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shriya kajrolkarES 672: Air Pollution Control Technologies
Lecture #1
Prof. Manoranjan Sahu
Environmental Science and Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Spring 2025
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 1
Lecture Schedules
• Monday (11.30-12.25 hrs)
• Tuesday (8.30-9.25 hrs)
• Thursday (9.30-10.25 hrs)
No Re-quiz for missed Quizzes
✓ Except if there is a medical emergency or a valid reason, and
we are pre-infomed
Assignments to be submitted before due date
✓ Penalty for submission after due date (10% after 3- days, 25%
in 7-days but within one week of deadline; one week past
deadline, no evaluation
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 2
Course Contents
➢ Introduction to air pollution (Sources, classification, effects)
➢ Particulate pollutant (PM) control devices
▪ Settling chambers
▪ Cyclones
▪ Electrostatic precipitator
▪ Fabric filters
▪ Scrubber
➢ Gaseous pollutants control
▪ Absorption
▪ SOx and NOx control
▪ Adsorption
▪ Combustion
▪ Mobile gas pollutants control
▪ VOCs control
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 3
Course Contents
Instructor:
Prof. Manoranjan Sahu
Teaching Assistants:
1.Prashant Nawale
2.Khyati Upadhay
3.Zenab Kagzi
4.Abhijit Tiwari
5.Advait Nilesh Dhakane
Office Location:
New ESED & DESE Building,
Room No. CL 105
Environmental Science & Engineering Department (ESED)
Office Phone: 022-2576-5852
Email: [email protected]
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 4
Course Evaluation
➢ Course evaluation:
• Home work: 10%
• Quizzes (2): 20%
• Mid Semester Exam: 25%
• End semester:35% (all components will be covered)
• Attendance/Class Participation: 5%
• Surprise quiz=5% (best of two to be considered)
No Re-quiz for missed Quizzes
✓ Except if there is a medical emergency or a valid reason, and we are
pre-infomed
Assignments to be submitted before due date
✓ Penalty for submission after due date (10% after 3- days, 25% in 7-
days but within one week of deadline; one week past deadline, no
evaluation)
Attendance Requirements: 80%
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 5
Text & References
▪ Mycock, J.C., McKenna, J.D. and Theodore, L., Handbook of Air Pollution
Control Engineering and Technology, CRC, LEWIS Publishers, Boca Raton,
Florida, 1995.
▪ Cooper, C.D., and Alley, F.C., Air Pollution Control – A Design Approach,
Waveland Press Inc., Prospect Heights, IL, 1986.
▪ Noel De Nevers, Air Pollution Control Engineering, 1993.
▪ McCabe, W. L., Smith, J.C., and Harriott, P. W. L., Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, McGraw Hill, New York, 1993.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 6
Student Participation
• Go through the lecture materials regularly and practice
numerical
• Work on assignments independently and submit in a timely
manner.
• Attend the classes/interaction sessions regularly and be
inquisitive, share your thoughts during discussions
• Refer to books frequently
• Read research articles
7
Course Platforms
• Regular Announcements and Links for new course content
will be posted on http://moodle.iitb.ac.in/
• Physical classes as per the schedule
• Google drive will be used for uploading course content that
requires excessive storage, and link will be shared.
8
Kindly Note…
• TAs will form a Class whatsapp group for quick
communication - please join it
• However, Moodle will be used for posting class material/
instructions
• Respect TAs time, deal professionally and post on whatsapp
during general working hours only, i.e. 8am – 8pm
• Feel free to tell us if you feel the course is moving too
fast...the aim is your learning...not to cover everything!
• At the start of the class, a review of the content from previous
lecture - extremely useful to be in class on time
• You may be denied entry to class if you are late by more than
5 mins - be in class on time
9
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
Lecture #2
By
Prof. Manoranjan Sahu
Environmental Science and Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Spring 2025
AIR POLLUTION SYSTEM
(Source-Transport-Receptor (STR)
Receptors
https://airpollutionthailand.wordpress.com/causes-of-air-pollution/
Air Pollution Overview
Air Pollutants:
Any substance occurring in the atmosphere at such a quantity that may have
adverse effects on humans, animals, plant life, and/or inanimate materials.
Source of Pollution:
•Natural Sources –Volcano, forest fire, dust storms
•Anthropogenic Sources - created by human beings
-Stationary sources
• Point sources (Industrial processing, power plants, fuels
combustion etc.)
• Area sources (Residential heating coal gas oil, on site
incineration, open burning etc.)
- Mobile sources
• Line sources (Highway vehicles, railroad locomotives etc.)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 12
Sources of Air Pollution
-Sources present can vary from place
to place and their contribution will
be different at different locations.
-Meteorology play an important role
in Particle Transport
Example of various Sources in Bombay
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 13
Sources in NCR Delhi
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 14
Sources of Pollution at IITB Campus
Kumar et al., (2024) Atmospheric Environment X
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 15
Sources of Pollution at IITB Campus
Kumar et al., (2022) Aerosol and Air Qual
Sahu et al., (2011), Sci. Total Environ.
Major Air Pollutants
•Primary air pollutants - Materials that when released pose health risks in their
unmodified forms or those emitted directly from identifiable sources.
•Secondary air pollutants - Primary pollutants interact with one another, sunlight, or
natural gases to produce new, harmful compounds
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 17
Impact of Air Pollution
1. Health impacts
2. Climate change
3. Air pollution damage
to property
➢ Recognition of air pollution
➢ Strong or unusual odors
➢ Reduction in visibility
➢ Eye irritation
➢ Acid taste in mouth
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 18
National Ambient Air Quality Standard by CPCB
Time
Concentration in Ambient Air
Weighted
Average Industrial, Ecologically
Sr. No. Pollutant
Residential, Sensitive Area
Methods of Measurement
Rural & (notified by Central
Other Area Government)
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Annual* 50 20 Improved West & Gaeke
1
µg/m3
24 hours** 80 80 Ultraviolet fluorescence
Modified Jacob &
Annual* 40 30
Hochheiser (Na-
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2),
2
µg/m3 24 hours** 80 80 Arsenite)
Chemiluminescen ce
Particulate Matter Annual* 60 60 Gravimetric
3 (size less than 24 hours** 100 100 TOEM
10µg) or PM10 µg/m3 Beta attenuation
Particulate Matter Annual* 40 40 Gravimetric
(size less than 24 hours** 60 60 TOEM
4
2.5µg) or PM2.5 Beta attenuation
µg/m3
8 hours* 100 100 UV photometric
3
5 Ozone (O3) µg/m 1 hour** 180 180 Chemilminescence
Chemical Method
19
National Ambient Air Quality Standard…
Annual* 0.5 0.5 AAS/ICP method after sampling on
3 24 hours** 1 1 EPM 2000 or equivalent filter paper
6 Lead (Pb) µg/m
ED-XRF using
Teflon filter
8 hours* 2 2 Non Dispersive Infra Red (NDIR)
7 Carbon Monoxide (CO) mg/m3
1 hour** 4 4 spectroscopy
Annual* 100 100 Chemilminescence
8 Ammonia (NH3 ) µg/m3
24 hours** 400 400 Indophenol blue method
Gas chromatography based continuous
Adsorption &
9 Benzene (C6 H6 ) µg/m3 Annual* 5 5
Desorption followed by GC
analysis
Benzo(a)Pyrene Solvent extraction followed by HPLC /GC
10 Annual* 1 1
(BaP) - particulate phase only, analysis
AAS/ICP method after sampling on
11 Arsenic (As), ng/m3 Annual* 6 6
EPM 2000 or equivalent filter paper
3 AAS/ICP method after sampling on
12 Nickel (Ni), ng/m Annual* 20 20
EPM 2000 or equivalent filter paper
* Annual arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year at a particular site
taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform intervals.
** 24 hourly or 08 hourly or 01 hourly monitored values, as applicable, shall be
complied with 98% of the time in a year. 2% of the time, they may exceed the limits
but not on two consecutive days of monitoring.
20
Concept of Air Quality Index (AQI)
Air Quality Air Quality Index Protect Your Health
Good 0-50 No health impacts are expected when
air quality is in this range.
Moderate 51-100 Unusually sensitive people should
consider limiting prolonged outdoor
exertion.
Unhealthy for 101-150 Active children and adults, and
Sensitive Groups people with respiratory disease, such
as asthma, should limit prolonged
outdoor exertion.
Unhealthy 151-200
Active children and adults, and
people with respiratory disease, such
as asthma, should limit prolonged
outdoor exertion, everyone else,
especially children should limit
prolonged outdoor excertion.
Very Unhealthy 201-300 Active children and adults, and
(Alert) people with respiratory disease, such
as asthma, should limit prolonged
outdoor exertion everyone else,
especially children, should limit
outdoor exertion.
21
Air Quality Index (AQI) Calculation
Development of Aggregate AQI
Sub-indices to AQI
AQI = Max [I1, I2,..,In]
Internationally Accepted
Scheme
Air Quality Index
AQI
Pollutants Considered for AQI and Air Quality Standards
Pollutant SO2 NO2 PM2.5 PM10 O3 CO (mg/m3) Pb NH3
Averaging time (hr) 24 24 24 24 1 8 1 8 24 24
Indian Standard (µg/m3) 80 80 60 100 180 100 4 2 1 400
Air Quality Index (AQI) Calculation
Air Quality Index (AQI) Calculation
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
Lecture #3
By
Prof. Manoranjan Sahu
Environmental Science and Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Spring 2025
Aerosols/Particulate Matter
Aerosols are generally defined as a
colloidal suspension of solid or
liquid particles in a gas.
The aerosol is the bulk but in general
usage, the term aerosol has become
synonymous with the particles themselves
PM10 : inhalable particles, with aerodynamic diameters that are generally 10
micrometers and smaller; and
PM2.5 : fine inhalable particles, with aerodynamic diameters that are generally 2.5
micrometers and smaller.
Recent focus is on ultrafine and nanoparticles (<100 nm size)
especially in urban areas
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 29
Aerosols/Particulate Matter
PAHs ● PM a complex mixture of particles
Heavy
Soot that can be solid/ liquid or both
Metals Nitrates
Organics ● Vary in size composition and origin
Carbon Smoke
Soil
Sulfates Dust Salts Important Properties:
1. Size
2. Shape and aspect ratio
Complex 3. Surface Area and volume
Mixture 4. Solubility
5. Composition
6. Reactivity
●Bulk composition: EC, OC, Nitrate, Sulfate,
Ammonium, dust These difference in properties of
●Trace constituents: Heavy metals, PAHs, … PM causes different impact
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 30
Aerosol Size Distributions
0.005 0.05 0.3 1.0
0.001 0.02 0.1 0.6 10
Number Concentration (cm-3)
Limitations:
✓ Smaller size information is not very
clear
✓ Changing the bin size will affect the
size distribution
✓ Different conc of particles will
change the height
0 0.5 1.0
Diameter (m)
Aerosol And Particle Size Distribution
➢ Aerosols/PM can be described in terms of log-normal distribution
functions (Log-normal-normally distributed in logarithmic scale)
Ni/log(Dpi) vs. Log(Dp)
Ni/Dpi vs. Dp
30
25
dN/dlog(Dp) (cm-3)
20
15
10
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10 10
Diameter (microns)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 32
Log-Normal Distribution
The Log-normal distribution
•Bell-curve shape in log space
2
x
The familiar normal (Gaussian) distribution
•Bell-curve shape in linear space
•68% of variance about mean ( x ) captured x and ?
by 2 (width)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 33
Aerosol And Particle Size Distribution
▪ Heterogeneous and multiphase reaction rates depend on
surface area or volume, respectively.
▪ Gravitational settling rates depend on mass and air quality
standards are mass-based.
dN/dlogDp
-Assuming spherical
300 dS/dlogDp
Area geometry and dDp→0
250
Distribution Function
dS(Dp) = Dp2n(Dp)dDp
200
150
100
Number dV(Dp) = (/6)Dp3n(Dp)dDp
50
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10 10
Diameter (microns)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 34
Aerosol And Particle Size Distribution
dN
Number Distribution n(D) =
dD
dS
Surface Distribution nS(D) = = D2n(D)
dD
dV 3
Volume Distribution nV(D) = = D n(D)
dD 6
dM
Mass Distribution nM (D) = = D 3 n(D)
dD 6
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 35
Particle size distribution: Ambient Aerosols
• Idealized example of an ambient particle size distribution
Source: Cao et al., 2013
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 36
Aerosol Size Evolution/Human Exposure
Condensation
Nucleation
Evaporation
Coagulation
0.0001µm 0.001µm 0.01µm 0.1µm 1µm
Ultra Fine Fine
Gas Molecules
13
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
Lecture # 4
By
Prof. Manoranjan Sahu
Environmental Science and Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Spring 2025
Air Pollution Control Philosophies
Overall Air Pollution
Control Strategies
Source control Air pollution control
technologies
Changing of fuels Air quality
regulations End-of-pipe
and raw materials
control equipment
Modification or
elimination of process Capture of particulate
steps matter and gaseous
pollutants
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 39
Air Pollution Control Philosophies
1) Emission standards;
2) Air Quality standards;
3) Emission Taxes;
4) Cost-benefit analysis
Pollution damage cost calculation;
Basis of cost-benefit analysis is extremely
complex and ridden with assumptions
✓ New pollutants are being introduced so
flexibility is needed in control strategies
✓ For many air pollutants threshold levels are
not well characterized)
Relation between damage, control & total
Cost of control escalates as AQ improves costs
(why??) Source: deNevers N: J. Air Poll Cont. Assoc, 1977)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 40
Air Pollution News(China vs India)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 41
Case Study: Air Pollution Control in Beijing
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 42
Case Study: Air Pollution Control in Beijing
20 years of efforts in reducing air pollution by China:
a. Complete legislation and enforcement mechanism;
b. Systematic planning;
c. Powerful local standards;
d. Strong monitoring capacity;
e. High public environmental awareness.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 43
Case Study: Air Pollution Control in Beijing
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 44
Case Study: Enhancing Monitoring Capacity
Beijing=16, 500 km2
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 45
Case Study: Air Pollution Control in Beijing
Major Economic Policies (a) and Financial Investment on Air Pollution Control
in Beijing, 1998-2017
1 yuan=11.76 rupees
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 46
Air Pollution Control Approach
Source: modified from Bandopadhyay, 2012
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 47
Basic Steps for Particle Removal
Overall collection/removal process for particulates in a fluid
essentially consists of four steps:
✓ An external force (or forces) must be applied that enables the particle
to develop a velocity that will displace and/or direct it to a collection
or retrieval section or area.
✓ The particle should be retained at this area with strong enough forces
so that it is not re-entrained.
✓ As collected/recovered particles accumulate, they are subsequently
removed.
