need them again. Typically
the material is either silicone or
polyurethane. These devices are meant to be
rolled up, rather than folded, as folding can
damage the circuitry.

Ergonomic Computer Keyboards

Ergonomic computer keyboards is a computer keyboard designed with

ergonomic considerations to minimize muscle strain and a host of related
problems. An ergonomic keyboard is designed to make typing easier and
lessen the strain that your hands may suffer, such as "Carpal Tunnel
Syndrome".
Keypad : is a miniature keyboard used on portable devices such as PDAs,
laptops, palm notes, calculators and mobile phones, etc.
keypad is a set of buttons arranged in a block or "pad"
which usually bear digits, symbols and usually a
complete set of alphabetical letters.
 If it mostly contains numbers then it can also be called a numeric keypad.
Keypads are found on many alphanumeric keyboards and on other devices
such as calculators, push-button telephones, combination locks, and digital
door locks, which require mainly numeric input.
A computer keyboard usually has a small numeric keypad on the side, in
addition to the other number keys on the top, but with a calculator-style
arrangement of buttons that allow more efficient entry of numerical data. This
number pad (commonly abbreviated to "numpad") is usually positioned on the
right side of the keyboard because most people are right-handed. [1]

Many laptop computers have special function keys which turn part of the
alphabetical keyboard into a numerical keypad as there is insufficient space to
allow a separate keypad to be built into the laptop's chassis. Separate
external plug-in keypads can be purchased. [1]

Braille keyboard: is an accessibility option for the blind. It consists of

keys identified by raised dots.

Advantages of keyboard
- Its very reliable compared to other methods of text input (voice input)
- Is very cost effective, since every computer comes with a keyboard and
there are no additional costs .

Pointing devices
Enter data or instructions by controlling a pointer or cursor on the screen.
Some examples pointing devices include:- mouse, trackball, joystick, light
pen, and stylus.
i). A mouse
Enter data or instructions by controlling a pointer on the screen. Generally
there are three types of mice available in the market today namely
mechanical, optical and cordless.
Mechanical mouse
It has a ball underneath, two buttons and an optional scroll wheel located
between the left and right buttons.

The optical mouse

An optical mouse uses a light-emitting diode and photodiodes to detect
movement relative to the underlying surface, unlike wheeled mice which use a
set of one rolling ball and two chopper wheels for
motion detection. It does not have any moving
parts.

Laser mouse
A laser mouse is a type of computer mousing device
that uses a laser beam rather than a ball to track
the movement of the user's hand. Laser mice are
becoming increasingly common because they are
perceived to have better tracking ability

Distinguish between mechanical mouse, optical mouse and laser

mouse.
Optical mice make use of one or more light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and an
imaging array of photodiodes to detect movement relative to the underlying
surface, rather than internal moving parts as does a mechanical mouse. A
Laser mouse is an optical mouse that uses coherent (Laser) light.

The difference between a regular optical mouse and a laser mouse is

the light used to track movement. A regular optical mouse uses an LED
light in the optical engine, while a laser mouse uses a laser to track
movement. The more dots per inch (dpi) a mouse can track, the more
sensitive and accurate it is. A typical optical mouse tracks between 400dpi
and 800dpi, while laser mice track more than 2,000dpi.

Neither is really better; it all depends on your needs and preferences. Unless
you're a gamer or a graphic artist with a need for precise movement, you'll
probably find a 2,000dpi laser mouse too sensitive. Many gaming mice,
however, allow you to switch sensitivity levels so that you have precision
when you need it but can revert to 400dpi or 800dpi for regular mousing.
Besides their tracking speeds, laser mice work on nearly every surface,
whereas optical mice may experience trouble tracking on black or shiny
surfaces.
Cordless (wireless) mouse
Cordless or wireless mouse is a battery powered mouse that uses radio or
infrared waves instead of being physically connected to the system unit.

Uses of a mouse
- To select options from menus or from a set of icons by clicking the mouse
button.
 - To position the cursor when editing text or using design package
- To select an object in a drawing or a piece of text to be copied, moved or
deleted.
Advantages of using a mouse
- Is easy and convenient to use
- It is inexpensive
- Most modern software includes an option to use it
- It selects a position on screen much more quickly than a keyboard
Disadvantages
- Cannot be used to input text easily, you need a keyboard to do that.
- It is relatively slow for selecting menu options
- Requires a flat surface to operate
- It is not accurate for drawing purposes
ii). Track ball
A track ball is like a mouse that has been turned upside down. The ball is on
top, and the user moves the ball without moving the mouse. The track ball
does not require a flat surface to operate. Question: State one advantage of
using a track ball over a mouse. Answer: It does not require flat surface or
extra space to operate.

ii). Joystick
Is a hand held device used for playing computer games and video games. It
allows the fast interaction needed in games. The user controls game actions
by varying the pressure, speed and direction
of the joystick. Just like mouse, it has a
button which is used for selecting an item,
issue commands or trigger actions.

iii). Light pen and stylus

A light pen is a computer input device in the form of a light-sensitive
wand used in conjunction with a computer's CRT TV set or monitor. It
allows the user to point to displayed objects, or draw on the screen, in a
similar way to a touch screen but with greater positional accuracy. A
 light pen is a pen-like light-sensitive device, held in the hand. It
operates by sensing to the presence and absence of light through a
light sensitive cell at its end. A stylus on the other hand is used on
touch sensitive devices such as PDA screens that recognize commands
or handwritten text.

Uses of light pen

- Are used as design aids
- Used to read bar codes and to indicate a point on the a screen or pad
Advantages
- Provide a direct mode of input
- More precise than using a mouse
Disadvantages
- Can only detect the presence and absence of light
- Can only be used in conjunction with a graphic VDU, which is able to
sense special hardware and software.
Touch pad

Scanning devices (Document readers)

Scanning means capturing data from an object and converting it into digital
format. Scanning devices are devices that capture data into the computer
directly and are classified according to the technology they use to capture
data namely optical and magnetic scanners.
A). Optical scanners
Capture data using optical or light technology. A light beam passes over an
object and the image is analysed by a specialized software.
 They are of three types
i). Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR detect marks made on a piece of paper using ink or soft pencil, by
passing an infrared beam of light over them.. The documents are pre-printed
with predefined data positions. The OMR converts the marks into computer
readable data. The reader detects the presence and absence of a mark on a
form by sensing reflected infrared light.
Uses of OMR
- Are used to mark
multiple choice
questions, e.g.
KCPE or aptitude
test.
- analyzing
responses to
structured
questionnaires
- Insurance premium collection
- Selecting correct number combinations from lottery tickets.
- Supermarkets for stock recording
- Payroll data entry
- Market research questionnaires
- Voter’s registration process

Advantages
- Has low error rate
- Conspicuous errors are easily corrected
- Economical where the volume of data is large
- Data captured at source, hence no data entry errors
ii. Optical Bar Reader (OBR)
These scanners are used to capture data coded as
lines of varying thickness known as bar codes or
universal product code (UPC). Scan and translate a
bar code into machine understandable mode. Bar
codes are lines of different thickness and are
common on consumer products and contain item
information such as country of manufacture,
manufacturer and the product code. Bar codes do
not have the price details because prices vary from one place to another.

The two types of bar code scanners are the hand-held wand and desktop bar
code reader.
Uses
- On labels and on shelves for stock taking
- Printed on shop goods e.g. supermarkets
- In libraries
iii. Optical Character Reader (OCR) or Image scanners
Is the most advanced type of scanner that
works like the human eye. It is used to read
typewritten, computer printed, or handwritten
characters and transforms the images into a
softcopy that can be manipulated using a word
processor.
 Today OCR comes as integrated feature of more advanced scanners called
flat-bed scanners. Flat- bed scanners are used to capture pictures and real
objects.

