Table of contents
The First Printed Books
Print Comes To Europe
The Print Revolution and Its Impact
The Reading Mania
The First Printed Books
1. Print technology was developed in China, Japan and
Korea first.
2. It was a system of handprinting. From AD 594, books were
printed by rubbing paper against the inked surface of wood
blocks. Chinese books were folded and stitched at the
sides.
3. Skilled craftsmen duplicated, with remarkable accuracy,
the beautiful calligraphy.
4. China was a major producer of printed material for a long
time.
5. 17th century: Print diversified. Merchants used print in their
everyday life. Reading became a popular leisure activity.
Rich women, wives of scholar-officials, published their plays
and poetry.
6. By the 19th century: Western powers started exporting
new technology to China. Shift from handprinting to
mechanical printing. The oldest printed book known is a
Japanese Buddhist book, the Diamond Sutra printed in AD
868.
7. Buddhist missionaries from China introduced handprinting
technology in Japan around 768-770 AD.
In the 18th century: Edo (Tokyo) published illustrated
collection of paintings, showing urban culture; hundreds of
books published on cooking, famous places, women,
musical instruments, tea ceremony. etc. From Japan, this
art travelled to Europe and the USA.
Try yourself:
In which century did print technology diversify and become a popular leisure activity in
China?
● A.
● 4th century AD
● B.
● 12th century AD
● C.
● 17th century AD
● D.
● 19th century AD
Print Comes To Europe
1. In 1295, Marco Polo, a great Italian explorer, brought the art
of wood block printing from China to Italy. From Italy it
spread to other European countries.
2. So far handwritten, expensive books were written on
vellum, a parchment made from the skin of animals, for
the rich only.
3. Popularity of books led to book fairs in all parts of Europe
but handwritten books were expensive, time-consuming,
fragile and awkward to carry.
4. First Printing Press– invented by Johann Gutenberg of
Germany in the 1430s.
5. Gutenberg, son of a merchant, mastered printing technique
by 1448. First book he printed was the Bible. It took him 3
years to print 180 copies.
6. From 1450-1550 printing presses were set up in most
countries of Europe. The second half of the 15th century
saw 20 million printed books in Europe, by the 16th century
the number was 200 million copies.
7. William Caxton set up the first printing press in England.
8. The shift from handprinting to mechanical printing led to the
Print Revolution.
William Caxton
Try yourself:
Who brought the art of wood block printing from China to Italy?
● A.
● Johann Gutenberg
● B.
● Marco Polo
● C.
● William Caxton
● D.
● None of the above
The Print Revolution and Its Impact
● Print Revolution:
Transformation in producing books, influencing lives and
relationships with information.
Extended beyond development, altering perceptions and
introducing new ways of looking at things.
● New Reading Public:
Printing press reduced book costs, making them accessible
to a growing readership.
Created a culture of reading among common people,
transitioning from an oral to a reading culture.
● Transition Challenges:
Limited literacy rates posed a challenge in reaching the
masses.
Publishers bridged the gap by publishing illustrated popular
ballads and folk tales, merging oral and print cultures.
● Religious Debates and Fear of Print:
Print allowed wide circulation of ideas, sparking debates and
discussions.
Authorities, including religious figures, expressed fears
about the uncontrolled spread of rebellious and irreligious
thoughts.
● Impact on Religion:
Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses, printed and widely
circulated, led to the Protestant Reformation.
Print played a crucial role in spreading new ideas and
fostering an intellectual atmosphere.
● Print and Dissent:
Popular religious literature led to diverse interpretations of
faith, even among the less educated.
Instances like Menocchio in Italy, who faced execution for
challenging established religious views, highlighted the
impact of print.
● Control Measures:
Responding to dissent, the Roman Catholic Church imposed
controls on publishers and booksellers.
Maintained an Index of Prohibited Books from 1558 to
regulate the spread of 'heretical' ideas.
The Reading Mania
● Literacy Growth in Europe:
Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries witnessed increased
literacy rates.
Churches established schools, reaching peasants and
artisans, resulting in literacy rates of 60-80% in some
European regions by the late eighteenth century.
● Reading Mania and Popular Literature:
Print led to a virtual reading mania with a demand for books.
New forms of popular literature emerged, including
almanacs, ballads, folktales, and affordable chapbooks,
reaching ordinary readers.
● Periodical Press and Access to Knowledge:
Periodical press developed in the early eighteenth century,
combining current affairs with entertainment.
Scientists' and philosophers' ideas became accessible to the
common people through published texts, maps, and
diagrams.
● Role of Books in Enlightenment:
Common belief in the mid-eighteenth century that books
were agents of progress and enlightenment.
Many believed books could liberate society from despotism,
heralding an era of reason and intellect.
● Print Culture and French Revolution:
Print culture contributed to the conditions for the French
Revolution.
Arguments: popularization of Enlightenment ideas, creation
of a culture of dialogue and debate, literature criticizing
royalty, and questioning the existing social order.