✓ The ultimate disposition of the particles completes the process.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 48
Basic Steps for Particle Removal
Overall collection/removal process for particulates in a fluid
essentially consists of four steps:
✓ An external force (or forces) must be applied that enables the particle
to develop a velocity that will displace and/or direct it to a collection
or retrieval section or area.
✓ The particle should be retained at this area with strong enough forces
so that it is not re-entrained.
✓ As collected/recovered particles accumulate, they are subsequently
removed.
✓ The ultimate disposition of the particles completes the process.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 49
Examples: Industrial Pollution Control
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t6Qeg-fq5dg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=STZjHcz9ZUQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dqGzNHihBBw
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 50
APPLICATION OF CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES IN INDUSTRIES
Figure: Schematic diagram of iron and steel production and sources of PM emissions
(adopted from Wang et al., 2019).
REVIEW OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES WITH A FOCUS ON PARTICULATE MATTER 51
Block Flow Diagram
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 52
Process Flow Diagram
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 53
Process & Instrumentation Diagram
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 54
Problems
From a source particle emitted are of three different sizes and
total particles emitted are 3000: 1000 1μm particles, 1000 10 μm
particles, 1000 100 μm particles.
An air pollution control device is 10% efficient for 1μm particles,
50% efficient on 10 μm particles, and 99% efficient on 100 μm.
Assume same density of all particles and 1μm has unit mass.
Calculate the mass efficiency based and number efficiency based
collection efficiency.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 55
Problems
• Fit a log normal distribution curve for the for the size distribution given .
Calculate the overall collection efficiency of a system using the following
data.
Size range, µm Efficiency, ηj Cumulative % less
than top size
0–2 0.10 0.5
2–4 0.30 10
4–6 0.60 30
6 – 10 0.80 67
10 – 14 0.90 86
14 – 20 0.95 96
20 – 30 0.98 99.4
30 – 50 0.99 99.8
> 50 1.00 100
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 56
Additional Slides
APPENDIX
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 57
How do we know if Air Quality is poor?
AQI is an overall scheme that transforms
individual air pollutant (e.g. SO2, CO, PM10)
levels into a single number, which is a simple
and lucid description of air quality for the
citizens.
AQI relates to health impacts and citizens can
avoid the unnecessary exposure to air
pollutants;
AQI indicates compliance with National Air
Quality Standards;
AQI prompts local authorities to take quick
actions to improve air quality;
AQI guides policy makers to take broad
decisions; and
AQI encourages citizens to participate in air
quality management.
Aerosol Distributions
Number
◦ cloud formation
Surface
◦ visibility
Volume
◦ mass
Mass & Number
◦ human health
Atmospheric Lifetime
Gravity Settling Chamber
• Referred to as "pre-cleaners" and are used to reduce the inlet
loading of particulate matter (PM) to downstream, more
advanced PM control technologies
• A gravity sampler is a long chamber allowing time for the
particles to settle by gravity to the bottom.
• Different types: simple expansion chamber, multiple tray
chamber (Howard settling chamber), baffle chamber and
elutriator
• Limited to the removal of larger-sized particles, e.g., 40–60µm
in diameter
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 1
Types of Gravity Settling Chamber
Horizontal Flow Settling Chamber
Types of Settlers:
✓ Gravitational settling velocities used in the design
➢ Simple expansion must be based on experience or tests conducted
chamber under actual conditions
➢ Multiple-tray settling
chamber. ✓ Pressure drops experienced in settling chambers
➢ Baffle chamber are quite low, generally less than 0.2 in H2O.
➢ Elutriator
1 inch=~250 Pa
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 2
Settling Chamber: Horizontal Tray Type
➢ Several horizontal collection plates are
introduced to shorten the settling path of the
particle.
➢ It improves the collection efficiency of small
particles (as small as 15μm in diameter).
✓ Each shelf or tray in the unit can collect dust
and vertical distance that a particle must fall
Howard Multiple Tray Settling Chamber
is less than the distance in a standard
horizontal settling unit
Disadvantage:
1) Making cleaning difficult
2) Inability to handle high dust load conc (2.29gm/m3) (other settling
chamber can handle up to 20 to 4,500 gm/m3)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 3
Settling Chamber: Baffle Type
✓ Baffles within the chamber to enhance
particle separation and collection.
✓ This arises by changing the direction of
the gas velocity and imparting a
downward motion to the particle.
✓ Thus, particle collection is
accomplished by gravity and an inertial Baffle Type Settling Chamber
or momentum effect.
✓ Particles as small as 20–40µm can be
collected.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 4
Settling Chamber: Elutriator
• An elutriator is a slight modification of the gravity settler.
• The unit consists of one or more vertical tubes or towers
through which the dust-laden gas passes upward at a given
velocity.
Elutriators (in series)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 5
Settling Chamber: Elutriator
• The larger particles that settle at a velocity higher than that of the
rising air are collected at the bottom of the tube, while the smaller
particles are carried out the top.
• Settling chambers are used to control particulate matter (PM)
greater than 10 μm in aerodynamic diameter. Most designs only
effectively collect PM greater than approximately 50 μm.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 6
Gravity Spray Tower
✓ Gravity spray tower, a wet unit that employs water.
✓ A liquid stream (usually water) is introduced at the top
of the column and water droplets produced fall
vertically downward (under gravity)
Advantage:
✓ The system is capable of treating larger volumetric gas
flow rates and has few mechanical problems.
✓ It operates at low pressure drops (usually less than 1-in
H2O) with air velocities in the neighborhood 2–5ft/s and
residence times of approximately 15–30 s.
✓ It is capable of handling relatively high dust loadings
(greater than 5gr/ft3). In addition to the collection of
particles (down to the 10–20µm range).
Disadvantage:
1) Liquid effluent treatment/waste disposal
2) Liquid entrainment in the gas stream
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 7
Design Considerations: Assumptions
✓ The horizontal velocity of the gas in the chamber is equal to Vavg
everywhere in the chamber.
✓ The vertical component of the velocity of the particles is equal to
their terminal settling velocity due to gravity, Vt.
✓ If a particle settles on the floor, it stays there and is not re-
entrained.
• On the basis of above assumptions, we can prove that fraction
collection efficiency of the settler will be: η = (L.Vt)/ (H.Vavg)
where H = height of the settler and L = length of the chamber
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 8
Design & Performance Equations
To correlate theoretical efficiency with
experimental data, empirical constant
is multiplied.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 9
Aerosol settling by Gravity
When particle released in air, it quickly reaches terminal settling velocity
• Drag force (FD) = Inertial force (FG=mg)
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐹𝐺 = 𝑚𝑔
(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑔)𝜋𝑑3𝑔
3𝜋𝜂𝑉𝑑 =
6
(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑔)𝑑2𝑔
𝑉= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑 > 1𝜇𝑚, Re < 1
18𝜂 Not valid for particles less
than 1.0 μm size.
• Important application is determining velocity of aerosol particle undergoing
gravitational settling in air
• This equation cannot be used for particles smaller than 1 um unless slip
correction factor is used
Design Considerations
✓ The units are designed for gas velocities in the range of 0.305 m/s to
3.05 m/s.
✓ Inlet gas temperatures are only limited by the materials of
construction.
✓ The simple design and construction of settling chambers allows for
almost any size and waste gas flow rate, but size is usually restricted to
a 4.25 meter square. Height should not be less that 1m.
✓ Leakage of cold air into a settling chamber can cause
local gas quenching and condensation
✓ Condensation can cause corrosion, dust buildup, and plugging of
the hopper or dust removal system.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 12
Pick-up velocity of Various Material
✓ Typical installation costs range from $0.10 to $0.40 per cfm. Operating costs are
typically less than $0.01 per cfm per year.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 13
Gravity Settling Chamber
Problem 1
You have been requested to design a gravity settler to remove all
particulates from a dust laden gas stream. Use the following
information:
Dp = 35 µm, uniform; gas is air at ambient conditions, q = 3.68 m3/ s;
throughput velocity = 3.05 m/ s; ρp = 7.62 g/ cm3, ρa = 1.24 kg/m3,µ
= 1.84 x 10-5 kg/m-s. Assume flow velocity=3m/sec
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 14
Gravity Settling Chamber
Problem 2
Find the length of the simple gravity collector required to remove 90% of 50μm diameter
particles of density 2.0g/cc. The bulk gas velocity is 0.5m/s and the chamber is 3m in
height. Calculate the length if two trays are used for same efficiency.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 15
Gravity Settling Chamber
Problem:3
A gravity settler is 4.5 m wide by 4.5 m high and 12.2 m long. In order to meet
the ambient air quality standards, this unit must remove 90% of the fly ash
particles entering the unit. Planned expansion will increase the flow rate to 113.2
m3/min with a dust loading of 68.6 g/m3. The specific gravity of fly ash is 2.31 and
the process gas stream is air at 20°C and 1.0 atm. µ = 1.83 x 10-5 kg/m.s. The
inlet size distribution of the fly ash is given below
Size 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-60 60-80 80-100 100-150
Range (µm)
Mass % 1.0 1.0 3.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 20.0 15.0
Will the unit meet the specification? Use the block flow model.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 16
Advantages & Disadvantage
Advantage: Disadvantage:
• No pretreatment is required • Large space requirements
• Low cost of construction and • Relatively low collection
maintenance efficiency
• Low operating pressure drops • Unable to handle sticky
materials
• Generally, the device is not
subjected to abrasion • Trays in multiple-tray settling
chamber may warp during
• Dry disposal of solid particulates high – temperature
operations.
• Provides incidental cooling of gas
stream
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 17
Applications
• Combination of settling chamber and cooling device
• Power and heating plants may employ settling chambers
upstream of multiple cyclone units.
• These can also be used to prevent excessive abrasion in the downstream
collection device due to the presence of high coarse particles
concentration.
• The metal refining industries have used settling chambers to collect large
particles and reduce gas temperature.
• Manufacture of various foodstuffs, simple settling is the first step in dust
recovery, achieved by spraying the condensed liquids into large chambers
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 18
Operation & Maintenance
✓ If operated at excessive flow rates, erosion or vibration can result
✓ Vibration can be propagated by problems other than flow overloads,
e.g., improper design, fluid maldistribution, or corrosion/erosion of
internal flow-directing devices such as baffles
✓ Recommended maintenance of a gravity settler requires regular
inspection to ensure mechanical soundness of the unit and a level of
performance consistent with the original design criteria.
✓ Vibratory disturbance, excessive pressure drop, and decreased
efficiency
✓ Decreased performance due to fouling will generally be exhibited by a
gradual decrease in efficiency
✓ Mechanical malfunctions can also be gradual, but will eventually be
evidenced by a decrease in or lack of performance
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 19
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES:
PARTICULATE MATTER
By
Prof. Manoranjan Sahu
Environmental Science and Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Spring 2025
Cyclone Separator
✓ Cyclones provide a relatively low-cost method of removing particulate
matter from exhaust gas streams.
✓ Particles enter the device with the flowing gas: The gas stream is forced to
turn, but the larger particles have more momentum and cannot turn with
the gas.
✓ These larger particles impact and fall down the cyclone wall and are
collected in a hopper.
✓ The gas stream actually turns a number of times in a helical pattern, much
like the funnel of a tornado.
✓ The repeated turnings provide many opportunities for particles to pass
through the streamlines, thus hitting the cyclone wall.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 2
Cyclone Separator
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5SqT419B
gLE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1swI0MY
QrUU
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 3
Cyclone Separator: Mechanism of Separation
✓ Cyclones provide a relatively low-cost method of removing particulate matter
Centrifugal force:
(a) Top inlet/tangential entry cyclone; most common one
(b) Axial entry; for multicyclone configuration, more efficient
(a) Bottom inlet; usedafter a scrubber
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 4
Cyclone in Different Industries
Air pollution control plant Cyclone manufactured by
Cyclone failure in flour mill
dust devil overseas
company
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 5
Cyclone in Different Industries
TLS Make Cyclone Dust Cyclone Separator For
Dust Collector Aluminium High Efficiency And Long Service Life Dust Cyclone Separator For
Aluminium Melting Plant (youtube.com)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 6
Classification of Cyclone Separator
• Classification based on size:
– large-diameter cyclone
– small-diameter cyclone
• Classification based on
efficiency:
– Conventional
– High efficiency
– High throughput
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 7
Cyclone Separator: Types & Design Dimensions
Cyclone type
High Conventional High
Efficiency throughput
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Body diameter, D/D 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Height of inlet, H/D 0.5 0.44 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.8
Width of inlet, W/D 0.2 0.21 0.25 0.25 0.375 0.35
Diameter of gas 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.75
exit, De/D
Length of vortex 0.5 0.5 0.625 0.6 0.875 0.85
finder, S/D
Columns (1) and (5) =
Stairmand, 1951 Length of body, 1.5 1.4 2.0 1.75 1.5 1.7
columns (2), (4) and (6) Lb/D
= Swift, 1969
column (3) = Lapple, Length of cone, 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.0
1951 Lc/D
Diameter of dust 0.375 0.4 0.25 0.4 0.375 0.4
outlet, Dd/D
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 8
Classification Based on Size
Large Diameter Small Diameter
Gas entry - tangentially Gas entry - axially
1 – 6 feet diameter 6, 9 and 12 inches standard
diameter
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 9
Cyclone Arrangements: Series and Parallel Arrangement
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 10
Configuration of Cyclones: Pros & Cons
• When high removal efficiency is required then several smaller
diameter size cyclones can be housed in a common chamber
having a common gas inlet and outlet.
• When arranged in series, the dust loading is reduced in the second
cyclone that helps in reducing abrasion and plugging. However,
overall pressure drop increases.
• When multiple cyclones are arranged in parallel, higher volumes of
the gas can be treated at reasonable
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 11
Dimensional Design of Tangential Entry Cyclone
✓ Small cyclones are more efficient than large cyclones. Small cyclones,
however, have a higher pressure drop and are limited with respect to
volumetric flow rates.
✓ Smaller cyclones can be arranged either in series or in parallel to
substantially increase efficiency at lower pressure drops.
✓ These gains are somewhat offset, however, by increased cost and
maintenance problems.
✓ Multicyclone arrangements also tend to plug more easily.
✓ When common hoppers are used in such arrangements, different
flows through cyclones can lead to re-entrainment problems.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 12
Various Design of Inlet
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 13
Various Outlet Design
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 14
Various Discharge system
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 15
Design Factors for Cyclone
1. Particle characteristics:
Dust size distribution, particulate density, shape, physical-chemical
properties such as agglomeration, hygroscopic tendencies,
stickiness, etc.
2. Contaminated gas stream—its temperature, pressure,
humidity, condensable components, density, etc.
3. Process variables such as dust concentration, gas flow rate,
allowable pressure drop, size to be separated.