Advantages
i). Data is captured at source hence errors are limited
ii). Its an easier method to use
iii). Document design is less complicated
iv). Characters can be read by people
Disadvantages of OCR
- Some optical scanners are expensive
- Handling precaution necessary e.g. document should not be folded or
creased for accurate reading.
Uses
- Sale order forms
- Stock taking sheets
B). Magnetic Scanners
These scanners use the principle of magnetism to sense the document
characters that have been written using magnetized ink or coded onto
magnetic strip. They can also be said to use magnetic technology to capture
data.
Examples of magnetic scanners are:-
i). Magnetic-Ink Character Reader (MICR)
The MICR is also known as magnetic reader.
MICR recognizes characters formed from
magnetic ink. The document characters are
typed or printed in ink containing Iron II Oxide
that gives them magnetic property. MICR is
used in banks to read cheques, credit cards etc.
Advantages of MICR
- Its fast, accurate and automatic
- The codes are both machine and human
readable.
- Reduces forgery i.e. its difficult to forge
Disadvantages
- MICR system is limited to only 14 characters
- MICR system is based on magnetism and can easily be damaged.
ii). Magnetic stripe recognition (magnetic card reader)
A magnetic card reader is used to read data coded on a magnetic strip on a
plastic card such as the one used on an automated teller machine (ATM) and
credit card reader.
A magnetic stripe is a thin magnetic tape, often at the back of a plastic card
e.g. ATM card. The stripe contains coded information of the holder.
A magnetic stripe card is a type of card capable of storing data by
modifying the magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic particles on a band of
magnetic material on the card. The magnetic stripe, sometimes called swipe
card or magstripe, is read by physical contact and swiping past a magnetic
reading head.
Applications
- On credit cards
- On bank cards e.g. ATM
- As tags on clothes
- As a phone card
- Production control where punched cards holds data in a factory like
employee’s details
- Access control for security reasons in many offices to control access to
buildings or rooms
- Car parks where badges are used to raise car barriers, allowing entry or
exit from a car park.
Advantages
- Simple to produce
- Not easily damaged
- Stores fairly large number of characters
- Disadvantage
- Data can be changed or erased by magnetic fields
4) Speech Recognition devices
Data is entered directly into a computer using voice input devices such as
microphones. A microphone is attached to
a sound card which has an analog-digital
converter. Speech recognition software
allows the user to issue commands using
natural language. The device recognize a
limited standard of spoken words via a
microphone linked to a computer system. A
user must train the system to recognize
his/her voice by repeating each word in the
vocabulary several times. An emerging
trend in voice input is the inclusion of voice
tag in cell phones that allows the user to
simply store and dial contacts.

Uses of speech input/recognition devices

- For people with special needs (disabilities)
- In language translator programs
- Voice tags for voice dialing
- Quality control and automation in factories i.e. speech input used to
order robots e.g in Japan
- Automated material handling whereby in airports, handlers speak the
commands to direct luggage on conveyor belts.
- House / car security using voice activated locks
- Electronic fund transfer
- Security and access control e.g. office security for room access, house /
car security
Advantages
- No keyboards is necessary useful in situations where hands or eyes are
busy handling documents etc
- People are moving around, since wireless microphone can be used.
- Can be used from remote locations via the telephone
Disadvantages
- Homophones: some words sound the same e.g. Fair & Fare
- Recognition is low
- Speaker variability
 - Limited vocabularies
- Background noise can disrupt the data entered
Other input technologies
a). Touch screen
A touch screen is an electronic visual display that can detect the presence
and location of a touch within the display area. The term generally refers to
touching the display of the device with a finger or hand in order write or select
an item. The screen consists of infrared light crisscrossing behind it. When the
user touches a location on the screen, the finger interrupts the infrared light
and the command touched is executed.

Touch screens can also sense other passive objects, such as a stylus.
Touchscreens are common in devices such as all-in-one computers, tablet
computers, and smartphones.

The touchscreen has two main attributes. First, it enables one to interact
directly with what is displayed, rather than indirectly with a pointer controlled
by a mouse or touchpad. Secondly, it lets one do so without requiring any
intermediate device that would need to be held in the hand. Such displays can
be attached to computers, or to networks as terminals. They also play a
prominent role in the design of digital appliances such as the personal digital
assistant (PDA), satellite navigation devices, mobile phones, and video games.

b). Digital cameras

A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that takes video or still
photographs, or both, digitally by recording images via an electronic image
sensor. It is the main device used in the field f digital photography. Most
21st century cameras are digital.

Digital cameras can do things film cameras cannot: displaying images on a

screen immediately after they are recorded, storing thousands of images on a
single small memory device, and deleting images to free storage space. The
majority, including most compact cameras, can record moving video with
sound as well as still photographs. Some can crop and stitch pictures and
perform other elementary image editing. Some have a GPS receiver built in,
and can produce Geotagged photographs.
Capture the same way as other cameras do but stores image in digital form.
Pictures are stored on a memory card instead of a film. The digital image
taken can be streamed directly into a computer, uploaded to internet using a
webcam or directly printed using a special photo printer. Are used to take
electronic pictures of an object. They are of two types:
1. still digital camera one that can take still images i.e. photographs and
another
2. a video digital camera that takes motion pictures.

c). Digitizers

A graphics tablet (or digitizer, digitizing tablet, graphics pad, drawing

tablet) is a computer input device that allows one to hand-draw images and
graphics, similar to the way one draws images with a pencil and paper. These
tablets may also be used to capture data or handwritten signatures. It can also
be used to trace an image from a piece of paper which is taped or otherwise
secured to the surface. Capturing data in this way, either by tracing or
entering the corners of linear poly-lines or shapes is called digitizing.

A digitizer input by drawing using a sty

A graphics tablet (also called pen pad

or digitizer) consists of a flat surface
upon which the user may "draw" or
trace an image using an attached
stylus, a pen-like drawing apparatus.
[In computing, a stylus (or stylus
pen) is a small pen-shaped instrument
that is used to input commands to a
computer screen, mobile device or
graphics tablet. With touchscreen
devices a user places a stylus on the
surface of the screen to draw or make
selections by tapping the stylus on the screen. [1]

Pen-like input devices which are larger than a stylus, and offer increased
functionality such as programmable buttons, pressure sensitivity and
electronic erasers, are often known as digital pens.[1]]The image generally
does not appear on the tablet itself but, rather, is displayed on the computer
monitor. Some tablets, however, come as a functioning secondary computer
screen[1] that you can interact with images [2] directly by using the stylus
A digitizer also known as graphic tablet, is made up of a flat surface and
allows the user to draw an image
using a stylus. The image drawn does
not appear on the tablet but on the
computer screen. The stylus moves
on the tablet and the drawing is
directly reflected on the screen.
Digitizers are used for tracing highly
detailed engineering and architectural
drawings and designs.

Interactive whiteboard (smartboard)

An interactive whiteboard (IWB), is a large interactive display that
connects to a computer and projector. A projector projects the computer's
desktop onto the board's surface where users control the computer using a
pen, finger, stylus, or other device. The board is typically mounted to a wall or
floor stand.

They are used in a variety of settings,

including classrooms at all levels of
education, in corporate board rooms and
work groups, in training rooms for
professional sports coaching, in
broadcasting studios and others.

Is a large interactive display that connects

to a computer. The computer display is
projected onto the board’s surface, where
users control the computer and write using
a pen or a finger. The board is typically
mounted to a wall or on a floor stand.
Smart boards are used in places such as
classrooms, seminars, corporate broad
broadcasting studios

Factors to consider when selecting an input device

- Device cost
The initial cost and recurrent cost to be weighed against the expected benefits
and /or operational characteristics of the facility
- Device speed
- Data volume: It should cope with that data volume to be input with
appropriate timing.
- Device accuracy
- Device reliability
- Mode of operation: This will depend on the nature of the system i.e. data
processing system.
- Appropriateness: weigh out the merits and demerits of the device in
relation to where it is applied/used.

Review questions 2.1

1. What is a computer system?
2. Differentiate between a computer and a computer system.
3. A scanner used at points of sale terminals in supermarkets is an example of
a ___________ scanner.
4. The automated input technique where keying of input data is eliminated is
sometimes referred to as __________.
5. The type of scanner used to grade multiple choice examination is called an
_______.
6. Name three factors one would consider when selecting data entry method,
and give a reason why each is important.
7. Describe three different optical and two magnetic techniques used for input
and give an example of the use of each.
8. Explain how banks use MICR scanners for cheques processing.
9. Describe two situations in which speech recognition devices may be useful
as a method of data entry.
10. Optical scanning of the Universal Product Code is now widely used as
input method. Give an example of a place where it is used and explain how
it is used.

2.3 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU is also called the Processor or microprocessor is a tiny chip etched into a
silicon chip. The CPU is the most important component of the computer. This
is because it is the portion of the computer responsible for executing
(processing) instructions stored in memory. Also all control operations are
coordinated here.
The CPU performs the following functions:
- Processing data
- System control
- Provide temporary storage (RAM) and permanent storage (ROM)
- Runs the Operating System software installed on the computer,
peripheral devices such as printers, scanners etc.

In microcomputers, the CPU is housed inside the system unit where its
mounted on a circuit board called the motherboard or the system board.

Functional units of the CPU

Regardless of size, a processor consists of three functional elements namely;
- Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
- Control Unit (CU)
- The Main Memory (primary memory)

 Control unit
CU controls / coordinates all processing activities in the CPU using a system
clock, which sends electrical signals. The CU interprets instruction fetched
from the Main Memory and sends control signals to the ALU instructing it on
 how to execute instructions, issue control instructions to the operating
system, determines the operation to be performed by the instruction, where
the results are to be stored, and where the next instruction is located. The CU
fetches data from the main memory and puts it in the proper order for the
processor. It also sends the processed results back to the main memory. The
CU also locates any data needed by the instruction and sees that the
instruction is followed.

