1.1.

1 - Architecture of the CPU

The purpose of the CPU:

The fetch-decode-execute cycle

 Fetch – In this stage an instruction is fetched from Main Memory (RAM). The
oldest instruction is always fetched
 Decode – In this stage the instruction is broken down and converted into a language
that can be understood (binary)
 Execute – In this stage the instruction is executed and carried out, and the user
receives what they requested

Common CPU components and their function:

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This performs all arithmetic (addition and subtraction) and logical (greater than, less than,
equal to) operations within the CPU

CU (Control Unit)
This works with the CPU to control the flow of data within the system and to decode
instructions

Cache
The is memory located on the processor chip. It acts as a very small amount of memory
located in between the processor and Main Memory (RAM). We store frequently used
instructions here to make accessing them quicker and easier

Registers
This is a small amount of memory within the CPU. There are a variety of registers, all of
which do different jobs (MAR/MDR/ACC/PC)

Von Neumann architecture:

MAR (Memory Address Register)
This stores the address of the data or instruction that is currently being accessed by the CPU

MDR (Memory Data Register)

This stores the data or instruction that is currently being accessed by the CPU

Program Counter
This stores the address of the next instruction to be processed, which then goes onto the
MAR

Accumulator
This stores the results , and also temporarily stores data whilst calculations are being
processed by the ALU

1.1.2 - CPU performance

How common characteristics of CPUs can affect their performance:
Clock speed
The Clock Speed is the number of Fetch, Decode, Execute cycles that can be completed
every second, and is measured in Hertz (Hz). For example, a CPU with a 2GHz Clock Speed
will be able to perform 2,000,000,000 (2 billion) Fetch, Decode, Execute cycles every
second. The higher the Clock Speed is, the more instructions the CPU can process every
second, and the less likely we are to experience the computer slowing down.
Cache size
Cache Memory is a small amount of memory located on the CPU, that acts as memory
between the CPU and RAM (Random Access Memory). Frequently used instructions are
stored here. It is quicker to access the instructions stored in Cache Memory as it is closer
to the CPU than RAM. However, it is only small. The bigger our Cache Memory is, the more
instructions can be stored in here, improving the performance of the CPU
Number of cores
A core is a processor within the CPU. The more processors we have in the CPU, the more
instructions that can be carried out at once. Imagine we had 20 maths problems to solve.
On the first team there were five students. On the second team there was only one
student. Who would complete the maths problems first? The first team would of course.
This is because they could split up the tasks and complete multiple problems at the same
time, compared to the second team who would only complete one problem at a time.

1.1.3 - Embedded systems

The purpose and characteristics of embedded systems
An Embedded System is a computer system with a dedicated function within a larger computer
system. An Embedded System is dedicated to a single task
Examples of embedded systems
There are many different examples of embedded systems. These include: ➢ Washing Machines ➢
Dishwashers ➢ DVD Players ➢ MP3 Players ➢ Mobile Phones ➢ Games Consoles ➢ Microwaves

1.2.1 - Primary storage (Memory)

The need for primary memory

A computer cannot function without “primary memory”. The need and purpose of primary
storage is to hold both data and programs that are in current use by the CPU
The difference between RAM and ROM
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is also referred to as the computers Main
Memory. This is because it is the memory that the CPU has direct access to.

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. It is called Read Only because it is not rewritable,
therefore it can only be read (it cannot be changed).

The purpose of ROM in a computer system

The job role of ROM is to store the program required for booting up (loading up) the
computer system. It also stores the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System).
The purpose of RAM in a computer system
The job role of RAM is to store all the computers open programs and files. When a
program/file is loaded up, it is opened from Secondary Storage (we will cover this in a later
topic) and stored in the RAM. This is so the CPU can access the program/file and its data
quicker
Virtual memory
Virtual Memory refers to how the computer continues to operate once the RAM becomes
full.
Rather than stopping working when the RAM becomes full, the computer partitions (splits
off) a section of the internal hard drive. This section then acts as additional RAM, allowing
the computer to continue functioning. However, this greatly affects the performance of the
computer, slowing it down. This is because data must be swapped between the virtual
memory and RAM when being actively used.