4. Structural limitations, temperature and pressure rating,
material of construction, space limitations, etc.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 16
Design & Performance Equations
Three important parameters can be used to characterize cyclone performance:
1) Cut Diameter 2) Efficiency 2) Pressure drop
(1) Cut Diameter:
The cut diameter is defined as the size (diameter) of particles collected with 50%
efficiency.
Typical size efficiency curve
N: Number of effective turns
H=height of inlet duct, m
1 𝐿𝑐
𝑁= 𝐿𝑏 + 𝐿𝑏 =Length of cyclone body, m
𝐻 2 𝐿𝑐 =length(vertical) of cyclone cone, m
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 17
Design & Performance Equations
Three important parameters can be used to characterize cyclone performance:
(2) Collection Efficiency (nj):
Fractional efficiency is defined as the fraction of particles of a given size collected in the
cyclone, compared to those of that size going into the cyclone.
• Collection efficiency of any size of particle is given by
ηj = 1/[1 + (dpc/dpj)2]
dpj = Characteristic diameter of the jth particle size range
1
9 B 2
• Overall efficiency (ηo) = Σ ηj.mj d pi =
π N v i( p− ) a
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 18
Design & Performance Equations
Three important parameters can be used to characterize cyclone performance:
(3) Pressure Drop
Increased pressure drop means greater costs for power to move an exhaust gas through
the control device.
Shepherd and Lapple equation for calculating the pressure drop is
as follows:
Pressure drop (ΔP) = (½). ρg.Vi2. K.H.W/De2
K = a constant that depends on cyclone configuration and
operating conditions; ρg = gas density, kg/m3, Vi = inlet gasvelocity
• Fluid power requirement = Q. ΔP, Q = volumetric flow rate
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 19
Design Parameters Considerations
✓ If DP is measured in inches of water, Kc can vary from 0.013 to 0.024, with
0.024 the norm.
✓ Velocities for cyclones range from 6–21 m/s, although common velocities
range from 15–18 m/s.
✓ At velocities greater than 24 m/s, turbulence increases in the cyclone and
efficiency will actually decrease.
✓ At high loads of particulate matter and high velocities, scouring of the
cyclones by the particles will rapidly increase.
✓ To minimize erosion in such cases, a cyclone should be designed for lower
inlet velocities.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 20
Concept of Saltation Velocity
The concept of “saltation” indicates that the collection
efficiency actually decreases with excess velocity.
Vs = saltation velocity, ft/s; D = cyclone diameter, ft; Vi = inlet Velocity, ft/s; g =
32.2 ft/s2; μ = gas viscosity lbm/ft-sec; ρp = particle density,
lbm/ft3; ρg = gas density, lbm/ft3; W = width of inlet opening,ft
The maximum collection efficiency occurs at Vi = 1.25.Vs
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 21
Operational Problems
➢ Operating variables in cyclone performance: characteristics of both the gas
and the particles.
➢ Gas operating variables include temperature, pressure, and
composition.
➢ Dust characteristics include size, size distribution, shape, density, and
concentration
• Erosion
✓ It increases with dust loading, specific gravity, dust particle, hardness and
gas velocity.
• Pluggage and wall buildup
✓ Outlet pluggage is usually induced by large chunks of material lodging in
the outlet that can form an obstruction, which causes smaller particles to
build up.
✓ Buildup of dust on the walls and in the hopper causes re- entrainment
of particles into the gas stream.
✓ Finer the dust, the greater the tendency for wall buildup.
• Corrosion
✓ The use of proper alloys will help in controlling the corrosion.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 22
Advantage & Disadvantages
Advantage: Disadvantage:
• Low capital cost
• Relatively low PM collection
• No moving parts efficiencies
• Low pressure drop in compare to the • Unable to handle sticky material
amount of PM removed
• High pressure drops for high
• Dry collection and disposal efficiency units
• Relatively small space requirements
• Temperature and pressure
limitations are only dependent
on material of construction
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 23
Applications
• As a pretreatment device for high efficiency particulate
control devices such as electrostatic precipitators, venturi
scrubbers and baghouses.
• Cyclone separators are used in coffee processing industry
• Another application of cyclones is in the production of triple
superphosphate.
• The petroleum industry uses the cyclones to recover
the catalyst.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 24
Cyclone Separator: Types & Design Dimensions
Cyclone type
High Conventional High
Efficiency throughput
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Body diameter, D/D 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Height of inlet, H/D 0.5 0.44 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.8
Width of inlet, W/D 0.2 0.21 0.25 0.25 0.375 0.35
Diameter of gas 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.75
exit, De/D
Length of vortex 0.5 0.5 0.625 0.6 0.875 0.85
finder, S/D
Columns (1) and (5) =
Stairmand, 1951 Length of body, 1.5 1.4 2.0 1.75 1.5 1.7
columns (2), (4) and (6) Lb/D
= Swift, 1969
column (3) = Lapple, Length of cone, 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.0
1951 Lc/D
Diameter of dust 0.375 0.4 0.25 0.4 0.375 0.4
outlet, Dd/D
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 25
Problem to Solve
Consider a high efficiency Swift cyclone, with a body diameter of
1.0 m. For air with a flow rate of 150 m3/min at T = 350 K and 1 atm,
containing particles with a density of 1600 kg/m3 and a size
distribution as shown in table, calculate the overall collection
efficiency. Under given conditions, viscosity of the gas = 0.075
kg/m-hr, gas density = 1.01 kg/m3, assume Ne = 6. Also calculate
the pressure drop (in kPa and in inch of H2O) for the cyclone,
assuming K = 15.
Size range 0-2 2-4 4-6 6-10 10-18 18-30 30-50 50-100
(µm)
Mass % 1.0 9.0 10.0 30.0 30.0 14.0 5.0 1.0
Also calculate the saltation velocity. Should re- entrainment be a
problem for this cyclone?
26
Problem
Design a Lapple standard cyclone to function as a precleaner on a
gas stream (T = 150 F and P = 1 atm) that flows at 120m3/min. The
cyclone must achieve a minimum overall efficiency of 65 - 75% for
the following particulate distribution with maximum pressure drop
of 3000Pa. The particulate density is 1500 kg/m3, the gas density
is 1 kg/m3, and the gas viscosity is 0.07 kg/m-hr.(assume K=14)
Size range, μm Mass percent in size
0–2 2.0
2–4 18.0
4 – 10 30.0
10 – 20 30.0
20 – 40 15.0
40 – 100 4.0
> 100 1.0
27
Problem: Cyclone in Series
You are a recently hired environmental engineer and
assigned for studying process factors in an operation in a
plant that employs three cyclones in series to treat catalyst-
laden gas at 25 oC and 1 atm. The inlet loading to the cyclone
series is 8.24 gr/ft3 , and the volumetric flow rate is 1,000,000
cfm. The efficiency of the cyclones are 93%, 84% and 73%,
respectively. Calculate the following:
(a) Daily mass of catalyst discharged to the atmosphere.
(b) Whether it would be economical to add an additional
cyclone (efficiency = 52%) costing an additional $300,000
per year. (The cost of the catalyst is $1 per pound.)
(c) Outlet loading from the proposed fourth cyclone if the
operation is based on 300 days per year
28
Problem
A Gravity Settler is followed in series by a Cyclone. If the
collection efficiency of the GS is 55% and the penetration of
the Cyclone is 15%, what is the overall efficiency of the unit?
Also indicate the overall penetration.
29
Change in Performance & Operation Variables
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 30
Maintenance and Improvement
• To obtain the best thermal efficiencies, as well as operating economics,
exhaust temperature should be maintained as low as possible.
• Cyclone dust collectors should be air tight.
• Prevention of leaks should be assured.
• Efficiency can be improved by arranging the cyclones in series or
parallel.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 31
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES:
PARTICULATE MATTER
By
Prof. Manoranjan Sahu
Environmental Science and Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Spring 2025
Fabric Filters (Bag House Filter)
• Fabric filtration is considered a well known method and
dusty gas flows into and through a number of filter bags
placed in parallel, leaving the dust retained in the fabric.
• The fabric plays an important role as a support medium for
the dust layer responsible for the highly efficient filtering of
small particles.
• A good baghouse delivers an efficiency > 99.9%.
• Extended operation of a baghouse requires the
cleaning of the cloth surface periodically.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 2
Example of an Industrial Unit (Bag House Filter)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p1kivpJQ
2mY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8cuDw5
WS7zw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4mohzczShuk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uwpVmvtF3Wk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2zUChlWGrbY
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 3
Smog Tower at Lajpat Nagar (Filtration Technology)
Smog tower at Lajpat Nagar central market,
in New Delhi, India, on January 2, 2020
Capacity claimed: 240,000-600,000 m3/day
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 4
Noida Smog Tower (Filtration Technology)
Capacity claimed: 1920, 000 m3/day (~2-3 crore as per news)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 5
Delhi Smog Tower (Filtration Technology)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p1kivpJQ
2mY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8cuDw5
WS7zw
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 6
Two Outdoor Air Cleaners-sometimes called -Smog Towers
Air Cleaner: Connaught Place (funded by DPCC) Air Cleaner: Anand Vihar (funded by CPCB)
Idea Initiated at IIT Bombay and executed jointly with Tata Projects
Limited
Capacity : 86.4 million m3/day
Cost=~20-25 crore
7
Observation: Filter conditions during first winter
• Initially, the system was operated at 100% fan capacity. And then it was advised to run at 50% fan capacity.
12/10/21 18/10/21 SE-
9/10/21
18/10/21
SW-
2/11/21 5/11/21
18/10/21
8
Filter Conditions deteriorated with time
9/10/21 12/10/21 18/10/21
SE-18/10/21 SW-18/10/21
9
Filter Conditions deteriorated with time
20/10/21 2/11/21 5/11/21
10
CFD Simulations Towards Development of Community Air Cleaner
Wind Direction is outward to
11 m
plane
50 15 m
m3/sec
13 m
100 15 m
m3/sec
27 m
17 m
250
m3/sec 15 m
200
m
11
Principle of Operation
➢ Separation of particulates just like sieving
as the small pores of the fabrics retain the
larger particles
➢ Initial deposition of the particulates on the
filter media takes place through
interception and impingement of the
particles on the fabric fibres.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 12
Industrial Unit (Bag House Filter)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 13
Construction and Working
➢ Common type of fabric filter consists of tube
shaped fabric bags. A bag house consists of
numerous vertical bags of 120-400mm
diameter and 2-10m long.
➢ The bags are suspended and attached to a
manifold/shaking mechanism. The hopper at
the bottom serves as a collector for the dust.
➢ Gas entering the house through inlet pipe
strikes the baffle plate which causes the large
particles to fall into a hopper due to gravity.
➢ The carrier gas then flows upward into the
tubes with velocity of 0.4-1m/min and passes
outward through the fabric leaving the
particulate matter as a dust cake on inside
walls of the bags.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 14
FILTRATION THEORY
➢ Application:
✓ Respiratory Protection
✓ Air cleaning of smelter effluents
✓ Processing of nuclear and hazardous material
✓ Clean room
➢ Macroscopic Properties of Filters
Types: Fibrous & Porous membrane filter
▪ Fibrous filter consists of a mat of fine fibers arranged so that most are
perpendicular to the direction of air flow (Porosities from 70% to greater
than 99%)
▪ Fibers range in size from sub-micrometer to 100µm.
▪ Cellulose fibers (wood fibers), glass fibers, and plastic fibers are
(air velocity: about 0.1m/sec)
▪ Because of the low velocity used, it is often necessary to pleat filter
material to obtain large filter area
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 15
Fabric Filters (Collection Mechanism)
• A particle is captured in fabric filter by
✓ Interception,
✓ Inertial impaction,
✓ Diffusion
✓ Gravitational settling
✓ Electrostatic attraction
✓ The structure in which the bags hang is referred to as a
baghouse; the number of bags in a baghouse may vary from
less than a dozen to several thousand
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 16
FILTRATION THEORY: TYPES OF FILTER
✓ Porous membranes filter different from fibrous structure: porosity (50 to 90%).
The gas flow through the filter follows an irregular path through the complex
pore structure.
✓ Fabric filtration is used in industrial air cleaning for high efficiency filtration at
high dust concentration
✓ These contains fabric bags operating in parallel (each: 0-12-0.4m in diameter
and 3-10 m in height.
✓ Woven felted fabric has a low initial collection efficiency but becomes highly
effective when a dust layer builds up on the fabric
✓ It is the porous dust layer supported by fabric builds up on the fabric.
