SECA1604 - Computer Networks

UNIT II - NETWORKING

Network Topologies - mesh, star, bus, and ring - hybrid

topology - Network Standardization - De facto and De jure
standards of networks – MAC Layer - Aloha, CSMA, CSMA/CD,
CSMA/CA protocols, Different IEEE802 working groups -
Internet- Architecture of the internet - Third generation
mobile networks - UMTS Architecture - Wired Ethernet -
Wireless LANs IEEE 802.11 - RFID - Different types - sensor
networks - Multi hop topology of sensor network.

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 The Computer Network

 A computer network is a group of computers/devices(Nodes) that use a set

of common communication protocols over digital interconnections for the
purpose of sharing resources located on or provided by the network nodes.
 The nodes of a computer network may include personal computers, servers,
networking hardware, or other specialised or general-purpose hosts.
 The interconnections between nodes are formed from a broad spectrum of
telecommunication network technologies, based on physically wired, optical,
and wireless technologies.
 A communication protocol is a set of rules for exchanging information over a
network.

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 Network Topologies

Topology - Topology refers to the layout of connected devices on a network.

It defines the structure of the network

A. Physical topology:- It define the actual

layout of the wire or media.
1. Bus
2. Ring
3. Star
4. Tree(Hierarchical)
5. Mesh
The physical part describes the physical layout of
B. Logical topology:- It defines how the
the network while the logical part describes how hosts access the media to send data.
data flows in the network. Both, physical and
1. Broadcast
logical parts are also known as physical
topology and logical topology. 2. Token passing
Physical part (topology) + Logical part C. Hybrid Topology
(topology) = Network topology

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 1. Bus Topology

All devices are connected to a central

cable, called bus or backbone.
There are terminators at each end of
the bus that stops the signal and
keeps it from traveling backwards.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. There is no central controller. 1. It is possible that more than one station may
attempt transmission simultaneously (collision or
2. Control resides in each station
contention).
3. The less interconnecting wire is
2. Difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation.
required.
3. A fault or break in the bus cable stops all
4. Ease of installation.
transmission, even between devices on the same
5. Backbone cable can be laid along the side of the problem.
most efficient path, and then
4. The damaged area reflects signals in the direction
connected to the nodes by drop lines
of origin, creating noise in both directions
of various lengths

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 2. Ring Topology
• All devices are connected to one another in the shape
of a closed loop.
• Each device is connected directly to two other devices,
one on either side of it.

Advantages:
1. Avoids the collisions that are possible in the bus topology.
2. Each pair of stations has a point-to-point connection.
3. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
another, until it reaches its destination.
4. Each device incorporates a repeater.
5. Relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
6. Fault isolation is simplified.

Disadvantages:

1. A break in the ring (such as station disabled) can disable the entire
network.
2. Unidirectional traffic.
 3. Star Topology

• All devices are connected to a central hub.

• Nodes communicate across the network by passing data
through the hub or switch.
Advantages:
1. Easy to install and reconfigure.
2. Robustness, if one link fails; only that link is affected. All
other links remain active.
3. Easy fault identification and isolation. As long as the hub is
working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass
defective links.

Disadvantages:
1. The devices are not linked to each other.
2. If one device wants to send data to another, it sends it to
the controller, which then relays the data to the other
connected device.

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 4. Tree/Hierarchical Topology
 A tree topology combines characteristics of linear
bus and star topologies.
 It consists of groups of star-configured workstations
connected to a linear bus backbone cable.
 Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an
existing network, and enable schools to configure a
network to meet their needs.
Advantages:
1. It allows more devices to be attached to a single
central hub and can therefore increase the distance a
signal can travel between devices.
2. It allows the network to isolate and prioritize
communications from different computers.
Disadvantages:
1. The devices are not linked to each other.
2. If one device wants to send data to another, it sends
it to the controller, which then relays the data to the
other connected device.
3. The addition of secondary hubs brings two further
advantages. 7
 5. Mesh Topology

Each host has its connections to all other hosts.

