1.

Variables and Data

Symbol Meaning
A variable (e.g., measurement like height,
XXX
weight)
xxx A specific value of variable XXX
x1,x2,…,xnx_1, x_2, \ldots, x_nx1,x2,
Observed data values in a sample
…,xn
YYY Another variable, often dependent
nnn Sample size
NNN Population size

2. Measures of Central Tendency

Symbol Meaning
xˉ\bar{x}xˉ Sample mean
μ\muμ Population mean

3. Measures of Dispersion

Symbol Meaning
sss Sample standard deviation
s2s^2s2 Sample variance
σ\sigmaσ Population standard deviation
σ2\sigma^2σ2 Population variance
RRR Range (max - min)
IQRIQRIQR Interquartile range
4. Probability and Distribution

Symbol Meaning
P(A)P(A)P(A) Probability of event AAA
Σ\SigmaΣ Summation symbol
f(x)f(x)f(x) Probability density or mass function
F(x)F(x)F(x) Cumulative distribution function

∼\sim∼
"is distributed as" (e.g., X∼N(μ,σ2)X \sim N(\mu, \
sigma^2)X∼N(μ,σ2))

5. Inferential Statistics

Symbol Meaning
H0H_0H0 Null hypothesis
HaH_aHa or H1H_1H1 Alternative hypothesis
α\alphaα Significance level (commonly 0.05)
ppp p-value
ttt, zzz, χ2\chi^2χ2, FFF Test statistics (t-test, z-test, chi-square, F-test)
CICICI Confidence interval

6. Correlation and Regression

Symbol Meaning
rrr Sample correlation coefficient
ρ\rhoρ Population correlation
 Symbol Meaning
coefficient
Regression coefficients
β0,β1\beta_0, \beta_1β0,β1
(intercept, slope)
y=β0+β1x+εy = \beta_0 + \beta_1 x + \ Simple linear regression
varepsilony=β0+β1x+ε equation
ε\varepsilonε Error term

In inferential statistics, different tests are used depending on the type of data and
the hypothesis being tested. Here's what each of the following tests is used to
measure:

1. t-test

Purpose: Compare means between groups.

Used when:

 Sample size is small (n<30n < 30n<30)

 Population standard deviation (σ\sigmaσ) is unknown

Types:

 One-sample t-test: Compare sample mean to a known value.

 Independent t-test: Compare means of two independent groups.
 Paired t-test: Compare means from the same group at different times.

2. z-test
Purpose: Compare means or proportions.
Used when:

 Sample size is large (n≥30n \geq 30n≥30)

 Population standard deviation (σ\sigmaσ) is known

Types:

 One-sample z-test: Compare sample mean to population mean.

 Two-sample z-test: Compare means of two independent samples.
 Z-test for proportions: Compare proportions between groups.

3. Chi-square (χ²) test

Purpose: Test relationships between categorical variables or goodness of fit.

Used when:

 Data is categorical (e.g., gender, disease status)

Types:

 Chi-square test of independence: Is there a relationship between two

categorical variables?
 Chi-square goodness-of-fit test: Does observed distribution match
expected?

4. F-test
Purpose: Compare variances between groups or evaluate multiple group means.
Used in:

 ANOVA (Analysis of Variance): Are the means of three or more groups

significantly different?
 Variance comparison: Compare variances between two populations.

Summary Table:

Test Measures Data Type Common Use

t-test Means Continuous Comparing means (small samples)
Means or Continuous or Comparing means/proportions (large
z-test
Proportions Proportions samples)
Chi- Associations /
Categorical Testing independence or fit
square Fit
Variances / Comparing multiple group means
F-test Continuous
Means (ANOVA) or variances

Would you like a visual summary or cheat sheet of this too?

4o

You said:

from where does the words t,z chi,and f comes from

ChatGPT said:
Great question! The names t, z, chi (χ²), and F tests are rooted in the history and
mathematics of statistics. Here's where they come from:

1. t-test

 Origin: Developed by William Sealy Gosset in 1908.

 Pen name: Published under the name "Student", hence the "Student's t-
distribution".
 Why "t": The letter "t" was chosen to denote the test statistic derived from
the t-distribution, which he formulated to handle small sample sizes with
unknown variance.