Porous dust layer is responsible for the high filtration efficiency.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 17
Filtering Mechanisms
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 18
DEPOSITION MECHANISMS IN FILTER
Five mechanism by which an aerosol particle can be deposited
onto a fiber in a filter
1. Inertial impaction
2. Interception
3. Diffusion
4. Gravitional settling
5. Electrostatic attraction
Source: Aerosol Technology, W. C Hinds, 1982.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 19
TYPES OF FILTER MEDIA
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 20
TYPES OF FILTER MEDIA: POROUS MEMBRANE FILTER
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 21
FILTRATION THEORY
Granular Bed filtration:
➢ Aerosol particles are collected as they pass through a bed (horizontal layer) of fine
granules. These are for particularly for corrosive particles and aerosols at high
temperature
𝑁𝑖𝑛 −𝑁𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝑖𝑛 −𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡
➢ Filtration Efficiency= E= or Em=
𝑁𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑖𝑛
𝑁𝑜𝑢𝑡
➢ In terms of penetration: P= =1-E
𝑁𝑖𝑛
Face Velocity:
➢ The velocity of the air at the face of filter, just before the air enters is called face velocity,
𝑄
✓ 𝑈0 = 𝐴 (Q: volumetric flow rate through the filter, A: Cross sectional area of the
filter exposed to the entering airstream)
𝑄
✓ 𝑈0 = 𝐴 (1−α), where α is the volume fraction of fibers called the packing density or
solidity
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 22
FILTRATION THEORY:EFFICIENCY
𝑸
➢ 𝑼𝟎 = 𝑨 (𝟏−𝜶), where α is the volume fraction of fibers called the packing density or
solidity
𝒇𝒊𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝜜=𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆=1-porosity
➢ Fibrous filter can be thought of as many thin layers of filters each having a certain
probability of collecting particles of a given size. Thus filtration efficiency for mono
disperse aerosol increases as the thickness of a filter is increased
➢ If γ is fraction capture per unit thickness for a differential thin layer, dt
Number of particles capture=𝒏𝒄 =N γdt
𝒅𝑵 = −𝒏𝒄 =-N γdt
The combined effect of all the layers by integrating,
𝑵 𝒅𝑵 𝒕 𝑵𝒐𝒖𝒕
➢ 𝒕𝒖𝒐 𝑵 = 𝟎−γdt , ln = −γt , P=𝒆−𝜸𝒕
𝒊𝒏 𝑵 𝑵𝒊𝒏
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 23
FILTER EFFICIENCY
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 24
SINGLE FIBER EFFIENCY
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
➢ Single fiber efficiency=𝑬𝝐 =
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒈𝒆𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒏 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
Assuming all fiber having same diameter, the total length of
𝟒𝜶
fiber in a unit volume of the filter, 𝑳 = 𝟐
𝝅𝒅𝒋
Number of particles collected, 𝒏𝒄 =𝑵𝑬𝝐 𝒅𝒇 𝑳𝒅𝒕
Previously particle captures is calculated as, 𝒏𝒄 =N γdt
𝜸=𝑬𝝐 𝒅𝒇 𝑳,
𝟒𝜶𝑬𝝐
𝜸=
𝝅𝒅𝒇
−𝜸𝒕 −𝟒𝜶𝑬𝝐 𝒕
Particle penetration, P=1-E= 𝒆 =exp
𝝅𝒅𝒇
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 25
DEPOSITION MECHANISMS IN FILTER
Five mechanism by which an aerosol particle can be
deposited onto a fiber in a filter
1. Interception
2. Inertial impaction
3. Diffusion
4. Gravitational settling
5. Electrostatic attraction
Single fiber efficiency for interception, Er,
(𝟏−𝜶)𝑹𝟐 𝑑𝑝
𝑬𝑹 = , R-Dimensionless parameter: R=
𝑲𝒖 (𝟏+𝑹) 𝑑𝑓
𝐥𝐧 𝜶 𝟑 𝜶𝟐
𝑲𝒖 =- - + 𝜶- 𝟒 ,
𝟐 𝟒
𝐾𝑢 : Kuwabara hydrodynamic factor (factor
that compensate for the effect of distortion of
the flow around a fiber because of its proximity
to other fibers
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 26
DEPOSITION MECHANISMS IN FILTER
Five mechanism by which an aerosol particle can be deposited onto a fiber in a filter
1. Interception
2. Inertial impaction
3. Diffusion
4. Gravitional settling
5. Electrostatic attraction
Single fiber efficiency for Impaction:
𝑆𝑡𝑘 𝐽
𝐸𝐼 = 2𝐾 2 , 𝐽 = (29.6 − 28𝛼 0.62 ) 𝑅2 -27.5𝑅2.8 for R<0.4; J=2.0 for
𝑢
R>0.4,
2𝐶 𝑈
𝜏𝑈0 𝜌𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑐 0
𝑆𝑡𝑘 = =
𝑑𝑓 18η𝑑𝑓
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 27
SINGLE FIBER EFFICIENCY
Single fiber efficiency due to diffusion due to
diffusion is function of Pe.
𝑑𝑓 𝑈0
𝑃𝑒 = 𝐷
, D is the partial diffusion coefficient,
Single fiber efficiency due to diffusion is,
𝐸𝐷 =2𝑃𝑒 −2/3
While estimating the overall single-fiber collection efficiency near size of minimum
efficiency, it is necessary to include an interaction term to account for enhanced
collection due to due to interception of diffusing particles
1.24𝑅2/3
𝐸𝐷𝑅 =
(𝐾𝑢 𝑃𝑒 )1/2
The dimensional number that controls deposition due to gravitational settling is G,
2𝐶 𝑔
𝑉𝑇𝑆 𝜌𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑐
G= 𝑈 = 18η𝑈 , when 𝑈0 and 𝑉𝑇𝑆 are in same direction, downward
0 0
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 28
SINGLE FIBER EFFICIENCY continue…
When 𝑈0 and 𝑉𝑇𝑆 are in same direction, downward single fiber efficiency for selling is,
𝐸𝐺 =G(1+R)
For gas flow in opposite direction to
𝐸𝐺 =-G(1+R)
𝐸𝐺 decreased overall fiber efficiency
Single-fiber efficiency for electrostatic image forces for neutral fiber and a particle with
charge q, based on experimental measurements with glass fiber filters is
2
𝜀𝑓 − 1 𝑞2
𝐸𝑞 = 1.5
𝜀𝑓 + 1 12𝜋η𝑈0 𝜖0 𝑑𝑓2
𝜀𝑓 -relative permittivity (di-electric constant) of the fiber, 𝜀0 : Permittivity of vacuum
FILTER EFFIENCY=
𝐸∑ =1-(1- 𝐸𝑅 ) (1- 𝐸𝑙 ) (1- 𝐸𝐷 ) (1- 𝐸𝐷𝑅 ) (1- 𝐸𝐺 )
𝑬∑ =𝑬𝑹 +𝑬𝒍 +𝑬𝑫 +𝑬𝑫𝑹+𝑬𝑮
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 29
Commercially available filter and efficiency
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 30
MINIMUM EFFICIENCY REGIME
▪ Particle size of minimum efficiency, do and the minimum single fiber efficiency
is given by, ( considering important mechanism at this place is due to:
interception & diffusion)
𝟐/𝟗
𝑲𝒖 λ 𝒅𝟐𝒇
𝒑 =0.885
𝒅 𝒌𝑻
𝟏−𝜶 𝜼 𝑼𝟎
𝟓 𝟒 𝟏/𝟗
𝟏−𝜶 ⋋ 𝟏
∑ =1.44
𝑬 𝒌𝑻
𝑲𝒖 𝜼 𝑼𝟒𝟎 𝒅𝟏𝟎
𝒇
These are valid for 0.75<λ/dp<1.3, λ is the mean free path of the gas R<1
Pressure drop in a filter is:
𝜼𝒕𝑼𝟎 𝒇(𝜶)
∆𝒑 = where,
𝒅𝟐𝒇
𝒇(𝜶)=𝟔𝟒𝜶𝟏.𝟓 (1+56𝜶𝟑) for 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔 < 𝜶 < 𝟎. 𝟑
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 31
FILTRATION THEORY: Pressure drop
Pressure Drop:
➢ The structure of filter create resistance to the air flowing through it and
called pressure drop
➢ At a given face velocity, pressure drop is proptional to thickness of filter
➢ Change in any property of filter such as fiber or pore size,α, U (face velocity)
or t causes a change in efficiency for a given size and the pressure drop
➢ Best filter is highest efficiency with the least pressure drop
Comparison of Filter:
➢ Criteria for comparing different type of filter and filters of different
thickness is filter quality, qf (Fraction of 𝛾 to pressure drop per unit
thickness
1
𝛾𝑡 ln(𝑃)
q f= = , p-penetration (more qf is better)
∆𝑝 ∆𝑝
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 32
Research at ANTL Lab: Filters & Characteristics
Parameters Pre-filter #1 Pre-filter #2 Pre-filter #3
FEG-SEM image
Effective fiber dia. (µm) 32.46.38 28.196.29 35.1313.31
Number of samples 40 44 62
Thickness (mm) 1.20.1 14.50.5 0.80.15
Basis weight (g/m2) 57.510 22822 11115
Solidity 0.053 0.012 0.062
+
Initial Pressure (Pa) 6.90.1 12.90.3 18.250.6
*
Efficiency for 0.3 µm (%) <30 <25 <5
Error! Reference source not
found. (continued).
Parameters Fine filter #1 Fine filter #2 Fine filter #3
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 33
Error! Reference source not
Fine Filter
found. (continued).
Parameters Fine filter #1 Fine filter #2 Fine filter #3
FEG-SEM image
Effective fiber dia. (µm) 28.44±4.10 16.32±3.46 13.97±1.43
Number of samples 63 127 102
Thickness (mm) 1.950.2 1.050.05 0.830.3
Basis weight (g/m2) 10316 21825 76.713
Solidity 0.045 0.228 0.102
+
Initial Pressure (Pa) 42.30.8 72.651.3 60.81.2
*
Efficiency for 0.3 µm (%) <20 <25 <60
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 34
HEPA filter
Parameters HEPA filter #1 HEPA filter #2
FEG-SEM image
Effective fiber dia. (µm) 1.040.77 1.360.5
Number of samples 110 102
Thickness (mm) 0.360.03 0.350.03
Basis weight (g/m2) 88.67 866
Solidity 0.095 0.095
+
Initial Pressure (Pa) 2344.538 2352.552
*
Efficiency for 0.3 µm (%) >90 >93
1
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 35
Comparison of Various filters
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 36
Commercially available filter and efficiency
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 37
Type of Fabric Filters Use
The type of fabric filter used depends on the:
✓ Temperature and acidity of the gas stream,
✓ Characteristics of the dust,
✓ Gas to cloth filtration ratio and
✓ Type of bag cleaning used
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 38
Important Fiber Characteristics
Important fiber characteristics are:
1. Temperature: The fiber must be able to perform without failure at
temperatures higher than those expected during operation. The fiber
must also be able to handle temporary heat surges (temperature
excursions).
2. Corrosiveness: The fiber must be able to resist degradation from
exposure to specific acids, alkalies, solvents, or oxidizing agents found
in the dust-laden gas stream.
3. Hydrolysis: Humidity levels must be accounted for.
4. Dimensional Stability: If the fiber is expected to shrink or stretch within
the process environment, those effects must be controlled.
5. Cost. The least costly selection that will satisfy overall requirements is
usually preferred
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 39
Pulse Jet Baghouse: Design Consideration
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 40
Classification of Baghouses
• Depending upon the method of cleaning:
✓ Reverse-air baghouse
✓ Shaker baghouse and
✓ Pulse-jet baghouse
• Depending upon the capacity
✓ small (< 10,000 cfm),
✓ medium (10,000 – 100,000 cfm) and
✓ high volumes (> 100,000 to multimillion cfm)
• Depending upon Filter media types
✓ Woven and
✓ Felted (Felt is a non-woven cloth that is produced by matting,
condensing and pressing fibers)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 41
Difference Between Various systems
✓ Depending on various factors, the flow process in the
equipment will follow one of three systems
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 42
Grouping by cleaning method
Cleaning method General characteristics associated with
design type
Shaker Inside collection; manual and automatic
cleaning; woven filter media
Reverse - air Inside collection; automatic cleaning; woven
filter media
Pulse - jet Outside collection; automatic cleaning; felt
filter media
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 43
Fabric Filters Cleaning Methods
Fabric-flexing cleaning methods: (a) sonic cleaning; (b) oscillating; (c)
shaking; (d) pressure-jet cleaning
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 44
Fabric Filters Cleaning Methods
➢ Shaker cleaners hold the top of the bag still and shake the entire tube sheath, vibrations
produced by the shaker loosens the dust cake. This method is not used for sticky dusts
➢ Pulse jet: Here, a jet of high pressure air is blasted inside periodically. When the
compressed high pressure air is blasted, the bag will be inflated (swelled out or stretched
out).
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 45
Pulse Jet Cleaning
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 48
Design Goals
• Prior to selecting baghouse overall and/or other components
overall design goals must be identified
1. System pressure drop
2. Particulate emissions
3. Bag life and allowable maintenance
4. Temperature loss through the baghouse
5. Particular goal associated with the specific application
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 49
Design & Performance Equations
1. Gas to Cloth( G/C) Ratio
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐈𝐧𝐥𝐞𝐭 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞
Gross Gas/Cloth Ratio=
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐢𝐥𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐭𝐡 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐢𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫
Approach to select Gas/cloth ratio:
✓ Collect all empirical data available for the source in question
✓ If no data available, go to a similar industry that is using baghouse
and determine the G/C range successfully employed
✓ An alternate approach is run a pilot on a slip stream and vary the
G/C ratio and select the design around that gives best results
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 50
G/C Cloth Ratios for Various Industry
Source: Theodore 2008
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 51
Design & Performance Equations
2. Pressure drop
• The particulate layer increases the resistance to flow and thus
pressure drop.
• The pressure drop through a baghouse at a given flow rate
is given by
ΔP = ΔPf + ΔPp + ΔPs
ΔP = total pressure drop,
ΔPf = pressure drop due to the fabric,
ΔPp = pressure drop due to the particulate layer,
ΔPs = pressure drop due to the baghouse structure (this is
usually low and ignored)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 52
2. Pressure Drop: Darcy’s Law
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 53
2. Pressure Drop
• From Darcy’s equation for fluid flow through porous
media, ΔPf and ΔPp can be written as:
ΔPf = Df.μ.V/Kf and ΔPp = Dp.μ.V/Kp
ΔPf and ΔPp = Pressure drop (N/m2), Df and Dp = depth (in the direction of
flow) of the filter and the particulate layer, respectively, μ = gas viscosity,
Kf and Kp = permeability of the filter and the particulate layer
ΔP = Df.μ.V/Kf + (L.V.t/ρL).μ.V/Kp, Dp = L.V.t/ρL,
S= ΔP/V= Df.μ/Kf + (W/ρL).μ/Kp =K1 + K2W (filter drag model)
W = L.V.t = Areal dust density (kg/m2 of fabric)
L = Dust loading (kg/m3), t = time of operation and ρL =
bulk density of the particulate layer
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 54
2. Pressure Drop: Theory
• Filter Drag Model
• S = K1 +K2.W
where S = ΔP/V = Filter drag (N-min/m3) and
W = L.V.t = Areal dust density (kg/m2 of fabric)
= Mass of dust per unit area of fabric.
• The above equation can also be written as:
S = Ke + Ks.W
Ke = extrapolated clean cloth filter drag (N-sec/m3),
Ks = “slope” constant for the particular dust, gas and
fabric involved, (N- sec/kg-m).
• Ke and Ks are determined empirically from pilot tests on a dusty
gas that is similar to the one for which the design is being made.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 55
PROBEMS
Q1. A fabric filter is to be constructed using bags of 0.3m in diameter and 6m
long. The bag house is to receive 800m3/min of carrier gas. Determine the
number of bags and physical arrangements required.
(Assume superficial filtration velocity is 2m/min.)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 56
Number of Compartments Based on Net Cloth Area
(Cooper and Alley, 1990)
Net cloth area (ft2) Number of compartments
1 – 4000 2
4000 – 12000 3
12000 – 25000 4–5
25000 – 40000 6–7
40000 – 60000 8 – 10
60000 – 80000 11 – 13
80000 – 110000 14 – 16
110000 – 150000 17 – 20
> 150000 > 20
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 57
Design and Applications
• Basic process information required for proper baghouse
sections are:
1. Description of application
2. The gas volume
3. The gas temperature
4. Chemical properties of gases
5. Description of the dust
6. Available space
7. Other equipment's in dust collection process
8. Existing utilities
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 58
Design Considerations: Reverse-air and Shaker Baghouse
• Maximum filtering velocities for various dusts varies
between 2 – 4 ft/min.
• The number of compartments chosen during the
design depends on
– the total flow to be filtered,
– the available maximum pressure drop (ΔPm),
– the filtration time (tf) desired between two
cleanings ofthe same compartment and
– the time required to clean one compartment (tc)
• tf is related to time between cleanings of any two
compartments (tr) and tc as:
tf = N.(tr + tc) – tc; N = number of compartments
• In practice, ΔPm can range from less than 6 inch to about
20 inch of water, tf can range from 30 min. to 2 h and tc
can range from 1 to 5 min.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 59
Pulse Jet Baghouse
• In this method, air is filtered through the bags from the
outside to the inside.