1.2.2 - Secondary storage

The need for secondary storage
This is where we store for longer than just whilst the computer is turned on. It is not
volatile, and therefore data remains even after the power has been turned off.

Common types of storage:

Optical
This is a type of Secondary Storage.
Optical Storage is used within an Optical Drive, where a laser is shone at the surface of the
disc, and then processing the reflection from the disc. Optical Storages are discs, and
examples are CDs, DVDs, and Blu-Rays.
CD-R, DVD-R – Read Only, so the contents cannot be changed
CD-RW, DVD-RW – Rewritable, so the contents can be changed
Magnetic
This is a type of Secondary Storage.
Data is stored on Magnetic Storage via magnetised dots. Magnetic Storage often has
moving parts. An example of Magnetic Storage is an Internal Hard Disc Drive.
Solid state
This is a type of Secondary Storage.
Data is stored on Solid State Storage via electricity. It is becoming increasingly popular as
its capacity increases, and its cost decreases. Examples of Solid-State Storages are Memory
Sticks, SSDs, and SD Cards.
Suitable storage devices and storage media for a given application

The advantages and disadvantages of different storage devices and storage media
relating to these characteristics:
Capacity
This refers to the amount of data that can be stored on the media. The higher the capacity,
the more data it can store without becoming full.

Speed
This refers to the speed in which the data can be read and transferred. The higher the speed,
the faster data can be read and transferred to and from the media.

Portability
This refers to how easy the media is to transport and move around from one place to
another. The better

Durability
This refers to how robust the media is, how likely it is to break when shaken or dropped.
The better the durability, the less likely the device is to break or lose data if dropped or
shaken.

Reliability
This refers to how likely it is to be able to be used repeatedly, without failing. The better the
reliability, the less likely the media is to fail over time.

Cost
This refers to how expensive the media is to buy. The better the cost, the cheaper the media
is to buy.
1.2.3 - Units
The units of data storage:
Used as a measurement of storage. The order is as follows:
Bit – Nibble – Byte – Kilobyte – Megabyte – Gigabyte – Terabyte – Petabyte
Bit
Smallest data unit (0 or 1)
Nibble (4 bits)

• There are 4 bits in a nibble

Byte (8 bits)

• 8 bits in a byte

Kilobyte (1,000 bytes)

• There are 1024 bytes in a kilobyte

Megabyte (1,000KB)

• There are 1024 kilobytes in a megabyte

Gigabyte (1,000 MB)

• There are 1024 megabytes in a gigabyte

Terabyte (1,000 GB)

• There are 1024 gigabytes in a terabyte

Petabyte (1,000 TB)

• There are 1024 terabytes in a petabyte

How data needs to be converted into a binary format to be processed by a computer

For computer systems to be able to process and execute our instructions they must be in a
format the computer understands. Computers do not understand sound, or pixels, or letters.
All these must be converted into binary so that the instructions can be understood and
executed.
Data capacity and calculation of data capacity requirements
For this requirement you should be able to answer questions like
How many MB in 4TB?
How many KB in 4MB?
If a movie is 500mb , how many movie can you store in 1TB?

1.2.4 - Data storage

Numbers:
How to convert positive denary whole numbers to binary numbers (up to and including 8
bits) and vice versa

How to add two binary integers together (up to and including 8 bits) and explain overflow
errors which may occur

How to convert positive denary whole numbers into 2-digit hexadecimal numbers and vice
versa

How to convert binary integers to their hexadecimal equivalents and vice versa

Binary shifts

Characters:
The use of binary codes to represent characters

The term 'character set'

A character set refers to all the characters that are defined and recognised by the computer
hardware and software. The size of the character set is dependent on the number of bits
being used per character. The more bits per character used, the more characters that can be
represented

The relationship between the number of bits per character in a character set, and the number
of characters which can be represented, e.g. ASCII, Unicode

For example, ASCII is a character encoding standard for computer systems. Here characters
are given a code within the system. In the original version of ASCII, a total of 127
characters were covered. This was because the system used a 7-bit encoding system,
meaning the maximum number of characters represented was 127. In extended ASCII, this
rose to 255 as the system used an 8-bit encoding system, increasing the maximum number
of characters.