● Impact of Enlightenment Thinkers:
Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire and Rousseau widely
read, challenging tradition, superstition, and despotism.
Their writings influenced readers to view the world critically
and rationally.
● Literature Mocking Royalty:
Outpouring of literature in the 1780s mocked royalty,
questioning their morality and social order.
Cartoons and caricatures circulated underground, fostering
hostile sentiments against the monarchy.
● Print's Influence on Public Opinion:
Print opened up the possibility of thinking differently.
People exposed to diverse literature interpreted and
accepted/rejected ideas in their own way.
Print did not directly shape minds but facilitated varied
perspectives.
The Nineteenth Century
● Mass Literacy in the 19th Century:
Significant increase in mass literacy in 19th-century Europe.
New readers emerged, including children, women, and
workers.
● Children's Reading Culture:
Compulsory primary education in the late 19th century led to
children becoming important readers.
Establishment of a children's press in France in 1857,
focusing on literature for children.
Grimm Brothers in Germany compiled traditional folk tales,
edited for publication, changing rural folk tales.
● Role of Women in Reading and Writing:
Women became crucial readers and writers in the 19th
century.
Penny magazines and manuals on behavior and
housekeeping targeted women.
Renowned female novelists such as Jane Austen, Bronte
sisters, and George Eliot contributed to defining a new type
of woman.
● Lending Libraries and Working Class Education:
Lending libraries in 19th-century England served as
educational tools for white-collar workers, artisans, and the
lower-middle class.
Self-educated working-class individuals wrote political tracts
and autobiographies.
● Printing Technology Innovations:
Press evolved from metal to power-driven cylindrical press
by Richard M. Hoe in the mid-19th century.
Late 19th-century saw the development of the offset press
capable of printing multiple colors simultaneously.
Electrically operated presses from the early 20th century
accelerated printing operations.
● Evolution of Printed Texts:
Continuous mechanical improvements transformed the
appearance of printed texts.
Printers and publishers adopted new strategies, such as
serializing important novels in 19th-century periodicals.
● Market Strategies and Publishing Innovations:
1920s in England witnessed the sale of popular works in
cheap series like the Shilling Series.
20th-century innovation: introduction of the dust cover or
book jacket.
During the Great Depression in the 1930s, publishers
released cheap paperback editions to sustain book
purchases.
India and the World of Print
● India has a very old and rich tradition of handwritten
manuscripts– in Sanskrit, Arabic,Persian as well as
vernacular languages.
● Problems of Handwritten books:
(i) very expensive
(ii) very fragile
(iii) had to be handled carefully and
(iv) script written in different styles– could not be read easily
● Print comes to India in the mid-16th century to Goa,
brought by the Portuguese.
● In 1579, Catholics print first Tamil book at Cochin. In 1773,
the first Malayalam book was printed by them. Dutch
Protestant missionaries print 32 Tamil texts.
● First regular periodical in India, Hickey’s Bengal Gazette,
in English in the late 17th century.
● First Indian Newspaper to appear, the weekly, Bengal
Gazette by Raja Rammohun Roy’s associate Gangadhar
Bhattacharya.
● Early 19th century, age of reforms, intense debates around
religious issues.
● Traditional practices criticised, new ideas emerged.
● Hindu Orthodoxy debated widow remarriage,
sati,monotheism,idolatry and Brahmanical priesthood.
● Rammohun Roy published Sambad Kaunudi from 1821.
Hindu Orthodoxy published Samachar Chandrika to oppose
his ideas.
● Two Persian newspapers published – Jam-i-Jahan Nama
and Shamsul Akhbar.
● Gujarati newspaper Bombay Samachar was published from
1822.
● The Ulema, afraid of the English changing the Muslim
Personal Laws, printed newspapers in Urdu and Persian.
● Deoband Seminary, founded in 1867, published fatwas
telling Muslims how to behave.
● Ramcharitmanas by Tulsidas was first printed from
Calcutta in 1810.
● The Naval Kishore Press of Lucknow, known as the most
prestigious publishing house in this period, made great
contribution to Urdu publication.
● Shri Venkateshwar Press of Bombay, another famous
firm, published literature in vernacular languages.
● Thus, print connected various people, communities, sects in
different parts of the country.
● It contributed to the growth of pan-Indian identities.
Try yourself:
Which was the first Indian newspaper to appear?
● A.
● Hickey's Bengal Gazette
● B.
● Jam-i-Jahan Nama
● C.
● Bengal Gazette
● D.
● Bombay Samachar
Religious Reform and Public Debates
● Religious Debates in the 19th Century:
Intense debates on religious issues during the early 19th
century in colonial society.
Different groups offered varied interpretations and
responses to the changes, leading to clashes of opinions.
● Role of Print in Religious Debates:
Printed tracts and newspapers played a crucial role in
spreading and shaping new ideas.
Enabled a wider public to participate in public discussions
and express their views.
● Controversies in Bengal:
Debates in Bengal included widow immolation, monotheism,
Brahmanical priesthood, and idolatry.