• The bags are cleaned by short (30 – 100 millisecond)
blasts of high pressure (90 – 100 psi) air.
• The major advantage of the pulse-jet method is that it
allows the cleaning of some of the bags while dusty air
continues to flow through the baghouse.
• There are no compartments and no extra bags.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 62
Pulse Jet Baghouse: Design Consideration
✓ Pulse-jet baghouses can employ 2 to 4 times higher
gas to cloth ratio than with conventional cleaning
methods.
✓ Compressed air usage is a major operating expense
for pulse-jet baghouse.
✓ Typically the volumetric flow rate of the compressed
air is about 0.5 – 1.0% of the flow rate of the filtered
air when both are corrected to the same temperature
and pressure.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 63
Pulse Jet Baghouse: Design Consideration
Advantage Disadvantage:
• Have very high collection • They require large floor areas.
efficiencies even for very
small particles. • Fabrics can be harmed by high
temperatures or corrosive
• They can operate on a wide chemicals.
variety of dust types.
• They cannot operate in moist
• They are modular in design and environments, fabric can be
modules can be assembled at
the factory. blinded.
• They can operate over an • They are prone to fire or
explosion.
extremely wide range of
volumetric flow rates.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 64
Applications
• Metallurgical industry
• Foundries
• Cement industry
• Brick works
• Flour mills
• Ceramic industry
• Chalk and lime plants
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 65
PROBLEM
Q2. A bag house filter having 20 compartments, 360 bags per
compartment and each bag of diameter 11m and bag length 30m, with
gas flow rate of 12,00,000 m3/min. Calculate the gross and net air to
cloth ratios. Assume that 2 compartments are out of service when
calculating the net air-cloth ratio.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 66
Effect of Bag Failure
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 67
Effect of Bag Failure
Equation that can be used to determine the fabric efficiency of a
bag house is: (Theodore Personal notes: 1981)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 68
PROBEM
As a recently assigned plant engineer, you are asked to
troubleshoot the plant’s baghouse. The baghouse is
used to collect the dust created in the manufacture of
an extremely expensive drug. The dust is collected and
recycled into the main process. Over the past 6 months
(since the baghouse was installed) the amount of dust
collected has dropped off significantly without in any
change in inlet loading. Since the baghouse is operated
on a round-the-clock basis, i.e., 24 h/d, 7 days per
week, the bags (for this unit) cannot be inspected to
find the problem.
The following data have been collected: Initial
loading=3086 lb/hr, No. of bags = 500, diameter of bags
= 5 in., Pressure drop =9.1 in H2O.
• You are asked to determine if the loss is caused by
broken bags, how many have broken every month.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 70
PROBEM
A chemical plant in your own locality operates a baghouse system consisting
of one compartment with 100 bags. The bags are 4 inches in diameter, and
the pressure drop across the system is 7.0 in H2O. The operating temperature
and pressure are 70 F and 1 atm, respectively. The inlet load to the baghouse
is 4.0 gr/ft3, and the system is 99.5% efficient, assuming that all bags are
completely functional.
The filtering area is 5500 ft2 and the filtering velocity is 420 ft/hr.
(a) Calculate the efficiency assuming that 3 bags fail.
(b) What is the maximum number of bag failures that can be tolerated to
ensure a minimum collection efficiency of 91.50%?
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 71
PROBEM
You are hired as new engineer and your manager came to know from your
transcript that you have taken APCT course. He asked you determine the
efficiency of its baghouse under worst-case conditions consisting of three failed
bags. The baghouse presently consists of two compartments with 50 bags in each
compartment. You are also asked to determine whether the addition of a third
compartment of 50 new bags in series with the first two compartments will have a
marked effect on the collection efficiency under worst-case conditions, i.e., will
the required outlet loading the met?
Required conditions: Inlet loading = 9.8 gr/ft3; Outlet loading = 0.05 gr/ft3
Pressure drop: DP = 3 in H2O; Volumetric flow: q = 10,000 ft3/min; Temperature: T = 90 F
Bag diameter = 8 in;
New bag data, Fabric thickness, L = 0.2 in, ψ= 260 (ft)-1
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 72
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES:
PARTICULATE MATTER
Electrostatic Precipitator
Prof. Manoranjan Sahu
Environmental Science and Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Spring 2025
Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)
• In ESP, electrostatic force drives the particles to the wall.
• This is much more powerful device for capturing the smaller particles
(< 5 μm).
• The process of electrostatic precipitation involves:
✓ Ionization & charging of contaminated air flowing between
electrodes
✓ Migration and collection of the contaminants
(particles) on oppositely charged plates
✓ Removal of the particles from the plates
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 2
Precipitation Process
• Three Fundamental steps:
1) Particle charging
2) Particle collection
3) Removal of particles
• Particle charging is accomplished by CORONA which produces
ions and attached to the surface
• Electrostatic precipitation occurs in the space between the
discharge electrode and the collection surface
• If dust layer is becomes too thick, it is possible for the
accumulated layer to act as an insulator, reducing the flow of
the electric field lines
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 3
Basic Mechanisms and Principles
• In ESP, electrostatic force drives the particles to the wall.
• This is much more powerful device for capturing the smaller particles (< 5
μm).
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 4
Basic Mechanisms and Principles
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0QWMHxZdPQk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IPlQSOem7TY
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 5
Typical Layout ESP and Capture of Particles
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 6
Types of Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)
• High voltage single stage
✓ The charging and collection steps take place within the
same region.
• Low voltage double stage
✓ Charging takes place in one section which is followed by a
section comprised of alternately charged plates.
• The high voltage single stage precipitators are more popular.
• Low voltage double stage precipitators are limited almost
exclusively to the collection of liquid aerosols discharged from
sources such as meat smokehouses, high-speed grinding
machines etc.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 7
Types of ESP
Single stage Plate Type Low Voltage Double Stage
Theodore ( 2008) Mechanism of charging and capture
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 8
Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)
Tubular ESP
Theodore (2008)
ESP at ANT Lab
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 9
Corona Generation – A Major Design Consideration
• Corona is the ionization of gas molecules by high energy
electrons in the region of a strong electric field.
• Typically, the discharge electrodes are energized while the
collecting plates are grounded, but the wires can establish
either a positive or negative corona.
• Negative corona has better voltage/ current characteristics than
positive corona.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 10
Corona Generation in ESP
Avalanche Multiplication Theodore (2008)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 11
Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)
Glow around the wire indicates corona generation
Inhouse designed ESP at ANT Lab @IIT Bombay
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 12
Design Parameters for ESP
1. Specific collection area (SCA)
✓ Ratio of collection surface area to the gas flow rate into
the collector.
✓ In metric units, it can be represented as:
SCA = Total collecting surface (m2)/ Gas flow rate
(m3/h)
2. Aspect ratio (R)
✓ It is the ratio of the total duct length to height of the
collector surface.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 13
Design Equations: Efficiency of an ESP
3. Efficiency:
ηESP = 1 - exp (- w. Ap/ Qgas) – The Deutsch equation
Where w = drift or migration velocity; Ap = area of a plate (both sides);
Qgas = gas flow rate through a duct
𝑨 = 𝑨𝒑 (n-1)𝑵𝒔 , 𝑨𝒑 : Two sided plate area (2HLp)
n=number of plates parallel across the width of the ESP
𝑵𝒔 =Number of sections in direction of flow (mechanical fields)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 14
Drift Speed of Particles in ESP
✓ The particle drift speed (we) results from a balance between the electrostatic
force due to the charge (Fe) and the resisting drag force (Fd) exerted by the air
due the relative motion between air and particle.
✓ For the drag force, we assume that the particles are very small. (The purpose of
an ESP is precisely to catch very small particles!). So, we use Stokes’ Law
with the Cunningham Slip factor correction (refer to slide in lecture on
Transport Phenomena).
Fe = electrostatic force = charge*electric field= qE
3dpwe
Fe = Drag force, Fd = , using force balance, F d = Fe
Cc
3d p w e
= qE
Cc
qE pCc
we =
3d p 60
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 15
Performance & Design Equations
Migration velocity:
𝒒𝑬𝒑 𝑪𝒄 𝟐.𝟓𝟐𝝀
𝒘𝒆 = , 𝑪𝒄 = 𝟏 +
𝟑𝝅µ𝒅𝒑 𝒅𝒑
𝟑𝝐
𝒒= 𝝅𝒅𝟐𝒑 𝝐𝟎 𝑬𝒄𝒉
𝟐+𝝐
𝑨
𝑬𝒊 = 𝟏 − 𝐞𝐱𝐩(−𝒘𝒆 )
𝑸
E: Collection efficiency of the precipitator
A: The effective collecting plate area of the precipitator
Q: Gas flow rate through the precipitator
W=migration velocity
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 16
Determination of Efficiency of an ESP
• The assumptions for deriving the formula for the efficiency of
an ESP are:
✓ Gases (and particles) move in the x-direction at
constant velocity u, with no longitudinal mixing
✓ The particles are uniformly distributed in the y and z
directions at every x location
✓ The charging and collecting fields are constant and uniform;
the particles quickly attain terminal velocity w in the y-
direction
✓ Re-entrainment of collected particles is negligible.
• It assumes that the gas flow rate is uniform everywhere across
the precipitator and that particle sneakage through the
hopper section does not occur.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 17
ESP Design Parameters and Their Ranges
Parameter Range of values
Drift velocity (we) 1-10 m/min
Channel width (D) 15-40 cm
Specific collection area 11-45 m2/ 1000 (m3/h)
(plate area/gas flow)
Gas velocity (u) 70-150 m/min
Aspect ratio (duct length/height) 0.5-2.0 (not less than 1 for
efficiency > 99 %)
Corona power ratio (Pc/Q) 1.75-17.5 W/(m3/min)
Corona current ratio (Ic/A) 50 – 750 μA/m2
Plate area per electrical set As 460-7400 m2
Number of electrical sections Ns
(a) In the direction of gas flow 2-8
(b) Total 1-10 bus sections/(1000 m3/min)
3
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 18
Problem
1. Design a parallel plate type ESP with 10 channels to handle
10000m3/hr of gas for efficiency of 90%, 99% and 99.9%.
Assume migration velocity. Assume migration velocity=0.1
m/sec, H=2m.
2. As an engineer you are assigned to design a parallel plate ESP
with an efficiency of 90, 99 and 99.9% of removal of 0.75μm
sized particles from an industry with gas flow rate of 10m3/sec.
Studies showed that drift velocity Vp= 2.5x105 dp m/sec.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 19
Problem
1. An industrial installation has two ESPs, each designed to
handle 48m3/sec. The collecting surface per precipitator is
1440m2. For a migration velocity of 0.13m/sec, calculate the
efficiency of each precipitator. If one of the precipitator is
shut down and it is decided to treat the total gas volume in
the other precipitator, calculate the new efficiency.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 20
Design considerations of ESP
Design parameters
1. Discharge electrode -0.2 mm
diameter; stainless steel (smallest
dimension)
2. Collecting plates-4 cm x 4cmx 15 cm;
4 plates; aluminum
3. Plate to plate distance-0.0398 m
4. Plate to electrode distance-4 cm
5. Volume-0.00024 m³
Schematic of ESP
Designed ESP in lab
19-03-2025 21
Experimental setup
Particle generation ESP (0kV; Particle number measurement
9kV) devices
Experimental setup used in the study
19-03-2025 22
Theoretical calculations
1. Applied voltage range
a) Corona Breakdown
inception voltage Corona inception
Corona voltage
inception voltage
3.14 𝑏
a) Corona inception voltage (V)= a.E.ln( )
2𝑎
=6.47 kV
δ
Onset electric field (E)= δ.A+B. ( )0.5
𝑎
where A and B constant with values 3x106 and 9x104 ; Current- voltage characteristics of designed ESP
δ-relative density of gas; a-wire diameter and b- plate
to plate distance
Flagan and Seinfeld 1988)
19-03-2025 23
Breakdown voltage
Corroded/ Corroded Dirty
aSmooth & loose
Single plate
clean
Corona visualization
▪ Operating voltage between 6 kV and 17.6 kV (indoor below 10 kV) (Zheng et al., 2022)
19-03-2025 24
2. Operating flow rate/ residence time to be maintained
Volume
a) Residence time=
Flow rate
Migration distance
a) Migration time=
Migration velocity
Residence
Migration
q.E.Cc
Migration velocity=
3 π.µ.d
Q- charge of particle; E-electric field; C-Cunningham correction factor;
µ-viscocity of air; d- diameter of particle
▪ For efficient particle removal migration time should be less than residence time
19-03-2025 25
Comparison of migration and residence time
Migration time is very less than
residence time.
Residence time for flows
Flow Residence time
rate (s)
(LPM)
4 4.20
Comparison of migration and residence time 6 3
8 2.09
10 1.66
▪ ESP can be operated in any of above flow rate as residence time is sufficient in all cases
19-03-2025 26
Particle Charging & Discharging
• Negative ions have two charging effect.
1) Field Charging (>1.0μm)
2) Diffusion charging (0.1-0.3 μm)
• Combination of mechanisms between 0.3 to 1 um.
Field charging:
• Ions travelling along the electric field lines collide with the
suspended particles and impart a charge on them.
Diffusion charging:
Charging due to the random Brownian motion of the ions. It is
important for sub-micron ranges along
27
Control technologies for air pollutants
Charging of Particles
Theoritical saturation charge on a spherical particle:
q=𝝅𝒅𝟐𝒑 𝝐𝟎 K𝑬𝒄𝒉
Dp=particle diameter, 𝜖0 =permittivity of free space
3𝜖
K=constant given =(𝜖+2)
• Two charging mechanisms:
A) Field Charging
B) Diffusion Charging
Particle in a uniform field a) Uncharged particle b) Partially charge particle c) Particle at
saturation charge
28
Control technologies for air pollutants
Charging Mechanisms
✓ Number of charges acquired by a particle of diameter dp, by
diffusion charging is:
𝒅𝒑 𝒌𝑻 𝝅𝑲𝑬 𝒅𝒑 𝒄𝒊
𝒏 𝒕 = 𝟐 𝒍𝒏 𝟏 + 𝑵𝒊 𝒕
𝟐𝑲𝑬 𝒆 𝟐𝒌𝑻
𝑐𝑖: Mean thermal speed of ions (240m/sec)
𝑁𝑖 =concentration of ions
✓ When diffusion charging can be neglected, the number of charges, n
acquired by a particle during a time, t in an electric field E with an
ion number conc, Ni
𝟑𝝐 𝑬𝒅𝟐 𝝅𝑲𝑬 𝒁𝒊 𝑵𝒊 𝒕
𝒏 𝒕 = , 𝑍𝑖 : Mobility of ions (0.00015m2/V.s)
(𝝐+𝟐) 𝟒𝑲𝑬 𝒆 𝟏+𝝅𝑲𝑬 𝒁𝒊 𝑵𝒊 𝒕
𝟑𝝐 𝑬𝒅𝟐
𝒏𝒔 =
(𝝐 + 𝟐) 𝟒𝑲𝑬 𝒆
𝑛𝑠 =saturation charge
29
Control technologies for air pollutants
Migration velocity for different particles sizes
Migration velocity due to diffusion and field charging Intermediate Field charging
Diffusion
charging size
q.E.Cc
Migration velocity=3 π.µ.d Migration velocity due to combined charging
Q- charge of particle; E-electric field; C-Cunningham correction factor; µ-viscocity of air; d- diameter of
particle
▪ Smaller and bigger particles have both a high-velocity migration.