2. z-test

 Origin: Based on the standard normal distribution.

 Why "z": The test statistic is often written as zzz, representing a z-score,
which tells how many standard deviations a data point is from the mean. It’s
used when the population standard deviation is known or the sample size is
large.

3. Chi-square test (χ²)

 Origin: Introduced by Karl Pearson in the early 1900s.

  Why "chi": The symbol χ (Greek letter "chi") was chosen by Pearson. The
chi-square distribution is the distribution of a sum of the squares of
independent standard normal variables. The squared symbol gives us χ².

4. F-test

 Origin: Named after Sir Ronald A. Fisher, a foundational figure in modern

statistics.
 Why "F": The F-distribution and the F-test are named in his honor. It's
used especially in comparing variances and in ANOVA.

These letters became standard shorthand for the distributions or test statistics they
represent. They're not acronyms — they're symbolic of the mathematical tools or
the statisticians associated with them.

Would you like a historical timeline or infographic to go with this explanation?

4o

You said:

what does normal distribution, t distribution, f distribution, and chi-square

distribution mean?

ChatGPT said:

Each of the distributions you mentioned — normal, t, F, and chi-square — plays

a critical role in inferential statistics. Here's what they mean and how they differ:
1. Normal Distribution (Z Distribution)

 Shape: Bell-shaped and symmetric.

 Use: Describes many natural phenomena (e.g., heights, test scores).
 Defined by: Mean μ\muμ and standard deviation σ\sigmaσ.
 Key feature:
o 68% of values lie within ±1σ,
o 95% within ±2σ,
o 99.7% within ±3σ (Empirical Rule).
 Formula:

Z=X−μσZ = \frac{X - \mu}{\sigma}Z=σX−μ

 Use in testing: When population standard deviation is known or sample size

is large (z-test).

2. t Distribution (Student's t Distribution)

 Shape: Bell-shaped, but wider tails than normal.

 Use: When sample size is small and population standard deviation is
unknown.
 Depends on: Degrees of freedom (usually n−1n - 1n−1). As sample size
increases, t-distribution approaches the normal distribution.
 Use in testing: For small sample means (t-tests).
3. Chi-Square Distribution (χ² Distribution)

 Shape: Right-skewed; becomes more symmetric with larger degrees of

freedom.
 Defined by: Sum of squared standard normal variables.
 Use: For categorical data — to test independence or goodness of fit.
 Use in testing: Chi-square tests (e.g., test of independence, test of
homogeneity, goodness-of-fit).
 Formula:

χ2=∑(O−E)2E\chi^2 = \sum \frac{(O - E)^2}{E}χ2=∑E(O−E)2

where OOO = observed, EEE = expected.

4. F Distribution

 Shape: Right-skewed.
 Defined by: Ratio of two chi-square distributions divided by their degrees of
freedom.
 Use: To compare variances between two or more groups.
 Use in testing: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), regression model
comparison.
 Depends on: Two sets of degrees of freedom (numerator and denominator).

Visual Analogy (Simple Summary):

Distribution Shape Used When Common Test
Bell-shaped, Known population σ or large
Normal z-test
symmetric n
Bell-shaped, wider
t Small sample, unknown σ t-test
tails
χ² Right-skewed Categorical data Chi-square tests
Comparing variances /
F Right-skewed ANOVA, F-test
models

Would you like me to generate a graph comparing all four distributions visually?

4o

You said:

what is right skewd meam

ChatGPT said:

A right-skewed distribution (also called positively skewed) means:

 The tail on the right side (higher values) is longer than the left.
 Most of the data are clustered on the left (lower values), with a few very
large values pulling the tail to the right.
 The mean is greater than the median, which is greater than the mode:

Mode<Median<Mean\text{Mode} < \text{Median} < \

text{Mean}Mode<Median<Mean
Example:

Income distribution is often right-skewed:

 Most people earn average or below-average incomes.

 A few people (e.g., billionaires) earn extremely high incomes, stretching the
tail to the right.

Visual:

markdown
CopyEdit
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(Data clusters on the left, tail extends right.)