As we said above, the more bits per character we have, the more characters we can have
within our character set. ASCII used 7-bits, meaning a maximum of 127 characters,
extended ASCII used 8-bits, meaning a maximum of 255 characters. UNICODE however
uses up to 32 bits per character, meaning there are over 1.1 million characters that are in
UNICODEs character set.
Of course, using this many bits per character means more characters which means more
languages etc. can be covered, but storing these characters means more storage space is
taken up on your device
Images:
How an image is represented as a series of pixels, represented in binary
An image is made up of millions of pixels. A pixel is an individual ‘square’ on an image,
that when combined produce an image.

As you can see in the above example, the image is a simple black and white image.
However, when displayed in binary to show how the computer would store each pixel, we
can see each white square is represented as a 0, and each black square is represented as a 1.
In this image the resolution would be low as we only have a small number of pixels in the
image (100 pixels). The colour depth is also small too. We are using 1 bit per pixel (each
pixel is being represented using just a single bit (a single number), either 1 or 0. This means
the maximum number of colours we could have using this number of bits per pixel is 2.

Now let’s have a look at an image that has a greater colour depth

2 ^ number of bits per pixel

2 ^ 3 = 8 possible colours
Metadata
As well as storing the data for the image itself, there is also some additional data stored
with the image that allows the device to rebuild the image, as well as provides some useful
information to the user. We call this metadata.
Some data stored in the metadata of an image is the height of the image (in pixels), the
length of the image (in pixels), the bits per pixel, GPS location etc.
The effect of colour depth and resolution on:
- The quality of the image
- The size of an image file

- The quality of the image- GETS BETTER

- The size of an image file – FILE SIZE GETS LARGER

Sound:
How sound can be sampled and stored in digital form
As with images (and everything else) sound must also be converted to and stored in binary

In the image below we have our analogue wave in the background. What our device does is,
at intervals, takes a measurement of the frequency of the wave. These measurements are
then joined together to create a digital wave
In the above example, the intervals where the sound is sampled is represented using the
grey lines. This means this sound is sampled 6 times a second. The average sound for a CD
is sampled over 44,000 times a second. The more samples we do a second the better the
quality of the sound, but the more information we are storing per second and therefore the
file size increases.

Below we can now see the points of each sample, represented with the black dots:

The effect of sample rate, duration and bit depth on:

- The playback quality
- The size of a sound file

The more samples we do a second the better the quality of the sound, but the more
information we are storing per second and therefore the file size increases.

1.2.5 - Compression
The need for compression
Compression is when the size of a file is reduced by changing some of the files attributes
e.g. its file type, dimensions etc. For example, we may compress a WAV sound file (which
has a high audio quality but a large file size) down to an MP3 sound file (which has a lower
sound quality but a much lower file size). This would then allow us to store more sound
files on a device such as an iPod, due to the file sizes being smaller.
We may also need to compress a file to allow us to have additional room on a storage
device, or to make a file small enough to send in an email.
Types of compression:
Lossy

Lossy Compression – This is when the size of the file is reduced, however the quality of the
file also reduces (meaning the quality gets worse)

Lossless

Lossless Compression – This is when the size of the file is reduced, however the quality of
the file remains the same

1.3.1 - Networks and topologies

Types of networks:

LAN (Local Area Network)/WAN

WAN (Wide Area Network)

LAN
A LAN covers a small geographical area such as one building, or two buildings close together.
Examples of LANs would be a school, a house, and a police

WAN
A WAN covers a large geographical area such as a city, country, or the world. Examples of WANs
would be the internet, an international bank, or ATMs (Automated Teller Machine)

Factors that affect the performance or networks

Bandwidth:
This is the amount of data that can be sent and received successfully in a given time.
Bandwidth is measured in bits per second e.g. a 32Mbps bandwidth would mean 32
Megabytes of data can be transferred over a network every second.

Number of Users:
The number of users on the network will impact upon the performance of the network. Too
many users on the network will mean more of the bandwidth is being spread out to try and
meet all the users’ needs. When there is not enough bandwidth to manage all the users on
the network, the network will slow down.

Transmission Media:
The media you choose to use in your network will impact upon how well it can perform. A
wired network for example has a higher bandwidth compared to a wireless network, due to
less interference. Using fibre optic cabling rather than copper cabling will have a higher
bandwidth, due to less interference again.