19-03-2025 30
3. Velocity distribution by Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
Low velocity zones
1. Particles
collected at
Air Outlet
beginning
2. Space charge
(Effective Length)
L = 170 mm
High velocity zones
1. Channeling
Air Inlet
2. Redispersion
3. Residence time
4.3 mm x 4.3 mm
(Effective cross section)
4 LPM 6 LPM 8 LPM 10 LPM
m/s Contours of velocity distribution by varying flow rates.
▪ Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations was used
▪ The k-e model was given for all the cases keeping velocity of air ranging from 0 m/s to 0.6 m/s
▪ With increase in air velocity the turbulence enhanced in the considered
31 domain
19-03-2025
Standard aerosols (0.002M)
▪ Pressure
▪ No of jet
▪ Solution
Total capture efficiency (14 to 743 nm)
Efficiency of
Total conc Molar particle
(dN/dlogDp) mass Density removal (%)
Size wise capture efficiency for standard aerosols
(g/mol) (g/cm³)
6
6 jet NaCl 1.95x10 58 2.2 99.92 +/- 0.2
▪ Designed ESP effectively capturing MgCl₂ 8.42x106 95 2.3 99.90 +/- 0.1
standard aerosol of different size NH₄Cl 5
1.39 x10 53 1.5 99.62+/- 0.04
distribution
19-03-2025 32
Real indoor scenario-Major particle sources
Sampling of smoke from candle
Total capture efficiency (14 to 743 nm)
Source Concentration Efficiency of particle
Size wise capture efficiency in removing indoor aerosols at 0 kV (dN/dlogDp) removal (%)
Candle 1.35 x 106 99.98 +/-0.01
▪ Designed ESP removes particles in different Incense 2.57 x 107 99.99+/-0.0002
PSD effectively Mosquito coil 3.15 x 107 99.81+/-0.1
19-03-2025 33
Scaling up of designed ESP prototype into commercial product
▪ Developed a model which could predict efficiency of ionization device at
varied operating conditions
Characterization of device Collection efficiency at varied flow rates and voltage
• Good agreement was obtained between theory and experiment
• Model could facilitate in the design and scale-up of ESPs for different air
cleaning applications
34
Electrical Sectionalisation
https://www.babcock.com
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 35
Electrical Sectionalisation
Source: VT corporation Pvt Ltd
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 36
Electrical Sectionalisation
• Precipitator performance is dependent on the number of
individual sections or fields installed.
• ESP performance improves with increasing
sectionalization.
• Multiple fields or stages are used to provide electrical
sectionalization. Each field has separate power supplies and
controls to adjust for varying gas conditions in the unit.
• Parallel sectionalization provides a means of coping with
different power input needs due to uneven dust and gas
distribution.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 37
Some Important Design Parameters for ESP
• The spacing between sections can be 0.5 – 2.0 m.
• Plates for large ESPs are often 8-15 m high and 1-3 m long (in
the direction of flow).
• The ESP height can be 1.5 to 3 times the plate height due to
hoppers, superstructure, controls and so forth.
• Number of sections can be estimated by
Ns = RH/Lp, R = aspectratio
• When the number of channels and sections have been
specified, the actual area can be calculated as
Aa = 2.H.Lp.Ns.Nd, Aa = actual collection area
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 38
Internal Configuration
• Overall width of the precipitator can be calculated from the number
of channels for gas flow.
• Number of channels can be calculated using the following
formula:
Nd = Q/uDH
Nd = number of channels, Q = Total volumetric gas flow rate into the
ESP, u = linear gas velocity in the ESP, D = channel width, H = plate
height
• Overall length of the precipitator is given by
L0 = Ns.Lp + (Ns – 1). Ls + Len + Lex
L0 = overall length, Ns = number of electrical sections in the direction
of flow, Lp = plate length, Ls = spacing between electrical sections, Len
= entrance section length, Lex = exit section length
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 39
Particulate Resistivity: Design Consideration
• Resistivity is a measure of its resistance of the collected dust layer to
the flow of electrical current
• If the resistivity is low - the electrostatic charge is drained off too
quickly and the dust is re-entrained into the gas.
• If the resistivity is too high, the charge does not drain off at the
collecting plates.
• Dust resistivity values can be classified roughly into three groups:
1. 104 and 107 ohm.cm—low resistivity
2. Between 107and 1010 ohm.cm—normal resistivity
3. Above 1010 ohm.cm—high resistivity
For coal fly ashes, it ranges from 108 to 1013 ohm-cm.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 40
Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)
Variation of fly ash resistivity with coal sulfur content and
flue gas temperature
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 41
Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)
Variation of fly ash resistivity with moisture content
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 42
Power Consumption in ESP
✓ Two sources for operating power consumption in an ESP is
corona power & pressure drop (less than 2-in H20)
Corona power 𝑷𝒄 = 𝑰𝒄 𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈
𝑃𝑐 =corona power, W
𝐼𝑐 =corona current, A
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 =average voltage
✓ Although the voltage in ESPs are very high, the current flow due
to gas ion migration is low, so power consumption is not
unreasonably high.
✓ Effective drift velocity corresponding to corona power is:
𝒌𝑷𝒄
𝒘𝒆 = ,
𝑨
𝑘=an adjustable constant (0.5 to 0.7)
𝑃𝑐
is power density
𝐴
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 43
Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages
– Very high efficiencies even for very small particles
– Can handle large gas volumes
– Dry and wet collections of pollutants
– Can be designed for a wide range of gas temperature
– Low operating costs, except at very high efficiencies
• Disadvantages
– High capital costs
– Will not control gaseous emissions
– Not very flexible
– Required a lot of space
– Not very efficient for particulates with high electrical
resistivity
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 44
Applications
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 45
Problems
A sectionalized electrostatic precipitator (ESP) consists of eight chambers (or
parallel channels for airflow) and four independently energized electric fields
per chamber. In effect, the unit contains 32 independent “chamber–fields” or
“cells.” ESPs are normally designed to allow for a certain number of cell failures
before the unit has to be shut down for maintenance.
(a) Assuming that the particulate penetration for all cells is 0.316 and that
the incoming gas is perfectly distributed among all eight chambers, calculate
the overall collection efficiency of the unit. In order to meet local particulate
emission standards, the ESP must operate at a minimum collection efficiency
of 95.0%.
(b) Assuming that the collection efficiency of a “dead” or failed cell is zero
percent (or equivalently, that the cell penetration is 1.00), calculate the
overall collection efficiency when four cells in the same chamber fail. Is the unit in
compliance?
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 47
Problems
• Provide a reasonable design for a 99% efficient ESP treating 7500
m3/min of gas. The particles have an effective drift velocity of 10
cm/s. Specify the total plate area, channel width, number and size
of plates, total corona power to be supplied, and estimate the
overall dimensions.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 48
Charge Limits & Equilibrium Charge Distribution
✓ For negatively charged particles, the maximum charge is reached when the self
generated field at the surface of the particle reaches the value required for
spontaneous emission of electrons from a surface
𝑬𝑳 𝒅𝟐𝒑
𝒏𝒍 = ,
𝟒𝑲 𝒆 𝑬
𝐸𝐿 =surface field strength required for spontaneous emission of electrons (9.0 *108 volt/m)
✓ For equilibrium concentration of positive and negative ions, a reasonable first
approximation for normal air, the fraction of particles of a given size having n positive
(or n negative) elementary units of charge is given by,
𝑲 𝒏 𝒆𝟐 𝟐
𝐞𝐱𝐩( 𝒅𝑬 𝒌𝑻 )
𝒑
𝒇𝒏 = 𝑲𝑬 𝒏𝟐 𝒆𝟐
σ∞
𝒏=−∞ 𝒆𝒙𝒑( )
𝒅𝒑 𝒌𝑻
This can be written in normal distribution and can be written in the form as,
𝑲𝑬 𝒆𝟐 𝑲𝑬 𝒏𝟐 𝒆𝟐
𝒇𝒏 = 𝒆𝒙𝒑( )
𝝅𝒅𝒑 𝒌𝑻 𝒅𝒑 𝒌𝑻
An empirical formula for average number of charge is given by,
ഥ =𝟐. 𝟑𝟕 𝒅𝒑
𝒏
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 49
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES:
ABSORPTION
By
Prof. Manoranjan Sahu
Environmental Science and Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Spring 2025
ABSORPTION
✓ ABSORPTION is concerned with the removal of one or more pollutants from
a contaminated gas stream by treatment with a liquid.
✓ Transfer of the soluble constituents from the gas to the liquid phase:
diffusional processes
• Example: the process taking place when a mixture of air and sulfur
dioxide is brought into contact with water.
➢ Solubility of these pollutants in the absorbing liquid is important
➢ Equilibrium is another extremely important factor to be considered that
affects the operation of absorption systems.
➢ The rate at which equilibrium is established is then essentially dependent
on the rate of diffusion of the pollutant through the non absorbed gas and
through the absorbing liquid.
Note: Some materials In Absorption are adopted from Prof. TN lecture slides
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 2
ABSORPTION
➢ Gas absorption can under go chemical reaction in liquid phase
➢ Absorption occur by two processes
• Physical absorption: Non-reactive Difference between ABSORPTION vs. ADSORPTION
process: Gas-liquid
Interface
Gas-solid
Interface
• Oxygen present in air dissolved
liquid
in water solid
• Chemical Absorption: Reactive
Process
• Example: Chemical reaction
between CO2 and amine solution
• Example: Removal of H2S from
natural gas using alkanol amine
solution
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 3
ABSORPTION: Packed Column
➢ Rate at which pollutant mass is transferred
from one phase to another depends also
on so-called mass transfer
➢ The rate at which this mass is transferred
depends to a great extent on the
diffusional characteristics of both the
diffusing substance and the medium.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 4
ABSORPTION
The principal types of gas absorption equipment may be classified as follows:
1. Packed columns (continuous operation)
2. Plate columns (staged operation)
3. Miscellaneous
• Liquid distribution plays an important role in the efficient operation of a
packed column.
• Good packing material and poor distribution reduces the effective wetted
packing area and promotes liquid channeling.
✓ Mechanism of distributing the liquid across the packing depends on the size of
the column, type of packing, tendency of packing to divert liquid to column walls,
and materials of construction for distribution
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 5
ABSORPTION: Staged Operation
2. Plate columns (staged operation)
• Liquid and gas are contacted in stepwise
fashion on plates or trays
• The liquid enters at the top and flows
downward via gravity. On the way, it flows
across each plate and through a downspout
(or down comer) to the plate below.
• The gas passes upward through hole
openings in the plate, then bubbles through
the liquid to form a froth, disengages from
the froth, and passes on the next plate
above.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 6
Equipment's for Absorption
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 7
Absorption in Packed Bed
Gas In Solvent In
Types of flow in Packed Bed: Gas out Solvent In
1) Counter current flow
2) Co-current flow
Which one is more efficient?
Solvent Out Solvent Out
Gas feed
Gas Out
-Maximum contact is essential: more contact time
-Mixing of the solute
Pumping cost ?
Resistance??
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 8
Counter Current Operation
A: Carrier gas
B=Solvent G2, Gs, y2, Y2 L2, Ls, x2, X2
C=Solute Solvent in
Gas out
A+C B+C
G1= Gas flow rate
Gs= Gas flow rate on solute free basis
y1= Mole fraction of solute
Y1=Mole ratio of solute
L1= Liquid flow rate
Ls= Liquid flow rate on solute free basis
x1= Mole fraction of solute in solvent
X1= Mole ratio of solute in solvent
L1, Ls, x1, X1
Feed
G1, Gs, y1, Y1 [A+C] Solvent out
[B+C]
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 9
Terminology
y1=mole fraction of solute in gas feed
Y1=mole ratio of solute G2, Gs, y2, Y2 L2, Ls, x2, X2
=moles of C/Moles of A Solvent in
Gas out
A+C B+C
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶
𝑦= =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴+𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶
𝑌
=
1+𝑌
The relationship can be derived
𝑦
Y=
1−𝑦
G1=Gas flow rate (A+C)
Gs=flow rate of gas on solute free basis
Gs=G1(1-y1) (flow rate of A)
L1, Ls, x1, X1
Feed
G1, Gs, y1, Y1 [A+C] Solvent out
[B+C]
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 10
Design Approach
Specify separation What percentage removal
Requirements of pollutants required
Select solvent and Suitable solvent: Highly
size of packing absorbing solvent, low
volatility
Determine Solvent Qnty of liquid required for
flow rate achieving the requirement
Based on Flooding Maximum gas flow through
conditions (column the column for optimized
diameter est.) operation
Determine Packing Packing material with low
height pressure drop and high
interfacial area
Determine pressure Maximum allowable pressure
drop, select column drop and other internals
internals
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 11
Solvent Selection
• If the purpose of absorption is to produce a specific solution
Example: production of HCl, the solvent is determined by the specification
of the product
•If the principle purpose is to remove some gas contaminants
Example: Water is the cheapest and most plentiful solvent but some
important considerations must be taken into account
i) Solubility: The solvent with high solubility for the contaminants is preferred
➢ A chemical reaction of the solvent with the solute will increase the gas
solubility; however, if the solvent is needed for reuse then the reaction
must be reversible
Examples: H2S stripped by alkanoamines and then stripped at high
temperature whereas caustic soda absorbs H2S excellently but does not
release it during stripping operation
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 12
Solvent Selection
ii) Volatility: Low volatility is preferred
iii) Cost: Should not be expensive, so that vaporization and other
losses do not impair process economy
iv) Corrosiveness: Less corrosive solvent reduces material and
maintenance cost of the equipment
v)Viscosity: Low viscosity implies easy flow, low pressure drop on
pumping, improved heat transfer and improved flooding
vi) Hazardous and toxicity: should not be hazardous, toxic or
inflammable
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 13
Equilibrium Curve
At a fixed temperature, the solubility
concentration of gases will increase with
pressure as shown in Figure
•Different gases and liquids yield different
solubility curve
•Which is the most soluble gas? Which is the
least soluble?