Mesh topology is implemented to provide as much
protection as possible from interruption of service.
1. A nuclear power plant might use a mesh
topology in the networked control systems.
2. Although the Internet has multiple paths to any
one location, it does not adopt the full mesh
topology.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each 1. A large amount of cabling required.
connection can carry its data load, thus eliminating 2. A large amount of I/O ports required.
the traffic problems that can occur when links must 3. Installation and reconfiguration are
be shared by multiple devices. difficult.
2. It is robust, if one link becomes unusable, it does 4. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be
not incapacitate (affect) the entire system. greater than the available space (in the
3. Privacy and Security (every message sent travels walls, ceiling, or floors) can accommodate.
along a dedicated line; only the intended recipient 5. The hardware required to connect each
sees it). link (I/O ports and cables) can be
4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and prohibitively expensive.
fault isolation easy.

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 Fully connected mesh topology
 The number of connections in a full mesh network of n nodes is = n(n - 1) / 2.
 The fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex for
practical networks.
 It has been used on networks with only a small number of nodes.

Partially connected mesh topology

 The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are connected
to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link
 This makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided by
a physical fully connected mesh topology without the expense required for a connection
between every node in the network.

In most practical networks that are based upon the partially connected mesh
topology, all of the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network takes the
shortest path between nodes. The network used a longer alternative path in the
case of a failure or break in one of the links. This requires that the nodes of the
network possess some type of logical 'routing' algorithm to determine the correct
path to use at any particular time.

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 Logical Topology

 Logical Topology reflects arrangement of devices and their communication.

 It is the transmission of data over physical topology. It is independent of physical
topology, irrespective of arrangements of nodes.
 The two logical topologies are broadcast (also known as bus) and Token Passing or
sequential (also known as ring).
 In a broadcast topology, all devices on the network receive every message
transmitted. Each device is responsible for recognizing messages meant for it. If a
device is not the intended receiver, the message is ignored. (An analogy would be a
teacher calling on a student in class. All students in the classroom would hear the
teacher, but only the one whose name was called would respond.)
 In a sequential topology, data moves by point-to-point transmission.
 In this type of topology, an electronic token is passed sequentially to each host.
 When a host receives the token, that host can send data on the network. If the host
has no data to send, it passes the token to the next host and the process repeats
itself.
 Two examples of networks that use token passing are Token Ring and Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). A variation of Token Ring and FDDI is Arcnet.
Arcnet is token passing on a bus topology.
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 Difference between Physical and Logical Topology

Physical Topology Logical Topology

Depicts logistics of network concerned with
Depicts physical layout of network.
transmission of data.

There is no interference and manipulation

The layout can be modified based on needs.
involved here.

It can be arranged in Bus, star, ring, mesh and

It exists in bus and ring topologies.
tree topologies.

This has major impact on cost, scalability and This has major impact on speed and delivery
bandwidth capacity of network based on of data packets. It also handles flow control
selection and availability of devices. and ordered delivery of data packets.

It is actual route concerned with

It is a high level representation of data flow.
transmission.

Physical connection of the network. Data path followed of the network.

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 Hybrid Topology

A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be
hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating
topologies.

The combining topologies may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain
topologies. Most WANs are connected by means of Dual-Ring topology and networks
connected to them are mostly Star topology networks. Internet is the best example of
largest Hybrid topology
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 Network Standardization

 Defines the rules for data communications that are needed for interoperability of
networking technologies and processes.
 Standards help in creating and maintaining open markets
 Allows different vendors to compete on the basis of the quality of their products
while being compatible with existing market products
 Formulated to ensure that hardware and software produced by different vendors
can work together.
 Without networking standards, it would be difficult to develop
networks that easily share information.