 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations (the basic data transformation
in a microprocessor). Arithmetic operations include addition, multiplication
and division. Logical operations includes comparing two quantities or more
numbers to determine which is greater or equal to or less than the other. It
also involves testing for existence of a condition encountered during the
processing of an application. The ALU carries out all the logical and arithmetic
processing on data as directed by Control Unit. It decodes the instructions and
then processes the data. Data to be executed by ALU is temporarily held
registers inside the processor.

 Main memory
It is also called primary memory storage. It provides storage location for data
and instructions accessed by the control unit. The primary memory or the
main memory is part of the main computer system. The processor or the CPU
directly stores and retrieves information from it. This memory is accessed by
CPU, in random fashion. That means any location of this memory can be
accessed by the CPU to either read information from it, or to store information
in it.
o The primary memory itself is implemented by two types of memory
technologies. The first is called Random Access Memory (RAM) and the other
is read only memory (ROM). A more appropriate name for RAM is RWM (Read
Write Memory), the CPU can write and read information from any primary
memory location implemented using RAM. The other part of primary memory
is implemented using ROM which stands for Read Only Memory.

Its two main functions are:

i). Holding data just before and after processing
ii). Holding instructions just before and execution

Classification of Computer Memory

The different types of memories are

 Primary storage
 Secondary storage

The primary memory is used for temporarily holding data and instructions
required immediately by the CPU and contents are lost once the power is
switched off. Secondary storage is used for permanently storing information
by the CPU and is not lost when power is switched off.

Primary storage Secondary storage

- Data can be processed directly - Data cannot be processed directly
from storage but must be moved into main
memory first
- Located within CPU - Located outside CPU
- More expensive - Less expensive
 - Lower capacity - Higher capacity
- Faster access time - Slow access time

Primary memory
Is of two types Read Only Memory (ROM) and Random Access Memory (RAM).

A). Read Only Memory (ROM)

Used to store firmware from hardware manufacturers and/or programmed
instructions and data permanently or semi-permanently. Data stored in ROM
cannot be modified, or can be modified only slowly or with difficulty, so it is
mainly used to distribute firmware (software that is very closely tied to
specific hardware, and unlikely to need frequent updates). ROMs are used in
computers for permanent storage of instructions such as
- Power On Self Test (POST)
- The Basic Input Output System (BIOS)
- The bootstrap loader (the automatic program that finds and loads the
operating system program from disk) so that the computer has
something to do when power is first applied.
NB: Ordinary users can’t change ROM.

Types of ROM

i). Mask Read Only memory (ROM)

Contents are written once by the manufacturer and cannot be changed
afterwards.

ii). Programmable Read Only Memory(PROM)

Can be programmed directly by the user using a special PROM programmer.
PROMs come as blanks having nothing programmed or recorded on them.
Once programmed it cannot be changed therefore it allows user to program
(write) it only once. After programming it assumes the characteristics of Mask
ROM..

iii). Erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM)

Is a special type of ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed again by
exposing it to ultra-violet light for 5 to 10 minutes, thus reducing the contents
of all the memory cells to zero by discharging them.
Advantage: contents can be erased and reprogrammed for another use.

iv). Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)

EEPROM can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity under software
control and can support selective modification of its contents. A BIOS chip
found on a microcomputer’s motherboard is an example of EEPROM..

v). Electrically alterable ROM

Can be read from and written to. However, since the processes are
significantly different, the EAROM can be called a “read-mostly” memory. in
order to write into EAROM you require a millisecond, while the read operation
can be performed in microseconds. The application of EAROM is limited to
critical industrial and military applications.
Advantage:
 It is non-volatile and does not require an auxiliary power source such as
battery.
Disadvantage:
- Cannot be used as a general purpose read/write memory because it takes
much time to write to than read from.
- EAPROM has limited application only to critical industrial and military
applications

Characteristics of ROM
- Can only be read and cannot be written to unless it’s a special ROM e.g
EAROM
- Its non-volatile
- High bit density
- Stores permanent or semi permanent instructions from manufacture
although some can be programmed according to users specification.
- Are intended for large production volumes

Disadvantages of ROM
- Are not cost effective because of large production volumes
- A ROM cannot be changed, once manufactured.
- Delay in production of the ROM.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is mostly referred to as working storage. RAM holds the programs being
run and the data being used by the CPU at the current time. Its contents can
be read directly regardless of the sequence in which it was stored. RAM can be
written to and retrieved from. RAM is the memory used in large quantities in
Main Memory and every computer must specify its size. Ram holds the
programs being run and the data being used by the CPU at the current time.

Characteristics of RAM
- Data can be read and written in it.
- It’s temporary (volatile) storage , its contents are lost/ disappears when
the computer is switched off.
- It’s contents is user defined.

Types of RAM

There are two types of RAM namely Static RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM
(DRAM)
i). Static RAM (SRAM)
SRAM is a fast type of memory found inside a microprocessor.
Characteristics
- Stores a bit of information within a flip-flop
- It’s a very fast memory and holds its contents as long as there is power.
- Its content does not require refreshment
- Its expensive
- Its very fast compared to DRAM
- Its mostly used to make special types of memories known as Cache
memory
- Used for smaller memories
- Has low packing density
ii). Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
The term dynamic refers to the tendency for stored charge to leak away, even
with constant power supply. Due to this DRAM requires periodic recharging
referred to as refreshing to maintain its data storage.
- Stores a bit of information in a charge and (a disadvantage) additional
logic is needed for refreshing the memory.
- It holds its contents for a short while even when the power is on. To
maintain its content it must be refreshed severally per second.
- Packing density is much higher than SRAM
- Is less expensive than SRAM

Disadvantages of RAM
- It is expensive
- It loses its mind when you turn the power off
- It is very difficult to archive information or pass it along to someone else,
if everything is kept in RAM.

Summary of Computer memory

Computer Memory

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

RAM ROM

MROM
SRAM
PROM
DRAM
EPROM

EEPROM

Special purpose memories

Are memories embedded in a microprocessor in order to enhance its

processing speed and are found inside the CPU or in the input and output
devices. These memories increase the overall performance of data and
instructions moving in and out of the CPU. They increase the hit ratio (the
availability of data and information when required) and reducing the wait time
when the CPU searches for data and instructions from memory. Slower
memories like DRAM make the CPU to wait longer when it needs data stored in
them.

These memories include: Buffers, Registers and cache memory.

i) Buffers
Is a temporary holding place that may be part of the CPU or built in an I/O
device.. Acts as interface between very fast processor and slow input/output
devices. Since the CPU is very fast compared to the I/O devices, buffers
provide temporary storage so that the CPU is set free to carry other activities
instead of waiting for all data entered or information to be output. Input data
is held in the input buffer while processed data is held processed data is held
in output buffer. Examples: computer printers have buffers where they can
store massive documents sent by the CPU for printing hence freeing the CPU
to perform other urgent tasks as the printer continues to print in the
background.
NB: Buffers can hold more than one piece of data at a time.

{a buffer is a region of memory used to temporarily hold data while it is being

moved from one place to another. Typically, the data is stored in a buffer as it
is retrieved from an input device (such as a Mouse) or just before it is sent to
an output device (such as Speakers). However, a buffer may be used when
moving data between processes within a computer. This is comparable to
buffers in telecommunication. Buffers can be implemented in either hardware
or software, but the vast majority of buffers are implemented in software.
Buffers are typically used when there is a difference between the rate at which
data is received and the rate at which it can be processed, or in the case that
these rates are variable, for example in a printer spooler or in online video
streaming.}

ii) Registers
Are high speed temporary memory locations within the CPU that holds data
and instructions just before and after processing in the ALU. They hold one
piece of data a time and are located inside the CPU. Registers are temporary
memory units that store words. The registers are located in the processor,
instead of in RAM, so data can be accessed and stored faster.
Types of registers
 Program counter (PC)
Holds the memory address of the instruction to be fetched next.
 Instruction register (IR)
Temporarily holds an instruction just before it is interpreted into a form that
CPU can understand it.
 An accumulator (AC)
Temporarily holds the results of the last processing step of the ALU e.g 3 + 4
= 7 is held in the accumulator.
 An address register (AR)
Temporarily holds the address of the next piece of data to be fetched for
processing.
 Storage register (SR)
Temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way to and from the CPU and
main memory.

iii) Cache memory

Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer
microprocessor can access more quickly than it can access regular RAM. As
the microprocessor processes data, it looks first in the cache memory and if it

finds the data there (from a previous reading of data), it does not have to do
the more time-consuming reading of data from larger memory.