•Which has the highest vapor pressure? Which
has the least?
•Any gas solubility can be obtained for any gas
provided sufficient pressure is applied
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 14
Packing Material and Characteristics
1. High interfacial area : for a given volume,
more contact area available (m2/m3)
2. Lighter in weight
3. Cheaper in cost
4. Corrosion resistant: less corrosive in nature
5. Less resistance to flow
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 15
Packing Material and Characteristics
Seder et al , 2009
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 16
Comparison
Seder et al , 2009
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 17
Operating Line and Liquid Requirement
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 18
Operating Line and Liquid Requirement
After a suitable solvent is selected and
equilibrium conditions have been established at
operation T & P, solvent flow rate needs to be
determined.
Mass balance in the column to be used:
Overall mass balance equation
Gs(Y1-Y2) = Ls(X1-X2)
The equation of operating line is as follows
(Ls/Gs) = (Y1-Y2)/(X1-X2)
Gs, Y1, Y2 and X2 known, how to determine Ls and
X1 ?
If one of these two is known, another can be
calculated.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 19
Operating Line and Liquid Requirement
The operating line can then be determined
if one of them is known. It can be obtained
by joining the terminal points (X1, Y1) and
(X2, Y2)
•The slope of operating line is
Ls/Gs
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 20
Problem
➢ A gas mixture containing 3% by volume pentane vapor and 97% inert . The mixture
is treated with a non-volatile absorption oil in an absorber and 97% removal of
pentane is required. The feed solvent is free from solute. The feed gas rate is
50kmol/hr. The equilibrium relation is given by
Y=0.25X/(1+0.75X)
Calculate the minimum solvent required.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 21
Diameter of the column
• The column must be of sufficient
diameter to accommodate the gas
and liquid, and of sufficient height
to ensure that the required amount
of mass is transferred.
➢ Flooding condition is evoked to
determine the column’s diameter
➢ At a constant liquid velocity,
increasing gas velocity will interfere
with the downward flow of liquid
➢ Gas velocity beyond this, leads to a
condition when liquid layer develops
in the tower, forcing liquid to finally
exit from top Generalized pressure drop correlation to estimate column
diameter. Units must be employed in using this figure (next
slide)
•General operating scenario: 40-70% of
flooding gas velocity
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 22
Diameter of the column
Note that the proper units as designated in the correlation must be used as the plot
is not dimensionless
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 23
Packing factor to be used for Column Diameter
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 24
Procedure for determining Column Diameter
1) Calculate the abscissa
2) Proceed to the flooding line and read the ordinate (design parameter)
3) Rearrange the equation and solve for the ordinate term for G at flooding
4) Operating flow rate has to be fraction of flooding-fG
4) Calculate the column cross-sectional area S for the fraction f of flooding
velocity chosen for operation by the equation:
5) The diameter of the column is then determined by
Note: Proper units as designated in the correlation should be used as the plot is not
dimensionless
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 25
Procedure for Determining Height
➢ Height refers to depth of packing
material needed to accomplish the
required efficiency.
➢ Many theoretical equations are
generally used based on mass transfer
principles and are usually obtained
from experimental data
➢ Z=𝑁𝑂𝐺 𝐻𝑂𝐺 = 𝑁𝑂𝐿 𝐻𝑂𝐿
𝑁𝑂𝐺 =Number of transfer unit based on
overall gas film co-efficient
𝑁𝑂𝐿 =Number of transfer unit based on
overall liquid film co-efficient
𝐻𝑂𝐺 =Height of transfer unit based on
overall gas film co-efficient, m or ft
𝐻𝑂𝐿 = Height of transfer unit based on
overall liquid film co-efficient, m or ft
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 26
Procedure for Determining Height
Various
values of A
• A: absorption factor is A (not to be
confused with area),m: the slope of the
equilibrium curve.
• NOG is the number of overall transfer
units, dimensionless; HOG is the height
of overall transfer units, ft; and, Z is the
height of packing, ft
• The height of a transfer unit (HOG) is also
usually determined experimentally for
the system under consideration.
Note also that the flow rates L and G are based on
moles. Colburn Diagram
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 27
Problem: Height and Diameter Calculation
A packed column is used to absorb a toxic pollutant from a gas stream. From the data
given below, calculate the height of packing and column diameter. The unit operates at
50% of the flooding gas velocity, the actual liquid flow rate is 40% more than the
minimum, and 95% of the pollutant is to be collected. Employ the generalized correlation
provided in previous flooding curve to estimate the column diameter.
Gas mass flow rate = 3500 lb/hr
Pollutant concentration in inlet gas stream = 1.1 mol%
Scrubbing liquid =pure water
Packing type = 1-inch Raschig rings; packing factor F = 160
HOG of the column = 2.5 ft
Henry’s law constant m = 0.98
Density of gas (air) = 0.075 lb/ft3
Density of water = 62.4 lb/ft3
Viscosity of water = 1.8 cP
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 28
Applications
Packing towers are used for applications where high gas
removal efficiency is required and exhaust stream is free from
particulate matter.
• Control of tail and exhaust emissions; HCL, H2SO4 plants
• Used for removing impurities (H2S) in natural gas and
petroleum industry
• Removal of chlorine gas in chemical industry
• Spray towers are used in the removal of CO2
• SO2 removal (flue gas desulfurization)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 29
Height of the column
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 30
Height Based on Gas phase mass transfer co-efficient
For dilute mixture it can be written as,
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 31
Height Based on Liquid phase mass transfer co-
efficient
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 32
Based on Overall Transfer co-efficient
In terms of liquid concentration,
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 33
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES:
SO2 REMOVAL
By
Prof. Manoranjan Sahu
Environmental Science and Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Spring 2025
Various Impact of Sulfur Dioxide
1. Decrease of visibility:
➢ Decrease visibility by absorbing or diffracting sun light in the atmosphere
along with floated particles.
2. Bad Influence on Human Body:
➢ Incidence of chronic diseases at eyes, nose, neck or bronchus by
exposure for long time.
3. Bad Influence on Green Plant:
➢ Decrease production and growth of plants by interrupting photosynthesis
due to the black spot or chlorosis.
4. Ecoside:
➢ Destruction of ecosystem by acidifying land or river due to acid rain or
acid snow and corroding architectures.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 2
Emissions Requirements for SO2
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 3
SO2 Abatement Technology: Desulfurization
Sulphur oxides are emitted from the combustion through oxidation of the
sulphur contained in the fuel
Fuel Desulphurization Process:
➢ Switching to low sulfur fuel
➢ Method to remove SOx in the fuel prior to combustion
Flue Gas Desulphurization:
Method to remove SO2 from emitted gas after combustion
SO2 scrubbing, or Flue Gas Desulfurization
processes can be classified as:
➢ Throwaway or Regenerative, depending
upon whether the recovered sulfur is
discarded or recycled.
➢ Wet or Dry, depending upon whether
the scrubber is a liquid or a solid.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 4
Various Sulphur Removal Technology
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 5
Techniques to reduce SO2 emissions
1) Wet limestone scrubbers: >80 % of the market share of
the FGD systems
– used in large utility boilers
– high SO2 removal efficiency (92-98%) and high reliability
– By-products are either gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and can be sold
2) Spray dry absorption: Lime absorption process: second
most popular FGD system worldwide (11%) (Wet FGD: 87%)
3) Dual alkali system
4) Regenerative: Wellman-lord process
3) Furnace Sorbent Injection system
4) Duct sorbent Injection system
7
Flue Gas Desulfurization
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 8
Wet-scrubber technology
Scrubber (for FGD)“: Scrubber is pollution control device that
use liquid to wash unwanted pollutants from a gas stream. The
term is mainly used to describe systems slurry into a flue gas to
"wash out" acid gases.
• Limestone (calcium carbonate, CaCO3) is used as a reagent
because it is present in large amounts in many countries and is 3
or 4 times cheaper than other reagents.
• Lime (CaO – quick lime, Ca(OH)2 – slaked lime) has been replaced
by limestone because lime calcination is energy intensive and
costly
• In some cases, lime has to be used instead of limestone due to the
whiteness requirements of the FGD gypsum users.
• FGD using limestone can achieve almost the same SO2 removal as
lime
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 9
Wet Limestone FGD
(Spray headers)
Absorber sump
(gypsum)
10
Wet scrubbers
11
Wet scrubbers – Chemical reactions
• The wet limestone FGD process is based on complex acid-base
reactions under forced oxidation
• Two regions of the scrubbers can be differentiated:
– the gas-to-liquid contact zone and the reaction tank
• Reactions in the gas-to-liquid contact zone :
12
Wet scrubbers – Chemical reactions
• The overall reaction in the gas-to-liquid contact zone:
• Reactions initiated in the gas-to-liquid contact zone are
completed in the reaction tank, which provides an adequate
residence time for the oxidation:
13
Limestone wet FGD process variables
• Significant factors in wet limestone FGD systems (for
economic reasons) are the desulphurisation efficiency
(SO2 retention) and the residual limestone in the FGD-
gypsum (up to 3wt% to be saleable)
Dependent on:
• Flue gas velocity in the absorber (lower velocity, higher
effic. – longer retention time)
• Liquid (slurry) flow rates (higher rates, higher effic. –
more droplets are sprayed to absorb SO2)
14
Limestone wet FGD process variables
• Liquid-to-gas mol ratio (L/G) (more limestone slurry,
higher SO2 absorption)
• An increase of the L/G rate creates a larger mass
transfer area
• In FGD systems, L/G values tends to the minimum
values (1.1–2.0) to reduce the cost
15
Limestone wet FGD process variables
Limestone is used after being pulverised to an average
size of 5–20 µm, which consumes a great deal of energy
The reactivity of limestone - defined as a capacity for
providing alkalinity and reacting with the acid resulting
from the dissolution (solubility) of SO2 in water
• Influenced by particle size distribution (PSD), porosity
–they react throughout their pore structure and size at
a rate directly proportional to their surface area
• And is also influenced by the impurities of limestone -
it is recommended the use a limestone with purity
higher than 95%
16
Limestone wet FGD process variables
• Flue gas SO2 concentration
– SO2 diffuses through the gas phase to the aqueous surface,
where it dissolves and is transferred by diffusion or convective
mixing into the aqueous phase
• Solids concentration and retention time in the reaction
tank (absorber sump):
– Higher values of these parameters may result in undesirable
scaling (crystallization on a tank surface).
– Typically, solids concentration in the slurry is 10% to 15%
solids by weight, and solids retention time is 12 to 14 h
17
Wet FGD process variables
Removal efficiency
Limestone in
gypsum
18
Wet FGD process variables - pH
Removal efficiency
Residual limestone
in gypsum
19
Spray dry scrubbers (FGD)
• Spray dry absorption is the second most popular FGD
system worldwide (11%) (Wet FGD: 87%)
• Lime slurry is usually used to remove SO2 from the flue-
gas
• Require lower capital costs but have higher operating
costs than wet scrubbers, due to the use of the more
expensive sorbent lime
• Some installations use a particulate control device
before the spray dry scrubber for separate collection of
the fly ash
22
Spray dry scrubbers (FGD)
23
Spray dry scrubbers (FGD) Principle
• Hot flue gas containing SO₂ enters the spray dry scrubber
chamber.
• A fine mist of alkaline slurry (commonly lime or sodium-
based) is sprayed into the gas stream using atomizers.
• The SO₂ in the gas reacts with the alkaline material (e.g.,
Ca(OH)₂), forming solid salts like CaSO₃ or CaSO₄.
• The water evaporates rapidly, and the resulting dry particles
are captured downstream by a particulate control device
(like a baghouse or ESP).
• Cleaned gas exits the system.
24
Spray dry scrubbers (FGD)
• The reaction between SO2 and hydrated lime:
Calcium sulfate hemihydrate
• The SO2 absorption is strongly affected by flue-gas temperature,
gas humidity, SO2 concentration in the flue-gas and atomised
slurry droplet size
• The residue is dry powder, which is collected by either the ESP
or the fabric filter. As this residue contains some unreacted lime,
part of it is generally recycled and mixed with fresh lime slurry
25
Dual-Alkali Process
➢ The Dual Alkali system uses two
Dual
regents to remove the sulfur Alkali
dioxide. Proce
ss
➢ Sodium sulfite / Sodium
hydroxide are used for the
absorption of sulfur dioxide
inside the spray chamber.
➢ The resulting sodium salts are
soluble in water, so no deposits
are formed.
➢ The spray water is treated with
lime or limestone, along with
make-up sodium hydroxide or
sodium carbonate.
➢ The sulfite / sulfate ions are
precipitated, and the sodium
hydroxide is regenerated. Cooper and Alley
26
2015
Wellman-lord Process: Regenerative Process
Cooper and Alley
2015 27
Wellman-lord Process: Regenerative Process
This process consists of the following subprocesses:
➢ Flue gas pre-treatment.
➢ Sulfur dioxide absorption by sodium sulfite
➢ Purge treatment
➢ Sodium sulfite regeneration.
▪ The flue gas is pre -treated to remove the particulate. The sodium
sulfite neutralizes the sulfur dioxide :
Na2SO3+ SO2+ H2O -----> 2NaHSO3
▪ Some of the Na2SO3reacts with O2 and the SO3present in the flue gas to
form Na2SO4 and NaHSO3.
▪ Sodium sulfate does not help in the removal of sulfur dioxide, and is
removed. Part of the bisulfate stream is chilled to precipitate the
remaining bisulfate. The remaining bisulfate stream is evaporated to
release the sulfur dioxide, and regenerate the bisulfite.
28
Furnace sorbent injection
• .
29
Furnace sorbent injection
• A dry sorbent is injected directly into the furnace in a region
above the flame
• Sorbents used: pulverised sliked lime Ca(OH)2, limestone
(CaCO3) or dolomite (CaCO3·MgCO3)
• The addition of heat results in production of reactive CaO
particles that react with the SO2 to form calcium sulphite
(CaSO3) and calcium sulphate (CaSO4)
• These reaction products are then captured by the particulate
control device, typically an ESP (electrostatic precipitator) or
fabric filter
• The residues are landfilled, possible utilisation is under
investigation
30
Furnace sorbent injection
SO2 removal reactions
The reaction product
collected by ESP or fabric filter is re-
injected into the furnace or
duct and circulated several times.