Rammohan Roy's Sambad Kaumudi (1821) and the Hindu
orthodoxy's Samachar Chandrika were among the
publications shaping the discourse.
● Print in Different Languages:
To reach a wider audience, ideas were printed in the
everyday language of ordinary people.
Persian newspapers (Jam-i-Jahan Nama, Shamsul Akhbar),
Gujarati newspaper (Bombay Samachar), and publications
in Urdu played significant roles.
● Muslim Responses:
Muslim responses involved the use of cheap lithographic
presses to counter the anxieties about the collapse of
Muslim dynasties.
Deoband Seminary (1867) published fatwas, explaining
Islamic doctrines and guiding everyday conduct.
● Diversity of Muslim Sects:
Throughout the 19th century, various Muslim sects and
seminaries emerged with different interpretations of faith.
Urdu print facilitated their public battles and debates.
● Encouragement of Reading Religious Texts:
Print encouraged the reading of religious texts among
Hindus, especially in vernacular languages.
Calcutta saw the first printed edition of the Ramcharitmanas
in 1810, followed by cheap lithographic editions in north
Indian markets.
● Widespread Accessibility:
Printed and portable religious texts reached a broad
audience, easily read by the faithful anywhere.
Facilitated group readings for illiterate individuals.
● Connectivity through Print:
Print not only stimulated conflicting opinions but also
connected communities across different parts of India.
Newspapers conveyed news, fostering pan-Indian identities.
New Forms of Publication
● Print and the Novel in India:
Printing created a demand for new forms of writing.
The novel, originating in Europe, adapted to Indian forms
and styles, reflecting diverse human experiences.
● Diversity in Literary Forms:
Besides novels, other literary forms like lyrics, short stories,
and essays on social and political matters gained popularity.
Emphasis on human lives, emotions, and political and social
rules.
● Visual Culture and Print:
By the late 19th century, visual culture emerged with the
setup of more printing presses.
Painters like Raja Ravi Varma produced images for mass
circulation.
Cheap prints and calendars decorated homes, shaping
ideas about modernity, tradition, religion, politics, society,
and culture.
● Emergence of Caricatures and Cartoons:
Caricatures and cartoons in the 1870s commented on social
and political issues.
Addressed issues like Western influence, fear of social
change, and imperial rule.
● Women and Print Culture:
Women's lives and emotions written vividly; women's
reading increased.
Liberal families educated women at home and in schools;
some rebel women defied conservative prohibitions.
Women authors in Bengal, Maharashtra, and elsewhere
wrote about women's experiences, education, widowhood,
and societal issues.
● Development of Hindi Printing:
Hindi printing gained significance from the 1870s, focusing
on women's education.
Women-authored and -edited journals became popular in
the early 20th century, addressing women's issues and
providing household lessons.
● Folk Literature and Women's Education:
In Punjab, folk literature taught women to be obedient wives.
Cheap booklets disseminated messages about qualities of a
good woman.
● Battala in Calcutta:
The Battala area in central Calcutta became a hub for
printing popular books.
Cheap editions, including religious tracts and scandalous
literature, were widely available with illustrations.
● Print and the Poor:
Very cheap small books sold in Madras towns at crossroads;
public libraries set up from the early 20th century.
Issues of caste discrimination discussed in printed tracts.
Leaders like Jyotiba Phule, B.R. Ambedkar, and Periyar
wrote powerfully on caste.
● Worker's Voices in Print:
● Factory workers, initially overworked and lacking education,
later expressed their experiences in print.
● Kashibaba and Sudarshan Chakra wrote about caste and
class exploitation.
● Bangalore cotton millworkers set up libraries in the 1930s
to educate themselves, inspired by Bombay workers, with
support from social reformers.
Print and Censorship
● Pre-1798: Limited Censorship:
East India Company showed little concern for censorship.
Early measures targeted critical Englishmen in India fearing
trade monopoly challenges.
● 1820s: Press Regulations:
Calcutta Supreme Court initiated regulations controlling
press freedom.
Company encouraged newspapers supporting British rule.
Governor-General Bentinck revised press laws in 1835,
restoring earlier freedoms.
● Post-1857: Changing Attitudes:
After 1857 revolt, English demand for press clampdown
increased.
Vernacular newspapers turned nationalist, triggering colonial
government debates on stringent control.
● 1878: Vernacular Press Act:
Modeled on Irish Press Laws, granted extensive government
rights to censor vernacular press reports.
Government monitored vernacular newspapers across
provinces.
Warning issued for seditious content; non-compliance led to
press seizure and machinery confiscation.
● Nationalist Newspapers' Growth:
Despite repression, nationalist newspapers expanded.
Reported on colonial misrule, fostering nationalist activities.
Suppression attempts provoked militant protests, creating a
cycle of persecution and protests.
● 1907: Punjab Revolutionaries' Deportation:
Deportation of Punjab revolutionaries in 1907 led to
sympathetic coverage in Kesari by Balgangadhar Tilak.
Tilak's imprisonment in 1908 sparked widespread protests
throughout India.