Cache memory is sometimes described in levels of closeness and accessibility

to the microprocessor. An L1 cache is on the same chip as the microprocessor.
(For example, the PowerPC 601 processor has a 32 kilobyte level-1 cache built
into its chip.) L2 is usually a separate static RAM (SRAM) chip. The main RAM
is usually a dynamic RAM (DRAM) chip.

In addition to cache memory, one can think of RAM itself as a cache of

memory for hard disk storage since all of RAM's contents come from the hard
disk initially when you turn your computer on and load the operating system
(you are loading it into RAM) and later as you start new applications and
access new data. RAM can also contain a special area called a disk cache that
contains the data most recently read in from the hard disk.

Cache memory (pronounced as cash) is a very high speed type of SRAM

whose purpose is to allow the processor to access data and instructions faster
i.e. speeds up processing (fetch cycle).
There are three types of cache memory namely:

 Level one cache memory (called L1 Cache, for Level 1 Cache) is

directly integrated into the processor. It is subdivided into two parts:
o the first part is the instruction cache, which contains instructions
from the RAM that have been decoded as they came across the
pipelines.
o the second part is the data cache, which contains data from the
RAM and data recently used during processor operations.
Level 1 caches can be accessed very rapidly. Access waiting time
approaches that of internal processor registers.

 Level two cache memory (called L2 Cache, for Level 2 Cache) is

located in the case along with the processor (in the chip). The level two
cache is an intermediary between the processor, with its internal cache,
and the RAM. It can be accessed more rapidly than the RAM, but less
rapidly than the level one cache.
 Level three cache memory (called L3 Cache, for Level 3 Cache) is
located on the motherboard.
All these levels of cache reduce the latency time of various memory types
when processing or transferring information. While the processor works, the
level one cache controller can interface with the level two controller to
transfer information without impeding the processor. As well, the level two
cache interfaces with the RAM (level three cache) to allow transfers without
impeding normal processor operation.

What is virtual memory?

If you have limited memory or you have many programs open, your computer
may need to use part of the hard drive to simulate more memory. This
simulated more memory is called virtual memory and allows the computer to
continue operating but at much slower speed. Therefore a virtual memory is
simulated memory from hard drive which makes the computer operate at a
much slower speed.

If your computer lacks the random access memory (RAM) needed to run a
program or operation, Windows uses virtual memory to compensate.

Virtual memory combines your computer’s RAM with temporary space on your
hard disk. When RAM runs low, virtual memory moves data from RAM to a
space called a paging file. Moving data to and from the paging file frees up
RAM to complete its work.

The more RAM your computer has, the faster your programs will generally run.
If a lack of RAM is slowing your computer, you might be tempted to increase
virtual memory to compensate. However, your computer can read data from
RAM much more quickly than from a hard disk, so adding RAM is a better
solution.

Virtual memory and error messages

If you receive error messages that warn of low virtual memory, you need to
either add more RAM or increase the size of your paging file so that you can
run the programs on your computer. Windows usually manages the size
automatically, but you can manually change the size of virtual memory if the
default size is not enough for your needs.

Memory capacities
Memory and storage capacity is measured in special units called bytes. A
byte is equivalent to a single character, which can be numbers 0 – 9, letters A
– Z or a special symbol e.g. a number 2341 has 4 bytes, while words ‘My
school’ has 9 bytes.

Memory quantities can be expressed in:

1. Kilobytes (KB) – Approximately one thousand bytes (10 3)
2. Megabytes (MB) – Approximately one million bytes (10 6)
3. Gigabytes (GB) – Approximately one billion bytes (10 12)
4. Terabytes (TB) – Approximately one trillion bytes (10 24)
Overall organization of the CPU

The ALU, CU and Main Memory use electrical pathways or links called buses. A
bus is an electrical path for signal to flow from one point to another in a
circuit. There are three types of computer buses namely:

a). Control bus

This is a pathway for all timings and controlling functions sent by the control
unit to other parts of the system.

b). Address bus

This is used to locate the storage position in memory of the data to be
executed or an instruction to be decoded.

c). Data bus

This is the pathway where the actual data transfer takes place.

Summary of the overall organization of the CPU

The central processing unit exchanges data with the main memory and

input/output devices. The control unit fetches data and instructions from the
main memory then sends to ALU for execution in a process called fetch
execute cycle. The program counter (PC) holds the address of the instruction
to be fetched next. The fetched instruction is loaded into instruction register
(IR). The control unit interprets the instruction and directs the ALU to perform
the necessary execution.

Processors
A processor consists of an inbuilt set of instructions called instruction set.

Types of processors
A microprocessor is a complete CPU where ALU and Control unit has been
combined into tiny single processor. The microprocessor chips use many
different internal designs, and the chips vary in appearance and capability.

Three basic characteristics that differentiate microprocessors are:

  Bandwidth: Which is the number of bits that can be processed by one
instruction
 Clock speed or Clock Rate: Which is the speed of the internal timer
that determines how many instructions per second the processor can
execute. The internal clock regulates the rate at which instructions are
executed and synchronizes all the various computer components. The
faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU can execute.
 Instruction set: is an inbuilt set of instructions that the microprocessor
can execute.

There are two types/ classes of Microprocessors namely:

 Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
 Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

- Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) is the name given to types of

processors that use a large number of complicated instructions microcoded
into the processor, to try to do more work.
- Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) is the name given to processors
that use a small number of simple instructions meant to do less work with
each instruction but execute them faster.

Processor Clock speed

Clock speed is measured in units called Hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz equals 1 cycle
(tick) per second. A Hertz is a unit of frequency which measures the number
of cycles in a signal.
The clock/clock rate – refers to how many instructions per second the
processor can execute.
Quantities of clock speed can be expressed in :
i) Kilohertz (kHz) : approximately one thousand hertzs.
ii) Megahertz (MHz): approximately one million hertzs
iii)Gigahertz (GHz) : Approximately one billion hertzs.
- Modern CPUs reach over 3 GHz.

Summary of microprocessors and their clock speeds

Processo Year Manufactur Clock Speed &

r e remark
1. Intel 8086 1978 Intel 5Mhz - 10Mhhz
2. Intel 8088 1979 Intel Like 8086
3. Intel 1980 Intel 25 Mhz
80186
4. Intel 1982 Intel 6 – 12.5 Mhz
80286
5. Intel 1985 – 1990 Intel 16 – 33Mhz
80386
6. Intel 1990 Intel Upgradeable
80486
7. Intel 1990 Intel 60, 66, 75, 90, 100,
80486 120, 133, 150, 166, and
200 Mhz
8. Pentium 1995 Intel Used on 150, 166, 180 & 200
Pro servers Mhz
9. AMD K5 1995 AMD 75, 90, 100 & 116 Mhz
10. Pentium 1997 Intel 166, 200, and 233 MHz
MMX with MMX technology
11. Pentium II 1997 Intel Plugged on to Single-
 edge contact (SEC)
12. AMD K6 1997 AMD 166-266 MHz
13. Cyrix 6x86 1997 Cyrix 150, 166, or 187 Mhz
14. Pentium III 1999 Intel 450MHz to 1.13 GHz
15. AMD 1999 AMD 500Mhz to 2.33Ghz
Athron
16. AMD 2000 AMD 600 MHz – 1.8 GHz
Duron
17. Pentium 4 Nov. 2000 Intel 1.4 Ghz to 3.2 Ghz
18. Intel Core 2006 Intel >1.6GHz x 2
2 Duo
19. AMD 2005 AMD >2.0Ghz x 2
Athron
Dual Core
Review questions 2.2
1. What is the meaning of CPU.
2. Describe three functions performed by CPU.
3. What is a microprocessor
4. Explain the functions performed by :
a) the Control Unit
b) the Arithmetic and Logic Unit
c) the Main Memory
5. Define the terms: volatile memory and non-volatile memory
6. Define and explain the difference between RAM and ROM.
7. How many characters (Bytes) of data are held in each of the following
memories? 4KB, 640KB, 16MB and 20BG.
8. Name three special purpose memories found either inside or outside the
microprocessor, and explain what each does.
9. In reference to arithmetic and logic unit, explain the meaning of logic
operations and give an example of this processing operation.
10. What is the difference between mainframe computers CPU and that of a
microcomputer?
11. Explain the purpose of the system clock.
12. What is the meaning of BIOS, and what role does it play in a computer?
13. List three buses found in the CPU.
Practical activity
With the help of the teacher, find out the following:
1. The type of processor in one of the computers in your computer
laboratory.
2. The clock speeds of all the computers in the computer laboratory.
3. What is the size of RAM in MB of the computer you are currently using?