CaCO3 – limestone
CaO - Calcium oxide is a key
ingredient for the process of making
cement
Ca(OH)2 – calcium hydroxide (slaked
lime)
31
Furnace sorbent injection
• An optimal temperature is approximately 1000° C. Lower
temperatures diminish the utilization of sorbent particles, while
higher temperatures induce sorbent sintering resulting in
destruction of porosity and surface
• Once a reactive lime (CaO) is produced, it must have sufficient
time (at least one half-second) in the critical temperature range
• Capital costs are lower than for the spray-dry system and the
wet scrubber (about 25% of a wet FGD)
• About 50% of removal efficiency can be achieved at a sorbent
molar ratio (Ca/S) of 4–5. SO2 removal efficiencies can be
increased from 70% to 80% by recycling the reaction product
32
Problem: SO2 Removal
A coal-fired power plant produces 100,000 Nm³/hr of flue gas containing
800 ppmv of SO₂. The plant uses a spray dry scrubber that injects a lime
slurry (Ca(OH)₂) for SO₂ removal. The removal efficiency of the system is
90%
•1 mole of gas at standard conditions = 22.4 L
•Molar mass of SO₂ = 64 g/mol
•Molar mass of Ca(OH)₂ = 74 g/mol
•How many kg of SO₂ are entering the system per hour?
•How many kg of SO₂ are removed by the scrubber per hour?
•How many kg of Ca(OH)₂ are needed per hour to achieve this
removal, assuming 100% reaction efficiency?
33
SO2 Removal
Mass of SO₂ entering per hour
SO₂ removed per hour (90%)
34
SO2 Removal
Ca(OH)₂ required
35
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES:
ADSORPTION
By
Prof. Manoranjan Sahu
Environmental Science and Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Spring 2025
ADSORPTION
➢ Adsorption is the process in which one or more gaseous components
are removed from an effluent gas stream by adhering to the surface of
a solid.
➢ The gas molecules being removed are referred to as the
ADSORBATE, while the solid doing the adsorbing is called the
ADSORBENT
➢ Adsorbents are highly porous particles and adsorption occurs primarily
on the internal surface of the particles.
➢ The attractive forces that hold the gas to the surface of the solid:van
der Waals forces
➢ Adsorption systems use materials that are highly attracted to each
other to separate these gases from the nonadsorbing components of
an air stream.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 2
ADSORPTION
➢ After it becomes saturated with adsorbate, the adsorbent must
either be disposed of and replaced, or the vapors must be
desorbed. Desorbed vapors are highly concentrated and may
be recovered more easily and more economically than before
the adsorption step
➢ Application: Solvent recovery and air purification
• Air purification processes are those in which the contaminant is often
present in trace quantities (less than 1.0 ppm) but can be highly
odorous and toxic.
• Solvent recovery processes require much larger systems and are
designed to control organic emissions whose concentrations are usually
greater than 1000 ppm.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 3
ADSORPTION PRCOSESS
1. Physical Adsorption
2. Chemical Adsorption
The basic difference is the way the gas molecule is bonded to the
adsorbent
➢ Physical adsorption: the gas molecule is bonded to the solid surface
by weak forces of intermolecular cohesion. The chemical nature of the
adsorbed gas remains unchanged (physical adsorption is a readily
reversible Process)
➢ Chemical adsorption a much stronger bond is formed between the
gas molecule and adsorbent. A sharing or exchange of electrons takes
place—as happens in a chemical bond. Chemical adsorption is not
easily reversible.
Example: the removal of water vapor (polar) from an exhaust stream by
using silica gel (polar). Adsorption processes are exothermic
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 4
ADSORBENT MATERIALS
➢ Adsorbents are characterized:
• Chemical nature
• Extent of their surface area
• Pore distribution, and particle size
➢ Common adsorbents used are: activated carbon, silica gel,
activated alumina (aluminaoxide), and zeolites (molecular sieves).
Activated carbon:
Produced from feedstocks such as wood, coal, coconut, nutshells, and
petroleum-based products
a) Carbonization:
Carbonization involves heating the material (usually in the absence of
air) to a temperature high enough (6000C) to drive off all volatile
material. Thus, carbon is essentially all that is left
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 5
ADSORBENT MATERIALS
b) Activation:
To increase the surface area the carbon is then “activated” by using
steam, air, or carbon dioxide at higher temperatures. These gases attack
the carbon and increase the pore structure.
Important Parameters:
➢ Temperatures
➢ Amount of oxygen present
➢ Types of feedstock
All these parameters greatly affect the adsorption qualities of the carbon.
Manufacturers vary these parameters to produce activated carbon suitable
for specific purposes.
➢ The surface area of the carbon can range from 600 to 1600 m2/g
Note: this is equivalent to having the surface the area of two to five football fields in one gram of carbon.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 6
Commonly Used ADSORBENT MATERIALS
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 7
PORE and PORE SIZE
The physical properties of the adsorbent affect the adsorption capacity, rate,
and pressure drop across the adsorber bed. Surface area must be available
in certain pore sizes if it is to be effective as a vapor adsorber.
Pore size is classified as:
▪ Micropores (Radii are 200 nm
(20 A° ) or less
▪ Transitional pores: Transitional
pores are those with radii between
200 and 2000 nm (between 0.2
and 2.0 mm).
▪ Macropores: Pores larger than
2000 nm (200A°)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 8
PORE and PORE SIZE
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 9
Adsorption Theory
A mathematical equation, which describes the relationship between
pressure (p) of the gaseous adsorbate and the extent of adsorption at any
fixed temperature, is called adsorption isotherm.
➢ The extent of adsorption is expressed as mass of the adsorbate
adsorbed on one unit mass of the adsorbent.
The process of adsorption is studied through
graphs know as adsorption isotherms.
Graph between the amounts of adsorbate
(x) adsorbed on the surface of adsorbent
(m) and pressure (P) at constant
temperature.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 10
Adsorption Isotherm
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 11
Adsorption Theory
Data relating adsorbed concentration (g/g of bed weight) to equilibrium gas
phase concentration (g/ml of stream) is given in terms of adsorption
isotherms.
Wads = f (P,T)
Three common types of isotherms:
▪ Langmuir
▪ Freundlich
▪ BET
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 12
Favorable and Unfavorable Adsorption
Wads = f (P,T)
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 13
Langmuir Isotherm
➢ The classical Langmuir model is limited to monolayer adsorption.
➢ At equilibrium, equal numbers of molecules desorb and adsorb at any
time. The probabilities are related to the strength of the interaction
between the adsorbent surface and the adsorbate gas.
The surface of the adsorbent is uniform, that
is, all the adsorption sites are equivalent.
• Adsorbed molecules do not interact.
• All adsorption occurs through the same
mechanism.
• At the maximum adsorption, only a
monolayer is formed.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 14
Langmuir Isotherm
Rate of adsorption, ra = ka P(1 − )
Rate of desorption, rd = kd 1-
ka P
At equilibrium, =
ka P + kd air
adsorbate
where,
Wads = the mass of gas adsorbed at pressure P;
Wads CP Wmax = the mass of gas which covers the entire
= = adsorbing surface with a monolayer;
Wmax 1 + CP P = the partial pressure of interest in the gas phase;
= coverage; the number of sites of the surface
which are covered with gaseous molecule,
C = a constant for the gas/solid combination = ka/kd;
ka = the adsorption rate coefficient;
kd = the desorption rate coefficient.
Freundlich Isotherm
➢ The Fruendlich isotherm model is valid for
heterogeneous surfaces, monolayer coverage.
➢ Common for most adsorption work since it fits almost
all data. It is empirical in nature, although some
theoretical foundations do exit.
Freundlich Isotherm
The expression： Wads = KF P 1/n
(KF and n are experimentally determined parameters)
▪ When n = 1, the reaction is linear and called
n>1 “partitioning”.
▪ When n > 1, the reaction is said to be
n=1 “favorable” as the incremental change in
amount sorbed decreases with increasing
Wads concentrations.
n<1
▪ While n < 1 is called “unfavorable” because
the reverse is true.
▪ Most natural adsorbents exhibit either linear or
favorable adsorption.
P ▪ The Langmuir and Fruendlich models for n <
1 are concave downwards, so both models can
be calibrated to similar data..
Biochar Synthesized in ANTL for adsorption study
Adsorption Isotherm: Biochar synthesized in ANTL
Adsorption isotherm fitting curve for DMP
adsorption on BC450 Adsorption isotherm fitting curve for DMP
adsorption on CAC
Adsorption isotherm fitting curve for DMP
adsorption on BC650
Breakthrough Curve
Adsorption Wavefront
22
Control technologies for air pollutants
Design Considerations
Several factors to be considered.
1. The adsorbent particle size
2. The physical adsorbent bed depth
3. The gas velocity
4. The temperature of the inlet gas stream to the adsorbent
5. The contaminant concentration to be adsorbed
6. The contaminant concentration not to be adsorbed, including moisture
7. The removal efficiency
8. Possible decomposition or polymerization of the contaminant on the
adsorbent
9. The frequency of operation(s)
10. Regeneration conditions
11. The system pressure
12. The system pressure drop
23
Control technologies for air pollutants
Design Approaches
1. Select adsorbent type and size.
2. Select cycle time; estimate regeneration time; set adsorption time equal to
regeneration time; set cycle time to twice the regeneration time; generally,
try to minimize regeneration time.
3. Set velocity; v is usually 80 ft/min, but can be increased to 100 ft/min.
4. Set steam/solvent ratio.
5. Calculate WC for the above selected material
6. Calculate amount of pollutant adsorbed during cycle time, Ms.
7. Calculate adsorbent required, MAC.
24
Control technologies for air pollutants
Design Approaches
8. Calculate adsorbent volume requirement:
VAC = MAC/ρB; ρB adsorbent bulk density (6:8)
9. Calculate the face area of the bed:
10. Calculate the bed height:
11. Set L/D (length-to-diameter) ratio.
12. Calculate L and D
25
Control technologies for air pollutants
Pressure drop
26
Control technologies for air pollutants
Calculation of Key Parameters
MTZ: The narrow zone of adsorption is referred to as the mass transfer zone (MTZ).
BRK: It is defined as the capacity of the bed at which unreacted vapors begin to be
exhausted.
Saturation capacity (SAT): It is the maximum amount of vapor that can
be adsorbed per unit mass of carbon (this is the capacity read from the adsorption
isotherm) and thus is equal to CAP.
Working charge (WC) : The working capacity (WC) is the actual amount adsorbed in the
adsorber.
➢ Working capacity is a certain fraction of the saturation capacity. Working
capacities can range from 0.1 to 0.7 times the saturation capacity.
HEEL: The small amount of residual vapors left on the bed is referred to as the HEEL. This
HEEL accounts for a large portion of the difference between the saturation capacity and
the working capacity.
27
Control technologies for air pollutants
Calculation of Key Parameters
28
Control technologies for air pollutants
Regeneration Methods
1. Thermal Swing.
The bed is heated so that the adsorption capacity is reduced to a lower level. The
adsorbate leaves the surface of the carbon and is removed from the vessel by a
stream of purge gas. Steam regeneration is an example of thermal
swing regeneration.
2. Pressure Swing. The pressure is lowered at a constant temperature to reduce
the adsorbent capacity.
3. Inert Purge Gas Stripping. The stripping action is caused by an inert gas that
reduces the partial pressure or the contaminant in the gas phase, reversing the
concentration gradient. Molecules migrate from the surface into the gas stream.
4. Displacement Cycle. The adsorbates are displaced by some preferentially
adsorbed material. This method is usually a last resort for situations in which
the adsorbate is both valuable and is heat-sensitive, and for which pressure
swing regeneration is ineffective.
29
Control technologies for air pollutants
Operation, Maintenance and Optimization
Optimizing performance of air pollution control equipment such as carbon
adsorbers involves consideration and monitoring of the following factors:
1. Operation of process controls to minimize solvent emissions
2. Quality of solvent/air inlet stream
3. Characteristics of the inlet stream, such as concentration,
temperature, and flow
4. Duration of the adsorption cycle
5. Quality and quantity of available steam for regeneration
6. Duration of steam–stripping cycle
7. Saturation and retentivity of the carbon
8. Quantity and quality of cooling water
9. Effectiveness of the water/solvent separator
10. Quality of reclaimed solvent
11. Quality of the wastewater
12. Quality of the exhaust stream from the adsorber bed
30
Control technologies for air pollutants
Worked Out Examples
Gas emissions are being collected from a landfill and must be treated before being
released into the environment. There are several options for treatment. As one of the
project engineers, you have been given the task to look at the use of a horizontal
activated carbon adsorber to collect the methane in the gas stream (assume 95%
removal). Perform the following calculations:
1. Mass of CH4 collected per operating period
2. Mass of activated carbon needed
3. Depth of AC bed
The following data are provided:
Flow rate = 11,000 acfh
Operating pressure of the adsorber = 1 atm
Operating temperature of the adsorber = 708F
Time between regeneration = 24 hr
Gas stream contains (by mole fraction): N2 : 0.10
CH4 : 0.50
CO2 : 0.40
Bulk density of activated carbon = 30 lb/ft3
Width of AC bed = 15 ft
Length of AC bed = 20 ft
CAP = 0.39 lb CH4/lb AC
HEEL = 0.05 lb CH4/lb AC
31
Control technologies for air pollutants
Three bed system
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 39
Horizontal Bed Adsorber
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 40
ADSORBENT MATERIALS
2) Silica Gel:
It is made from sodium silicate: Sodium silicate is mixed
with sulfuric acid, resulting in a jelly-like precipitate
➢ Different grades of varying activity can be produced. Silica
gels have surface areas of approximately 750 m2/g.
➢ Silica gels are used primarily to remove moisture from exhaust
streams, but are ineffective at temperatures above 500 F
3) Molecular Sieves.
Molecular sieves can be used to capture or separate gases on the basis of
molecular size and shape.
Example: molecular sieves are used in refining process to separate
straight-chained paraffins from branched and cyclic compounds.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 41
ADSORBENT MATERIALS
➢ The main use of molecular sieves is in the removal of moisture from
exhaust streams. The surface area of molecular sieves range from
(from 600 to 700m2/g)
4) Aluminum Oxide (Activated Alumina).
Aluminum oxides are manufactured by thermally activated alumina or
bauxite (heating the alumina in an inert atmosphere to produce a porous
aluminum oxide pellet).
➢ Primarily used for drying of gases, especially under high pressure, and
as support material in catalytic reactions.
Example : Impregnating of the alumina with platinum or palladium for
use in catalytic incineration. The surface area of activated alumina can
range from 200 to 300 m2/g.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 42
Adsorption Isotherm
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR AIR POLLUTANTS 43
Assumptions used to derive the BET isotherm
1. Gaseous molecules behave ideally
2. Multiple nitrogen molecules can be adsorbed to each site
3. Each adsorbed molecule provides a site for the adsorption of
the molecule in the layer above it
4. All sites on the surface are equivalent
5. No adsorbate - adsorbate interactions
6. An adsorbed molecule is immobile
7. Nitrogen in the second and higher layers are assumed to be
liquid like
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