During data communication, a number of standards may be used simultaneously at the

different layers. The commonly used standards at each layer are −

 Application layer − HTTP, HTML, POP, H.323, IMAP

 Transport layer − TCP, SPX
 Network layer −IP, IPX
 Data link layer − Ethernet IEEE 802.3, X.25, Frame Relay
 Physical layer −RS-232C (cable), V.92 (modem)
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 Types of Standards

Standards are of two types

De facto − These are the standards that are followed without any formal plan or
approval by any organization. They have come into existence due to traditions or
facts. For example, the HTTP had started as a de facto standard.
De jure − These standards are the ones which have been adopted through
legislation by any officially recognized standards organization. Most of the
communication standards that are used today are de jure standards.

De Facto and De Jure - Example

 HTML (computer file format) started as "de facto" (1993-1995) and became the
"de jure" standard (1995–present day).
PDF (computer file format) was first created in 1993 by Adobe. Adobe were neither
published nor coordinated by a standards body. PDF eventually became the de facto
standard for printable documents
 In 2005, PDF/A became a de jure standard as ISO 19005-1:2005 later in 2008
Adobe's PDF 1.7 became ISO 32000-1:2008.
Microsoft Word DOC is one of the best known de facto standards. Due to the
market dominance of Word, it is supported by all office applications
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 Standards Organizations
Some of the noted standards organizations are
 International Standards Organization (ISO)
 International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
 Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers (IEEE)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 Internet Research Task Force (IETF)
 Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is an international standard-
setting body composed of representatives from various national standards
organizations.
 ISO is an independent, non-governmental organization, the members of which are
the standards organizations of the 164 member countries.
 It is the world's largest developer of voluntary international standards and it
facilitates world trade by providing common standards among nations.
 OSI is an ISO standard
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 ITU-T
 The ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) coordinates standards for
telecommunications and Information Communication Technology
 The ITU-T mission is to ensure the efficient and timely production of standards
covering all fields of telecommunications and Information Communication Technology
(ICTs) on a worldwide basis
 Also, defining tariff and accounting principles for international telecommunication
services
 ITU-T is one of the three Sectors (divisions or units) of the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU)
 X.509 for cybersecurity, Y.3172 for machine learning, and H.264/MPEG-4 AVC for video
compression
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standards Association (IEEE-SA) is
an organization within IEEE that develops global standards in a broad range of
industries.
 The IEEE 802 Standard comprises a family of networking standard that cover the
physical layer specifications of technologies from Ethernet to wireless.
 IEEE 802 is subdivided into 24 parts that cover the physical and data link aspects of
networking.
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 IEEE 802 working group

• 802.23 Emergency Services Working Group

• 802.24 Vertical Applications TAG

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 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a non-profit organization that
oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services,
processes, systems and personnel in the United States.
 The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so
that American products can be used worldwide.
 Helps to create guidelines that are universally accepted in multiple industries.
 ANSI C12.22 is the American National Standard for Protocol Specification for
Interfacing to Data Communication Networks

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

 The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is a forum of working groups managed by
the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG). IETF is responsible for identifying
operational problems and proposing solutions to these problems.
 IETF also develops and reviews specifications intended as Internet standards. The
working groups are collected into areas, and each area concentrates on a specific topic.
Currently nine areas have been defined.
 The areas include applications, protocols, General, routing, network management,
Transport, Internet Protocol next generation (IPng) and security

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 Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA)
 The Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) standards for direct component marking,
data modeling, color coding and packaging materials.
 Products and services covered under this collection range from the smallest
electronic component to the most complex systems used by the defense, space and
consumer product industry.
 EIA ceased to exist on February 11, 2011. EIA designated Electronic Components,
Assemblies, Equipment & Supplies Association (ECA) to continue to develop standards for
interconnect, pa ssive and electro-mechanical (IP&E) electronic components under the
ANSI- designation of EIA standards.
 ECA is merged with the National Electronic Distributors Association (NEDA)
to form the Electronic Components Industry Association (ECIA)
 Most popular are RS-232-C, RS-449, RS-422, and RS-423 serial interfaces