2.4 Output Devices

An output device is a peripheral device that a computer uses to give out
information produced after processing. The most common types of output
data include text, pictures, sound and video.

Types of output devices

Are classified as either softcopy or hardcopy.

Softcopy
Refers to intangible output displayed on the screen or listened to through
devices like speakers. Softcopy output devices include monitors, speakers,
LCD Projectors and light emitting diodes.
Example of softcopy output devices:
A). Monitors (VDU)
Also known as Visual Display Unit or Screen. It displays information in form of
text, pictures and video on the screen thus helping the user to monitor
operations carried out by the computer.

Types of monitors
There are three namely Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
and Gas Plasma Display(GPD). Monitors that display sharp clear images are
said to have high resolution.

CTR monitor
The screen is curved slightly outward forming a convex shape. A CRT monitor
consists of a long glass tube with an electron gun on one end and a screen on
the other end. The screen is coated with tiny phosphorus dots that illuminate
red, green and blue to make a pixel. The CRTs are too bulky to carry around,
consume a lot of power and are cheap to buy.

Flat Panel Display

Are Gas plasma and LCD
The screen is flat, they are portable, consume less power, comfortable to use,
occupy less space, are expensive and provides high quality output.

Examples of flat panel displays

(i). Liquid crystal display (LCD)
Are made from a tiny special liquid crystals
that reflect light falling on them from the
environment. Are less bulky, consume less
power and have very little effect on eyes.
There are two technologies used to make
LCDs that is passive matrix and Active
matrix. In Passive matrix LCDs create
images by scanning the entire screen,
requires little power and have poor clarity.
Active matrix use thin Film Transistor
technology (TFTs), consume more energy
and offers better clarity.

(ii). Gas Plasma

They use gas that emits light when electric current is
passed through them. They contain millions of pixels
that are illuminated by charged neon gas. Gas Plasma
panels do not suffer from angle distortion and the technology is popularly
used in producing high definition Tvs (HDTV) with large screens used in homes
and entertainment places.

Terms associated with computer display include:

Pixel: Picture elements are tiny dots which are used to form the images
displayed on the screen. In colour monitor, a pixel has three primary colours
namely red, green and blue.

Colour depth: refers to number of colours which can be displayed by a pixel.

It is measured in bits.

Resolution: is the number of pixels per inch on the screen usually given in
dots per inch (dpi) or bits. The higher the resolution, the more the number of
pixels per inch, hence the clearer the images.
Refresh rate
Since the CRTs cannot hold an image for a long time, image in the video RAM
is used to refresh the one on the screen as long as necessary. If a screen has
a low fresh rate, images tend to flicker hence causing eyestrain.

Display size: is measured in inches as the diagonal length of the screen

measured from top to bottom left.

Video adapter

Also referred to as graphic adapter or video

card. The monitor is connected to the system
unit through the video port to a video adapter.
The video adapter determines the resolution
and clarity of the monitor. Graphic Adapter /
Video card is a piece of circuit board plugged to
the motherboard that connects a monitor to a
computer and allows the computer to show images and text on its screen.

Examples of Graphic Adapters

- Monochrome Displays Adapter (MDA) which displays text only in one
colour.
- Hercules Graphic Card (HGC) – displays both text and images in one
colour.
- Colour Graphic Adapter (CGA) – displays text and images using up to 16
colours.
- Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) – displays text, graphics and video
using 16 colours.
- Video Graphic Array (VGA) – offers at most 256 colours.
- Super Video Graphic Array (SVGA) – Offers over 256 colours with a
minimum resolution of 800 x 600 pixels.
- Extended Graphics Array (XGA) – Has a high resolution of 1024 x 768 and
its popular with 17’ and 19’ monitors.
- Super Extended Graphics Array (SXGA) has a resolution of 1280 x 1024
pixels and is popular with 19 and 21 inch monitors.
- Ultra Extended Graphics Array (UXGA) is the latest and has the highest
standard.

Sound output devices

 These devices produce sounds such as beeps, audio or digital. Speaker is an
example of sound output device. This output is in form of spoken words.
Speakers are used to output sound from a computer. Sound may be output
inform of music, warning, video, interactive communication with the computer
or to give messages in emergency situations. Speakers can be external or
internal. Some computers have internal speakers like Compaq. An external
speaker should be connected to a sound card through the jacks on the system
unit or on a multimedia monitor.

Sound output has the following advantages:

- No reading is needed
- Useful in situation where you can’t look at the screen or where you are too
busy

Disadvantage
Not suitable for noisy situations
Inappropriate for lengthy or permanent information.

Applications of sound output

- Learning Aids e.g. Computer Aided Learning
- Lift where messages are used to greet visitors and tell them the floor
they are in.
- Emergency massages i.e. Public address systems, in cars when running
out of petrol.
- Text speech translation for blind people.

B). LCD Projectors (Data Projectors)

An LCD projector is a type of video
projector for displaying video, images or
computer data on a screen or other flat
surface. It is a modern equivalent of the
slide projector or overhead projector. Are
used to display output from a computer on
plain white paper screen like a wall or
whiteboard. It’s actually a creative and
interesting technology way of presenting
computer output to an audience unlike traditional overhead projectors.

C). Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

They are components (indicators) that display light when electric current is
passed through them. It is used mainly for warnings. Example: a red or green
light displayed by the system unit to help user know is ON or OFF, warnings
given by motorists to indicate when overtaking or taking a turn.

Hardcopy Output Devices

Hardcopy refers to tangible output that can be seen and touched and recorded
on a physical media. Hardcopy output devices are printers, plotters and
facsimile (fax).

1. Printers
Produce a hard copy of information on papers. The printing mechanism
determines the quality of hardcopy. They are two types of printers namely
impact and non-impact.
Impact printers
Impact printers print using striking mechanism, they strike the paper in order
to form an imprint on it. Impact printers are cheap to run, slow, use inked
ribbons, produces multiple copies, uses cheap technology, are noisy because
of impact, produce low quality printout and print for long periods without
breaking down. They produce characters by using special light hammers with
characters or pins held on the printing head. When the hammer strikes on the
head, character mark is stamped. In impact printing, the printing head comes
into physical contact with the stationery. An inked ribbon placed between the
stationery and the printing head element creates the imprints when the
printing head strikes.

Types of impact printers

i) Dot Matrix Printer
Has a set of pins which strikes on an ink ribbon placed over the paper and
provide character prints in terms of dots.

ii)Daisy Wheel Printer

Works like a typewriter and has a removable flower-like wheel consisting of
spokes with embossed characters. When printing, the wheel is rotated to align
the required character and then hit with a hammer on an inked ribbon against
a sheet of paper, leaving an image of the letter.
iii) Golf Ball Printer
The character images are incorporated on the surface of a gold ball like Print
head, which is either rotating or pivoted.
iv) Drum printer
It provides one whole line print at a time. The characters are incorporated on
circular bands that move round the surface of the drum.
v)Chain printer
It’s an impact line printer that incorporates engraved characters printing slugs
on a moving chain or belt. The chain moves the character printing slugs at
high constant speed past printing positions.

Non-impact printers
Are fast, use thermal and electrostatic principles, produces single copies, are
costly due to technology involved and quiet because of non-impact. They print
using ink, toner catridge , thermal or laser mechanisms. In non-impact the
printing head does not come into physical contact with the stationery but by
other means like thermal or electrostatic.

Types of non-impact printers

i). Thermal printer
Use heat principle to transfer characters onto a piece of paper. Work by
heating solid ink which is normally in wax or resin
form to melting point then transferring it onto the
paper to form characters. A thermal printer (or
direct thermal printer) produces a printed image
by selectively heating coated thermochromic paper,
 or thermal paper as it is commonly known, when the paper passes over the
thermal print head. The coating turns black in the areas where it is heated,
producing an image. Thermal printers are mostly used on point of sale
terminals to print receipts and bar codes. Thermal printers produce high
quality printouts. They are inexpensive alternative to inkjets.

ii). Inkjet printer

Use the concept of spraying ink onto the paper, from tiny holes on the ink
cartridge onto the paper. A color inkjet printer
may have two cartridges, one for black and a
tricolor that contains cyan, magenta and
yellow (CMY) compartments. The cartridge has
nozzles that do the actual spraying of ink on
the paper

Advantages
- Are cheaper and produce better quality
printouts
- Inkjets printers use smaller mechanical
parts than laser printers
- Provide inexpensive way to print full-colour document.
Weaknesses
- Are slow
- Expensive to run because they require special type of ink
- An inkjet printout is easily gets smudged when water drops on it.

iii). Electrostatic printer

Uses electrostatic charges to form characters in a line on a special paper

iv). Photo printers are special purpose printers designed to print

photographs.

v). Laser printer

Prints by passing laser beam back and forth over a rotating drum, just the
same technology as photocopy machine. As the beam hits the drum, it ionizes
some regions which attract ink toner particles. They are cheaper to run, faster,
produce high quality printouts but are expensive to buy than inkjets.
Deference between impact and non-impact printers

Impact Non-impact
- Slow - Fast
- Cheaper - Costly
- Use striking - Use thermal or electrostatic
mechanism principles
- Noisy - Quiet
- Multiple copy - Multiple copy production
production possible almost impossible
- Use inked ribbon - Use ink cartridge or toner
cartridge, resin or wax.
Factors to consider when selecting a printer
- Initial cost and subsequent costs of maintenance
- Volume of printing expected
- Color printing colored laser printers are very expensive, so depending with
the volume of print one can decide to buy Laser or Inkjet.
- Nature of reports to be generated
- Range of capability for selected printers e.g. multiple copier, print styles
etc.
- Interface with the computer system
- Speed: the speed of a printer is measured in Pages per minute
- Quality of prints (print quality).