Latency:
This is the delay from transmitting data to receiving it. This can be increased by not having
the correct network hardware to direct traffic around the network appropriately, causing
‘traffic jams’ and therefore slowing data down.

The hardware needed to connect stand-alone computers into a Local Area Network:

Wireless access points (WAPs)

Wireless Access Point is used to allow devices to connect to a network wirelessly, without
the need of any cables. We will discuss the advantages and disadvantages to using a wired
or wireless connection shortly.
Routers
A Router is used to send data between multiple networks. You cannot connect to a WAN
such as the internet without a router. A router often has a modem built into it now, which
enables you to connect to the internet. A router uses an IP Address to direct traffic between
networks.
Switches
A Switch is used to send data around a network. A switch however sends data only to the
correct device on the network, rather than all the devices on the network. This is because
they can read the data packets being sent and therefore work out where the receiver is.
NIC (Network Interface Controller/Card)
The job of the NIC is to connect a device to a wired or wireless network and is built into the
device. It uses protocols to ensure the communication between the device and network is
consistent
Transmission media
Cabling:
If you choose to have a wired connection, then you will require cabling. Cables are used to
create a wired connection in a network. There are two main types of cabling used today:
Copper Cables (Unshielded Twisted Pair) – These cables are used to create a wired
network. Copper cables are twisted around each other, where one cable is responsible for
sending data, and one is responsible for receiving data. Copper Cables can also be known as
Ethernet Cables.
Fibre Optic Cables – Use light to transmit data. They can cover a much large range
compared to Copper Cables and have a much higher bandwidth due to less interference.
Fibre Optical cabling still remains expensive and is therefore still emerging. However, it is
now starting to be more widely used.
The internet as a worldwide collection of computer networks:
DNS (Domain Name Server)
DNS (Doman Name Servers) are special servers on the internet. Their job is to convert
URLs the user types in into IP Addresses, so the locations of web pages associated with a
website can be found.
For example, if we wanted to access the BBC website, we would type into our web browser
www.bbc.co.uk. This is easy for us to remember. However, if we needed to remember the
IP Address instead, we would need to remember 151.101.64.81. Imagine having to
remember that type of IP Address for all your favourite websites! It wouldn’t be possible.
This is where the DNS comes in. When we search for a website using a URL, the DNS
searches a database to find the IP Address for the website, which then directs us to the
correct server containing all the information for that website. If the first DNS does not have
the required information, it will pass us on to another DNS, which will check, and so on.
Hosting
In order for a website to be available on the internet for users to access, it must be hosted.
Hosting is when websites are stored on dedicated servers. Hosts often provide 24/7 access
to the website, access for multiple users, and greater security, compared to hosting your
own website. However, should the host server go down, your website will go down also.
This could lose you money or customers, so there are both advantages and disadvantages to
paying a company to host your website.S
The Cloud
Cloud Computing is becoming more and more popular, as our lives become busier and
busier. Cloud Computing is when your applications and data are stored and accessed via the
internet, rather than locally (on your device).

✓ Data is often backed up in a different location to where your

network is, therefore protected should you ever need to
restore it due to loss or theft
✓ There is often cross compatibility, meaning applications and files can be accessed on
different devices (e.g. phones, tablets, laptops etc.)
✓ Updates for applications are done automatically, meaning you always have the most up
to date version of the application
✓ Online applications are often free, saving the cost of buying licenses for the application
✓ People can work on the go, and on multiple devices, as long as they have an internet
connection