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

 The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is a physical sciences
laboratory and a non-regulatory agency of the United States Department of Commerce.
 It’s mission is to promote innovation and industrial competitiveness.
 NIST's activities are organized into laboratory programs that include nanoscale
science and technology, engineering, information technology, neutron research, material
measurement, and physical measurement.
 From 1901–1988, the agency was named the National Bureau of Standards.
 Amazon Web service (AWS) cloud computing 19
 MAC (Media Access Control) Address in Computer Network

 Whether it is wired network office or a wireless one, one thing is common for both
environments: It takes both network software and hardware (cables, routers, etc.) to
transfer data from one computer to another or from a computer thousands of miles
away to users.
 In the end, to get the data you want right to particular USER, it comes down to
addresses.
 Along with an IP address (which is networks software), there’s also a hardware
address.
 Typically it is tied to a key connection device with computer called the network
interface card, or NIC.
 The NIC is essentially a computer circuit card that makes connection between
computer to a network.
 An NIC turns data into an electrical signal that can be transmitted over the network.
 MAC addresses are physical addresses, unlike IP addresses which are logical addresses.
 Logical addresses require you to load special drivers and protocols in order to be able
to configure network card/computer with an IP Address,
 where as a MAC address doesn’t require any drivers whatsoever.
 The reason for this is that the MAC address is actually “the burned-in address (BIA)”
into your network card’s memory chipset.
 The ARP protocol is used to associate a logical address with a physical or MAC address.
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 THE REASON FOR MAC

 Each computer on a network needs to be identified in some way.

 IP address does identify one unique machine on a network, but that is not enough.
 The diagram below provides a visual representation how important MAC Addresses are
on our network and at which layer of the OSI Model they exist:

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 The IP address of a machine exists on the 3rd Layer of the OSI model and, when a
packet reaches the computer, it will travel from Layer 1 upwards, so we need to
be able to identify the computer before Layer 3.
 This is where the MAC address – Layer 2 comes into the picture.
 All machines on a network will listen for packets that have their MAC address in
the destination field of the packet (they also listen for broadcasts and other stuff,
but that’s analyzed in other sections).
 The Physical Layer understands the electrical signals on the network and creates
the frame which gets passed to the Datalink layer.
 If the packet is designed for the computer then the MAC address in the
destination field of the packet will match, so it will accept it and pass it onto the
Layer above (3) which, in turn, will check the network address of the packet (IP
Address), to make sure it matches with the network address to which the
computer has been configured

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 Media Access Control (MAC) Address

 MAC Addresses are unique 48-bits hardware number of a computer, which is

embedded into network card (known as Network Interface Card) during the time of
manufacturing.
 MAC Address is also known as Physical Address of a network device.
 In IEEE 802 standard, Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers –

1. Logical Link Control(LLC) Sublayer

2. Media Access Control(MAC) Sublayer

 MAC address is used by Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer of Data-Link Layer.
 MAC Address is worldwide unique, since millions of network devices exists and we
need to uniquely identify each.

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 Format of MAC Address

 MAC Address is a 12-digit hexadecimal number (6-Byte binary number), which is

mostly represented by Colon-Hexadecimal notation. First 6-digits (say 00:40:96) of
MAC Address identifies the manufacturer, called as OUI (Organizational Unique
Identifier). IEEE Registration Authority Committee assign these MAC prefixes to its
registered vendors.

Here are some OUI of well known

manufacturers :

 CC:46:D6 - Cisco
 3C:5A:B4 - Google, Inc.
 3C:D9:2B - Hewlett Packard
 00:9A:CD - HUAWEI TECHNOLOGIES CO.,LTD
 00-14-22 – Dell
 00-04-DC – Nortel
 00-30-BD - Belkin

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MAC address is represented by Colon-Hexadecimal notation. But this is just a
conversion, not mandatory. MAC address can be represented using any of the
following formats –

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 Types of MAC Address

1. Unicast
A Unicast addressed frame is only sent out to the interface leading to specific NIC.
If the LSB (least significant bit) of first octet of an address is set to zero, the frame is meant to
reach only one receiving NIC. MAC Address of source machine is always Unicast.