Plotters
These are output devices that are mostly used in engineering and architecture
field for production of graphical outputs e.g. diagrams, photographs, maps,
architectural designs and such outputs. The most common commercially
available graph plotters are the Flatbed Plotter and Drum Plotter.

Review questions 2.3

1. Differentiate between softcopy and hardcopy.
2. What is the difference between CRT monitor and a flat-panel display.
3. Give three examples of flat panel monitors available in the market today.
4. Name four criteria used when selecting a printer.
5. Distinguish between impact and non-impact printers and give two
examples of each.
6. State one advantage and disadvantage of laser and inkjet printers
respectively.
7. Give two advantages of sound output devices.
8. Karuri road construction company CKRCC) intends to buy an output device
they can use to produce road maps. Which device would one advice the
company to buy and why?

2.5 Secondary (Auxiliary) Storage and Media

Are alternative long-term storage devices that are not part of the Main
memory. These devices are not directly accessed by the CPU and are not
housed inside the system unit. Can be carried around to be used with another
computer hence the name removable storage devices and media. A drive is
needed in order to read and write data into the storage media. The data and
instruction held in these devices must first be moved into RAM before
processing. They are used to store information for longer period, data stored
in them is permanent unless erased by user. Stores large volume of data.
Stored data can be erased and the media reused to store fresh data and
programs.

What is a drive ?
A computer device for reading data from or writing data into a storage media
e.g. a tape, or disk.
Types / examples of computer drives
- Hard disk drive (HDD) - Floppy disk drive (FDD)
- CD-ROM drive - DVD – ROM drive
- USB Port - Zip drive
- USB Port

You need device driver to use some secondary storage medias.

Device driver
A device driver is a program that controls a particular type of device that is
attached to your computer. There are device drivers for printers, displays, CD-
ROM readers, diskette drives, and so on. When you buy an operating system,
many device drivers are built into the product. However, if you later buy a new
type of device that the operating system didn't anticipate, you'll have to install
the new device driver. A device driver essentially converts the more general
input/output instructions of the operating system to messages that the device
type can understand.
Examples of computer auxiliary storage devices
Magnetic tapes, floppy disks, cassette tapes, Hard disks, zip disks, jaz , Flash
disks, video compact disks (VCD), digital video disks (DVD’s), Punched cards,
optical disks e.g CDs, LS-120 Super Disks, optical card, optical tape.

Classification of Secondary Storage Devices

Can be classified in two ways by:
1. Portability as removable and fixed.
2. Technology used to store and retrieve data (magnetic, optical,
magneto-optical and solid state).

It is important to have a backing storage for long – term storage of data and
programs and also when there is limited storage capacity in the main
memory. Backing store is a non-volatile (permanent) memory outside the CPU
such as floppy disks, CDs and USB flash Disks.

Characteristics of a Backing store

- Data is usually accessed using read/write heads.
- Access to backing storage is slower than main storage
 - Are non-volatile i.e. the data is stored on the medium until it is deleted.

REMOVABLE STORAGE

Magnetic Disks
Magnetic storage media use magnetic technology to store data.

Tape Drives
Tape drives are another type of magnetic computer storage device. Instead of
platters, the tape drives use magnetic tape to record data. Tape drives are not
commonly used in consumer computers, but the low cost and reliability of
tape drives allows them to be used by companies making long-term backups.
One major difference between tape drives and hard disk drives is that a hard
disk drive can read data from any part of its platters. A tape drive must read
through the data from start to finish, as the read/write heads cannot move to
a specific part of the tape. Once the tape drive reaches the data point, read
speeds are faster than the average hard disk drive.

i). Magnetic tapes

A magnetic tape is made using a thin ribbon of mylar (plastic) coated with a
thin layer of magnetic material composed of iron oxide on which data can be
stored using magnetic process. The tape may be housed inside a plastic as a
cassette or coiled around an open wheel. It uses serial access where all
proceeding data is read before the required data can be accessed.

Advantages
- Store large amount of data
- Light and easy to carry
- Effective when to store sequential files for batch applications
- High capacity and backup storage at relatively low cost

Disadvantages
- Slow due to sequential reading of data
- Wastage of recording surface because of Inter-block gaps left for
stopping purposes.
- Easily distorted by environmental factors such as dust, moisture,
humidity etc.

ii). Floppy disks

Developed by IBM, floppy disks in 3.5-inch (89 mm), 5.25-inch (133 mm) and
8-inch (200 mm) forms were a ubiquitous form of data storage and exchange
from the mid-1970s to the 2000s.[1] While floppy disk drives still have some
limited uses, especially with legacy industrial computer equipment, they have
been superseded by data storage methods with much greater capacity, such
as USB flash drives, portable external hard disk drives, optical discs, memory
cards, and
computer
networks.

Are made of a
thin plastic
disc with a
magnetisable iron oxide coating and enclosed in a plastic case. Inscription of
data is done on the magnetic coating around the plastic. The floppy disk is
inserted inside a floppy drive which has a read /write that runs over the
magnetized spots.
There are two types of disks:
 3 ½ inch has storage capacity of 1.44MB and 5 ¼ inch which has a
storage capacity of 1.2MB.
 3 ½ inch floppy store more data and are better protected as opposed to 5
¼ inch floppy.

Parts of a floppy disk

Recording window - used to read and write data to the diskette
Hub – used for rotating the diskette
Index (spindle) hole –
assists in rotating the
diskette
Plastic case – protects the
mylar coated with iron
oxide that stores data.
Sectors – concentric
circles where data is
written.

The structure of a disk platter

A block
Trackstiny invisible concentric circles called tracks that
The surface is divided into
store data. The tracks are further divided into units called sectors. The area
within the same track bound by the two edges of a sector forms a block which
forms the unit for the read/write operations. Data can be written to and read
from the disk.
Note:
To write data means to move it or copy it from the main memory to backing
storage.
To read data means to move it or copy it from the backing store to the main
memory.
Disks are direct access storage media.

Disadvantages of floppy disks

- Storage area is limited to 1.44MB
- Easily damaged
- Are short-lived
- Slow access time. Access time is the time taken to read the data from
disk to the Main storage.
 Comparison of Floppy disk and Flash disk

- Size comparison of a flash drive and a 3.5-inch floppy disk

- Floppy disk drives are rarely fitted to modern computers and are
obsolete for normal purposes, although internal and external drives can
be fitted if required. Floppy disks may be the method of choice for
transferring data to and from very old computers without USB or booting
from floppy disks, and so they are sometimes used to change the
firmware on, for example, BIOS chips. Devices with removable storage
like older Yamaha music keyboards are also dependent on floppy disks,
which require computers to process them. Newer devices are built with
USB flash drive support.

Removable Magneto-Optical Storage

Magneto – optical media stores data both magnetically and optically. i.e write
using magnetic and read using optical beam. Some examples are: Zip, Jaz,
HiFD and LS-120 Super disk.
i). Jaz Disk
Is a high storage floppy disk with a storage capacity of up to 2GB. They are
read using an internal or external jaz drive.

ii). Zip disks

Resemble floppy disk but are slightly larger and thicker in size. Have a storage
capacity which can hold up to 250MB. It is stable, inexpensive and easy to
work Have either internal or externally portable Zip drive. Are mainly used for
backing up and archiving personal computer files. currently zip are of 750mb.

iii). High capacity floppy disk: simply known as HiFD disk stores upto
200MB of data. HiFD drive can also read the 1.44MB floppy disk.

iv). Laser Servo 120 SuperDisks

Laser Servo 120 SuperDisks simply known as LS-120 Super disk. It
resembles 3 ½ floppy disk but uses optical technology instead magnetic
technology to read data. It has a greater storage capacity of 120MB and
greater speed of data retrieval.