Disadvantages:
❖ When something is uploaded to the cloud, you can sometimes lose ownership to it,
which can lead to Copyright issues
❖ You are usually limited to a small amount of storage space for free, before having to pay
for further storage
The applications provided may not always offer you all the features you
want or need, compared to the bought versions
❖ Data is easier to hack when stored online. Despite companies who offer
cloud services providing security measures, it is not possible to
guarantee data security
❖ Users must always have an internet connection in order to access applications and files.
Therefore, if your internet connection drops, you would not be able to access your files
or applications
Web servers and clients
Data for websites is stored on a web server. These are special, dedicated servers responsible
for managing requests from clients and sending data so websites can be viewed and
accessed. A client is a device that is requesting this data. When loading up a website the
client will send a request to the web server for the relevant websites data; the web server
will process this request (here a process called packet switching takes place) and then send
the requested data to the client.
Star and Mesh network topologies
MESH
This is a type of LAN. In a mesh topology all the devices on the network connect to as many other
devices on the network as they can. Each device on the mesh network is called a node. Data
travels in multiple directions and via multiple routes in a mesh network. We draw the mesh
topology like this:
Star
In a star topology all devices are connected to a central switch of hub, via their own cable. Each
device on the star network is called a node. Data travels through the central switch of hub,
therefore reducing data collisions and speeding up data transfer

1.3.2 - Wired and wireless networks, protocols and layers

Modes of connection:
Wired:
- Ethernet
Ethernet is a standard for networking technologies, used for communication on a wired
LAN (Local Area Network).
Twisted Pair Cables are commonly used now for creating ethernet connections. This is
because it allows data to be both sent and received at the same time, due to different wires
being used for both. Previously, a special protocol called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access/Collision Detection) was used to detect when data was being transmitted
over a wired network. It would detect communication on the network to avoid transmitting
data at the same time, therefore avoiding data collisions. Due to Twisted Pair Cables having
separate cables for sending and receiving, this is no longer necessary.
When data is transmitted via an ethernet connection, it is transmitted in frames. These
include:
▪ Bits used to synchronise transmission and receiver clocks
▪ Start frame deliminator to signify the start of the data packet of the frame
▪ Sender and receiver MAC Addresses
▪ Actual data
▪ Cyclic redundancy check used for error checking on the frame
Wireless:
- Wi-Fi
- Bluetooth
Wi-fi: Frequencies, Channels, and Encryption
Wi-fi is a common standard used for wireless networks. It is often what we refer to when
connecting to a wireless network.
In order for data to be sent via Wi-fi, frequencies and channels are used.
Frequencies are used to transmit signals. 2.417GHz is an example of a frequency. In order
to make the frequency more convenient to remember and use, it is given a channel number.
For example:
2.417GHz – Channel 1
2.427GHz – Channel 2
2.437GHz – Channel 3
In order for devices to connect via Wi-fi, the channels must be set to the same. For
example, if your router is set to channel 2, but your computer is set to channel 3, the
devices will not be able to connect to each other. The channel is set by the NIC (Network
Interface Controller/Card) but this can be changed by the user. As long as two devices on
the network are set to the same channel, they can communicate with each other.
This is where interference can also affect your network too. If other devices are set to the
same channel, they can interfere with the signals being sent between your device and the
router. This can then slow your connection down.
However, if data is being sent wirelessly, it is easier to intercept and steal. Data therefore
must be encrypted, in order to protect it whilst being transmitted.
Encryption
Encryption involves scrambling data before being transmitted, into a secret code. In order
to decrypt the code, you must have a ‘master’ key. Only the device sending and the device
receiving the data has this key. This is because prior to the data being a sent, a ‘handshake
protocol’ is used to ensure the same correct and valid key is being used by both the sender
and receiver
IP addressing and MAC addressing
In order for data to be transmitted over and between networks, IP Addresses and MAC
Addresses are required.
An IP (Internet Protocol) Address is unique to each device connected to the internet. IP
Addresses are used to allow data to be directed around the internet from senders to the
correct receivers.
A MAC (Media Access Control) Address however is specific to a piece of hardware on a
network. They are built into the hardware (NIC) and therefore cannot be changed.

Standards
Allows communication between two or different brands

Common protocols including:

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
This protocol sets out the rules devices must follow when communicating with each other
over a network. It also plays an important role in packet switching (TCP), and routing of
packets on a Wide Area Network (IP).
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
This protocol is used to transfer web pages from web servers to clients.
HTTPS (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure)
This protocol is a more secure version of HTTP. Data sent using this protocol is encrypted
and therefore is more secure. This protocol would be used when transferring secure web
pages such as when users log into their online banking accounts.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
This protocol is used to transfer large files over a network, and to organise files for websites
on a web server.
POP (Post Office Protocol)
This protocol is used to access emails from an email server for the client to read. The email
is downloaded onto the user current device and therefore removed from the web server
when accessed.
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
This protocol is used to access emails from an email server for the client to read. However,
this protocol allows the user to access the email directly from the email server, therefore
removing the need to download or remove it. It is more advanced than POP
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
This protocol is used to send emails to an email server.
The concept of layers

Organising all related protocols in layers.