Fixed storage
Refers to storage devices that are housed inside the system unit. E.g. Hard
disk.
 NB: Some hard disks especially those in small computers such as laptops are
removable.

v). Hard disk (Winchester)or hard drive

Hard Drives

 Hard disk drives are magnetic, non-volatile computer storage devices. A

hard disk drive stores data on two spinning platters inside the drive.
The data is read with a read/write head that uses magnetic technology
to write the data. The non-volatile nature of a hard disk drive means the
data does not get erased when the drive loses power, as is the case
with random access memory. Desktop hard drives are 3.5 inches in
width and the equivalent laptop hard drive is 2.5 inches. Common hard
drive speeds are 4200 RPM to 7200 RPM. Faster 10,000 RPM drives are
available but not as common. Consumer drives with capacities of one
terabyte (1,000 gigabytes) are becoming more common as of 2010.

Care of hard disk

- Keep it away from smoke and dust
- Switch off the computer using the correct procedure to avoid crashing on
rotating disks.
Advantages of hard disk
- It’s cheap
- Store very large volume of data
- Very reliable than floppy
- Does not deteriorate as floppy disks
- Has faster access time
Disadvantages
- Are usually fixed and cannot be removed without opening the system unit.
- They can suffer a head crash resulting to loss of data
- Are sensitive to dust, humidity, magnetism which can corrupt the data
stored
- They are inflexible i.e cannot be changed.

Care for magnetic and magneto-optical media

- Do not expose them to strong magnetic fields because the magnetically
recorded data on disk will be erased
- Keep them away from excessive heat because heat energy weakness
magnetic media’s ability to store data
- Do not drop magnetic media on the ground.
 - Do not bend or fold magnetic media or put heavy weights on the to avoid
breaking or damaging them
- Do not touch the magnetic surfaces
- Do not remove media from drive when it sis still being accessible by the
computer because this may result in data loss.

Removable Optical storage

Data is written and read from using a laser beam.

Optical Disc Drives

 Optical disc drives are storage devices that use lasers to read or write
discs. Optical disc drives include CD, DVD, and Blu-ray. When a disc is
inserted into an optical drive, the drive's laser is focused on the disc by
the lens on the drive. The laser reads the pits burned into the disc and
sends that data to the computer. Optical drives that can also write data
have a laser that adjusts the calibration of the beam to switch between
reading and writing functions.

Laser disks
Data is recorded using a very concentrated light (laser beam). They store very
large volumes of data. Data stored in them is more stable and permanent than
the magnetic media. Examples are: Compact disks (CD), Digital Versatile Disk
(DVD), Optical Card and Optical tape.

i. Compact disk (CD)

CD is made of a small plastic disk with a reflective aluminium coating on one
side. They hold large quantities of data and information, as much as 700MB.

Forms of CDs:
a). Compact Disk – Read Only Memory (CD-ROM)
When data is recorded on them one cannot change or add anything on them.
Mostly used to store music recordings.
b). Compact Disk – Recordable (CD-R)
They are initially blank but with a CD- Writer (Drive), the user can record data,
programs or information on it. Once data has been written on it, one can only
read but not change it i.e. it becomes read only. Are coated with special dye
which changes color to represent data when burned using a laser beam.

Both CD-ROMs and CD-Rs are referred to as WORM (Write Once Read Many)
because they allow the use to write (record) data on them once but read them
many times.

c). Compact Disk – Rewriteable (CD-RW)

Data written to them can be erased (overwritten) and rewrite new information.
 Digital Versatile Disk / Digital Video Disk (DVD)
Resemble CDs but have higher storage capacity of upto 17GB, approximately
26 CDs of capacity 640MB! Are suitable for recoding motion pictures like
videos because of they offer better sound and quality pictures. There are
three common types of DVDs namely read only, recordable and rewriteable
DVDs.

ii. Optical card

Computer memory that uses optical techniques which generally involve an
addressable laser beam, a storage medium which responds to the beam
for writing and sometimes for erasing, and a detector which reacts to the
altered character of the medium when it uses the beam to read out stored
data
Resemble MICR, but it has optically recordable stripe that store information.
Mostly used in Banking to store customer details.

Optical tape
An instrument used for video or computer data storage in which a laser optical
head is used to write digital information onto a tape. Depending on the size of
the reel, the tape may be capable of storing more information than an optical
disc but has a much slower access time.
Similar to magnetic tape, but data is stored on it using optical technology.
Advantages of optical storage
- Have massive capacity
- Stores data permanently
- Accessing of data is fast
- Secured i.e. it’s hard to copy
- High quality pictures and
sound
- Portable
Disadvantage
- Expensive
- Costly hardware and software for reading
- It can break easily
- Very sensitive to things like dust, water, heat, scratches which easily damage
them.

Solid state storage devices

Is a kind of non-volatile storage media that employs integrated circuits rather than
mechanical, magnetic or optical technology. They are regarded as solid state
because they do not have moving parts but everything is electronic as the case of
RAM or EEPROM. Examples include flash disks, Flash pen drives and memory cards.

Memory cards
A memory card or flash card is an electronic flash memory data storage device
used for storing digital information. They are commonly used in many electronic
devices, including digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop computers, MP3 players,
and video game consoles. They are small, re-recordable, and able to retain data
without power.Memory Stick is a removable flash memory card format

A memory stick

Flash disk
It is small in size but with massive storage capacity of as much as 32GB. Its more
portable and convenient to carry around than other secondary storage medias.
Advantages of solid state storage over other removable
- Are noiseless since they have no mechanical parts
- Offer faster access to stored data
- Are very small hence more portable

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages

- Data stored on flash drives is impervious to scratches and dust, and flash
drives are mechanically very robust making them suitable for transporting
data from place to place and keeping it readily at hand. Most personal
computers support USB as of 2010.
- Flash drives also store data densely compared to many removable media. In
mid-2009, 256 GB drives became available, with the ability to hold many times
more data than a DVD or even a Blu-ray disc.
- Compared to hard drives, flash drives use little power, have no fragile moving
parts, and for most capacities are small and light.
- Flash drives implement the USB mass storage device class so that most
modern operating systems can read and write to them without installing
device drivers. The flash drives present a simple block-structured logical unit
to the host operating system, hiding the individual complex implementation
details of the various underlying flash memory devices. The operating system
can use any file system or block addressing scheme. Some computers can
boot up from flash drives.
- Specially manufactured flash drives are available that have a tough rubber or
metal casing designed to be waterproof and virtually "unbreakable". These
flash drives retain their memory after being submerged in water, and even
through a machine wash. Leaving such a flash drive out to dry completely
before allowing current to run through it has been known to result in a working
drive with no future problems. Channel Five's Gadget Show cooked one of
these flash drives with propane, froze it with dry ice, submerged it in various
acidic liquids, ran over it with a jeep and fired it against a wall with a mortar. A
company specializing in recovering lost data from computer drives managed to
recover all the data on the drive. [38] All data on the other removable storage
devices tested, using optical or magnetic technologies, were destroyed.

Disadvantages

- Main article: Flash memory#Limitations

- Like all flash memory devices, flash drives can sustain only a limited number of
write and erase cycles before the drive fails. [39][40] This should be a
consideration when using a flash drive to run application software or an
operating system. To address this, as well as space limitations, some
developers have produced special versions of operating systems (such as
Linux in Live USB)[41] or commonplace applications (such as Mozilla Firefox)
designed to run from flash drives. These are typically optimized for size and
configured to place temporary or intermediate files in the computer's main
RAM rather than store them temporarily on the flash drive.
 - Most USB flash drives do not include a write-protect mechanism, although
some have a switch on the housing of the drive itself to keep the host
computer from writing or modifying data on the drive. Write-protection makes
a device suitable for repairing virus-contaminated host computers without risk
of infecting the USB flash drive itself.
- A drawback to the small size is that they are easily misplaced, left behind, or
otherwise lost. This is a particular problem if the data they contain are
sensitive (see data security). As a consequence, some manufacturers have
added encryption hardware to their drives—although software encryption
systems which can be used in conjunction with any mass storage medium
achieve the same thing.[citation needed] Most drives can be attached to keychains,
necklaces and lanyards. The USB plug is usually fitted with a removable and
easily lost protective cap, or is retractable.
- USB flash drives are more expensive per unit of storage than large hard drives,
but are less expensive in capacities of a few tens of gigabytes as of 2011. [42][43]
Maximum available capacity is increasing with time, but is less than larger
hard drives. This balance is changing, but the rate of change is slowing.

Review questions 2.4

1.Distinguish between primary memory and secondary storage devices.
2.Distinguish between removable and fixed storage
3.Compare three types of removable disks i.e. Floppy, zip and jaz disks in relation
to size.
4.What is a hard disk? How does it differ from the floppy disks?
5.Give four examples of optical disks and how they differ from each other in term
of storage capacity and mechanism.
6.Give four examples of optical disks and how they differ from each other in term
of storage capacity and mechanism.
7.What are the advantages of a digital versatile disk over a typical compact disks.
8.Define the term multimedia and list down the components required to make a
computer multimedia.
9.Why are CD-ROM and CD-R referred to as WORM?
10. Describe the different between magnetic and optical storage media.
11. Jets publishers is a company that specializes in production of news papers.
One of the editors wanted to transfer a 50MB document from the hard disk of
one computer to another using removable storage media. Give four examples of
the devices he/she could use.
12. Describe three precautions you would take to avoid damaging the hard
disk.

2.6 Power supply and peripheral device Interface

Computer Port

Is a special kind of connector (socket) on the system unit usually at the back which
a cable from an external peripheral device e.g. mouse, keyboard etc is plugged to
facilitate transfer of information.
Power cable

They supply power to the device. Power cables connect the computers power supply
unit to mains outlet.

Power supply and adapter

Power supply unit is a special unit inside the system unit

that supplies power to the motherboard and other internal
devices. Computers are connected to AC power while
internal components require DC power. The work of a power
supply unit and adapter is to convert AC to DC.

Peripheral device interfacing

Interface cables: Transmit data signals. Connect the device on one end, and to
the motherboard via ports on the other end.

Parallel interface

A parallel port is also called the Centronics port and the

computer refers to a parallel port as LPT1 (Line Printer
One). Parallel cables transfer data in parallel 8-bits at a
time using a set of many conductors. Parallel ports (the
25-holes, D-shaped holes) mainly connect printers,
scanners, portable CD-ROM drives, tapes and network
adapters. Parallel cables transmit data faster over short
distances.
Serial interface and ports

The serial port is also called COM1 or COM2 and sometimes COM3 and COM4. Can
also be referred as RS-232 port. Serial interfaces
have 9-pins. Serial cables transmit data 1-bit at a
time. Are generally slower than parallel cables. Allow
for two way communication ( i.e. communication to
and from the computer and the device connected to
it), whereas parallel cables offer one-way
communication. Serial interface is widely used for
many interconnections like connecting of computers
to external modems and some mice. Serial ports are more reliable than parallel
ports for long distances.

Comparison between parallel and serial cables and ports

Serial cable and port Parallel cable and port
- Transmits 1-bit at a time - Transmits 8-bits at a time
- Slow - Fast
- Connect modems, a mice & - Connect printers, scanners,
keyboards network adapters etc.
- Ports consist of 25-pin and 9- - Ports consist of 25-pin D-shaped
pin holes
- More reliable for long distance - More reliable for short distances
- Allow two way communication - Only one way communication

VGA port

This is where monitor is connected to LCD projectors. It is shaped like a letter D with
15 holes and colour coded in blue.

Universal serial bus (USB) cables and ports

They transmit only 1-bit of information at a time at a very high speed than parallel
cables. Provides quality data transmission over long distance. It has become the
standard connectivity for most of the peripheral devices from printers to mobile
phones. It can be used to connect as many as 127 peripheral devices to a
computer. To use USB port, the devices should be specifically made to work with
the USB. There are two types of USBs namely low speed USB 1.1 and a relatively
faster high speed USB 2.0

Advantage of USB cable & ports

- The USB port allows connection of many different types of devices such as
printer, modem, mouse, keyboard, digital cameras etc.
- USB allow devices to be daisy chained on it i.e. plug a modem into the port, and
then plug a keyboard into the modem, then plug a printer into the keyboard to
use .

Firewire ports

Firewire or IEEE 1394 has the same features as the USB but transmits data faster
than USB. It is mostly used for streaming video from a digital video camera.

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

- They transmit data in parallel but are faster than parallel cables. Its ports allows
connection upto 7 peripheral devices. Small
Computer System Interface (SCSI, is a set of
standards for physically connecting and transferring
data between computers and peripheral devices. The
SCSI standards define commands, protocols, and
electrical and optical interfaces. SCSI is most
commonly used for hard disks and tape drives, but it
can connect a wide range of other devices, including scanners and CD drives. The
SCSI standard defines command sets for specific peripheral device types; the
presence of "unknown" as one of these types means that in theory it can be used
as an interface to almost any device, but the standard is highly pragmatic and
addressed toward commercial requirements.
Other Ports and Connections

Infra-red and bluetooth

Infrared is a wireless interface that uses infrared to connect to infrared-enabled

devices. Used for wireless communication between the CPU and
a device which is infrared – capable e.g. cordless mouse as
shown in the diagram below. Infrared, also to as infrared data
association (IrDA), uses the infrared waves to transmit data.
Infrared-enabled devices must be at a line of sight of infrared
rays in order to transmit data.
Bluetooth is a wireless interface that uses short range radio
broadcast to connect any Bluetooth-enabled device. It just
broadcasts a radio signal within the surrounding. Any Bluetooth device when turned
on will be detected.

Personal System 2 (PS/2 Port)

Also known as mini-DIN connectors. Is used to connect the mouse and keyboard

D-type ports (Video graphics array (VGA)

The two most common connectors used for monitors or video are the 9-pin D and
the 15-pin Hi-D connector. The 25-pin port can be used for both serial and parallel
devices. When used to connect serial its labeled COM1 or COM2 and only 10 of its
pins are used. For parallel its labeled LPT1 or LPT2.

Centronic ports

This is a parallel port that uses metal clips mounted into cells in place of pins.

Audio ports (connectors)

Are jack plugs used to connect speakers, microphone and other portable audio

equipment.

Modem port
Used for plugging an external modem into the computer.

2.7 Basic Computer Setup and Cabling

The basic computer system consist s of the system unit, monitor, keyboard and
mouse.
The following precautions should be observed before attempting to carry out any
setup activity.
1. Disconnect all devices from power source before starting to work on them to
prevent electrical shock.
2. Follow teachers instructions strictly when working on any peripheral device
3. Never work alone because you may need help incase of an emergency.

Tools and materials required

- Screw drivers
- Pliers
- Motherboard
- Manufacturers manual
- Required peripheral devices
- Dismantled system unit
- Power and interface cable.

Connecting external devices

To connect external devices to the system unit identify its port and interface cable.
Components connect to the system unit via the ports at the back of the computer.
The mouse and the keyboard connect via the PS/2 ports. The monitor connects via
the 15-holes port on the video card. Some printers via 25-hole port or USB port.

Each of the components will have a cable attached with a connector at the end that
will plug into the appropriate port on the back of the computer. The mouse,
keyboard and optionally the monitor are powered by the power unit within the
system box. The monitor may have its own power source, in which case it will plug
directly into the mains power supply. Check the power ratings at the back of the
computer before connecting to power supply. In Kenya it should be 250 volts. The
system unit may connect to UPS.
(i) Gently and carefully connect the interface cable of each devices to the
correct port and to the device if it is not fixed permanently.
(ii) Connect the computer to the power source and switch it on.
(iii)Observe boot up information on the screen to see whether Power On-Self –
Test (POST) displays any error message.
(iv) A successful boot means that the computer was properly set.

Though computers are connected to AC power outlet, internal components require

DC power. Desktop PCs use Power Supply Unit while portable computers use
adapters to convert AC to DC

System Components Interconnection

The basic microcomputer system consists of the motherboard, the power

supply unit, hard disk drive, floppy disk drive, I/O interface card, optional CD-
ROM drive, disk controller card, video card, and optional sound and network
interface cards. These components are housed in the system unit (case).

Mounting internal devices

While external devices are connected to the motherboard through ports, internal
devices are connected through slots and sockets.

Mounting hard drives and optical drives

Internal devices are connected to the motherboard using special ribbon cables.
Hard disks and optical drives are connected to the motherboard through controllers.
Three types of controllers are ;
- Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE)
- Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA)
- Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

SATA and EIDE are more efficient and supports hot – swapping,. Hot-swapping
means that a drive can be removed or inserted while the computer is still on. EIDE
controller supports up to two drives on a single ribbon cable attaining a
master/slave configuration because the controller directs activities of both drives.

Installing floppy drives

There is no master/slave configuration for a floppy drive, you can attach two floppy
drives in the same ribbon cable. One floppy drive will be automatically assigned A
while the other drive will be B.

Review questions 2.6

1. What are the safety precautions to be observed before one starts installing
devices in the system unit.?
2. In relation to cabling, give two reasons why a printer may not print work sent
from the computer as expected?
3. Naliaka connected new multimedia speakers to her computer and tried to
play her favourite music CD but no sound came out. What might have been
the problem?