Makes it more organised, and errors are self-contained and easy to find

1.4.1 - Threats to computer systems and networks

Forms of attack:
Malware
This is software that aims to damage and corrupt a computer system, by spreading around
the system as quickly as possible. Examples include viruses, worms, and spyware
Social engineering, e.g. phishing, people as the 'weak point'
One of the biggest threats to a network are the people that actually work using the
network. Often users may lack the necessary security knowledge in order to keep the
network safe from threats, and therefore put the network at risk

▪ Leaving computers logged on and unattended ▪ Writing passwords down on sticky notes
and storing them on desks ▪ Sharing passwords with colleagues ▪ Not ensuring protection
software is up to date ▪ Opening email attachments without ensuring they are safe first
Brute-force attacks
 This is when an automated program continually tries to gain access to the network. This is
to try and potentially steal data or access corporate systems
Denial of service attacks
This is when a networks server is overloaded with requests which it cannot handle,
causing the server to crash. This therefore brings down the network
Data interception of theft
This is when data is intercepted (stolen) from the network, either directly from the
network or during transmission. It may be usernames and passwords to access the
network, or other crucial information such as customer information
The concept of SQL injection
This is when the contents of a database are outputted, revealing private and confidential
information. It also opens up the possibilities for data to be amended, appended, or
removed from the database.

1.4.2 - Identifying and preventing vulnerabilities

Common prevention methods:

Penetration testing
This is when either an individual or group try to gain unauthorised access to the network.
This then reveals areas of weakness in the network, which can then be fixed to prevent the
danger of real threats

Anti-malware software
This software is used to prevent and remove malware. It scans devices and alerts users to
potential threats found on their device, so they can be removed

Firewalls
This is used to control what goes in and what goes out of the network. It prevents
unauthorised access by only allowing authorised access to the network.

User access levels

User Access Levels provide different levels of access to the network depending on who the
user is. For example, a network manager would need to be able to access all the different
elements of the network. An admin assistant however wouldn’t need such high level of
access, so won’t be able to access as much.

Passwords
These allow users to access the network using a combination of letters, numbers, and
characters only they know

Encryption
This is a security measure when sending data. Data is scrambled into a secret code, which
can only be decrypted using a master ‘key’. Only the sender and receiver have this key,
which therefore prevents the data being hacked/intercepted, and understood.
Prior to encrypted data being sent, both devices check with each other to ensure they have
the correct master key.
Physical security
This refers to the process of securing the actual hardware of the network with physical
measures such as locking doors to server rooms, placing servers in cabinets that lock etc.

1.5.1 - Operating systems

The purpose and functionality of operating systems:
User interface
This is when the OS provides a way for the user to interact with and control the computer.
It can be graphical, or text based
Memory management and multitasking
This is when the OS manages the transfer of data between memory units (RAM, CPU, and
storage (e.g. hard drive)), and also how data is stored and organised in RAM to make
efficient processing

Peripheral management and drivers

This is when the OS manages the input and output devices connected to the computer e.g.
keyboard, mouse etc.
User management
This provides the opportunity for different users to be able to log onto the same
computer. The OS will retain individual settings for each account such as desktop
backgrounds, permissions to access files and programs etc
File management
This provides the user with a logical structure for storage of data. It provides the user files
to store data in, and the ability to create folder structures to organise files

1.5.2 - Utility software

The purpose and functionality of utility sofware

Utility system software:

Encryption software
We’ve now covered encryption across three different topics, so hopefully you now
remember what encryption is! As a reminder, encryption is when data is scrambled into a
secret code, which can only be decrypted using a master ‘key’. Only the sender and
receiver have this key, which therefore prevents the data being hacked/intercepted, and
understood. Prior to encrypted data being sent, both devices check with each other to
ensure they have the correct master key. Encryption Software can be part of the Utility
Software, as well as software that is run independently. This provides a level of security for
the user.
Defragmentation
In order to understand what Defragmentation Software does, we must first understand
what fragmentation is. Fragmentation occurs in computer systems regularly. It causes no
harm to the computer system but will cause it to slow down and therefore not perform
efficiently. As you delete files, it leaves gap in your hard drive. Defragmentation is the
process of putting all files closer to one another so computer runs smoother
Data compression
Compression is when the size of a file is reduced by changing some of the files attributes
e.g. its file type, dimensions etc. For example, we may compress a WAV sound file (which
has a high audio quality but a large file size) down to an MP3 sound file (which has a lower
sound quality but a much lower file size). This would then allow us to store more sound
files on a device such as an iPod, due to the file sizes being smaller.

There are two types of compression, these are: ▪ Lossy Compression – This is when the size
of the file is reduced, however the quality of the file also reduces (meaning the quality gets
worse) ▪ Lossless Compression – This is when the size of the file is reduced, however the
quality of the file remains the same
1.6.1 - Ethical, legal, cultural and environmental impact

Impacts of digital technology on wider society including:

Ethical issues
An ethical issue relates to whether something could be deemed as morally right or wrong.
This means it isn’t necessarily illegal to do but could be deemed as being wrong to do

Legal issues
A legal issue relates to whether something is right or wrong to do by law. If something is
done against the law, it can lead to consequences such as fines and imprisonment

Cultural issues
A cultural issue relates to whether something could have a positive or negative impact on a
person, or group of peoples, culture. Again, a cultural issue is not necessarily illegal, but
could be seen as being wrong to do.

Environmental issues
An environmental issue relates to whether something is right or wrong to do in relation to
the environment. This means how much of a positive or negative impact something could
have on wildlife, plants, the air etc.

Privacy issues
A privacy issue relates to whether someone personal and private life could be put in
question. This could involve personal data about them, images of them etc.

Legislation relevant to Computer Science:

The Data Protection Act 2018
The Data Protection Act 2018 is a piece of legislation that refers to how data should be
gathered, stored, and destroyed correctly. It refers to eight key principles, and all must be
met. These eight key principles are:
▪ Data should be processed fairly and lawfully; not obtained by deception
▪ Data should only be used for the purpose specified
▪ Data should be relevant and not excessive
▪ Data should be accurate and up to date
▪ Data should only be kept for as long as is necessary
▪ Individuals have the right to see the data held about them, and to correct it
▪ Data must be kept secure
▪ Data cannot be transferred outside the EU unless the country has adequate data protection
laws
All companies who hold data about anyone must follow all eight principles listed above, or
can face prosecution (fines etc.)
Computer Misuse Act 1990
The Computer Misuse Act 1990 is a piece of legislation that refers to how computers may
be used to potentially cause damage or incite crime. It makes it illegal to make unauthorised
access to data. There are three levels to the Computer Misuse Act:
Level 1 – Unauthorised access to computer material
Level 2 – Unauthorised access with intent to commit or facilitate commission of further
offences
Level 3 – Unauthorised modification or computer material
This act makes hacking and the creation and spreading of viruses illegal. The consequences
of breaking the Computer Misuse Act 1990 can range from a £1000 fine up to an unlimited
fine and time in prison.
Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988
The patent their songs before releasing them. This therefore means that you cannot
download the song without their permission, and their permission to download it wo
Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 is a piece of legislation that is designed to protect
an individual or companies’ idea or creation. Individuals or companies apply to patent their
idea or product, and once granted it prevents other people taking their idea or product and
passing it off as their own. For example, music artists will p uld mean you paying for it.
This therefore means downloading the song without paying for it would be breaking the
law.
Creative Commons Licensing falls into the bracket of the Copyright Designs and Patents
Act 1988. This is a standardised way to grant copyright permission to create work. It allows
the author to retain copyright, whilst allowing others to copy, distribute, and make uses of
their work.
Software licences (i.e. open source and proprietary)
Open source
This is when software is released and the programming code (source code) is accessible to
all users to edit. It is often free, and users can modify and distribute the software legally.

Proprietary Software
This is when software is released and the programming code (source code) is not accessible
to all users to edit. It often has a cost and users cannot modify and distribute the software
legally. This type of software is often owned and sold by a company.