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2. Multicast
Multicast address allow the source to send a frame to group of devices. In Layer-2
(Ethernet) Multicast address, LSB (least significant bit) of first octet of an address is
set to one. IEEE has allocated the address block 01-80-C2-xx-xx-xx (01-80-C2-00-
00-00 to 01-80-C2-FF-FF-FF) for group addresses for use by standard protocols.

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3. Broadcast
Ethernet frames with ones in all bits of the destination address (FF-FF-
FF-FF-FF-FF) are referred as broadcast address. Frames which are destined with
MAC address FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF will reach to every computer belong to that LAN
segment.

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 How to find the MAC address of a device

 Every device connected to the home network contains a unique MAC address, but if your
system has multiple network adapters, such as an Ethernet adapter or wireless adapter,
each adapter or NIC has its own MAC address or physical address.
 Follow the below steps to find the MAC addresses of a device on a different OS.
MAC address on Windows:
1. Click Window Start or Press the Windows Key.
2. In the given search box, type cmd to open the command prompt.

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 3. Press the Enter key, and the command prompt window will display,
as shown below image:

4. Type ipconfig/all command and press enter.

5. It will show different information, scroll down and look for the physical
address. Each physical address is the MAC address of your device.

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As we can see in the above image, there are two physical addresses shown
with different values, one is for the Ethernet adapter, and the other one is for
the VMware network adapter.
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 Difference between MAC address and IP address

Both the MAC address and IP address are the way to identify the device on
the network. Following are some important differences between both:

MAC address IP address

It stands for Media Access Control. It stands for Internet Protocol.

It is the unique address provided by It is the logical address provided by the

the manufacturer. ISP or Internet Service Provider.

It is the physical address of the It is the logical address that identifies a

device's NIC that is used to identify network or device on the internet.
a device within a network.

It operates on the data link layer. It operates on a network Layer.

It is the 6 -bytes hexadecimal It is of 4 bytes for IPv4 and 8 bytes for

address. IPv6 addresses.

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 Multiple Access Issues
• If more than one node transmit at a time on the control channel to BS, a collision occurs
• How to determine which node can transmit to BS?
Multiple Access Protocols
Different types:
• Contention protocols resolve a collision after it occurs. These protocols execute a
collision resolution protocol after each collision

Random Access Protocol

In this, all stations have same superiority that is no station has more priority
than another station.
Any station can send data depending on medium’s state( idle or busy).
It has two features:
1. There is no fixed time for sending data
2. There is no fixed sequence of stations sending data
Controlled Access or Collision resolution Protocol
 In this, the data is sent by that station which is approved by all other stations.

• Collision-free or Conflict-free or Channelization protocols (e.g., a bit-map protocol

and binary countdown)
 ensure that a collision can never occur.
 The available bandwidth of the link is shared in time, frequency and code to
multiple stations to access channel simultaneously.
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34
 Contention Protocols
ALOHA PROTOCOL
 Developed in the 1970s for a packet radio network by Hawaii University.
 ALOHA is a multiple access protocol for transmission of data via a shared network
channel.
 It operates in the medium access control sublayer (MAC sublayer) of the open systems
interconnection (OSI) model. Using this protocol, several data streams originating from
multiple nodes are transferred through a multi-point transmission channel.
 In ALOHA, each node or station transmits a frame without trying to detect whether the
transmission channel is idle or busy. If the channel is idle, then the frames will be
successfully transmitted. If two frames attempt to occupy the channel simultaneously,
collision of frames will occur and the frames will be discarded. These stations may
choose to retransmit the corrupted frames repeatedly until successful transmission
occurs.
Aloha Rules
 Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.
 It does not require any carrier sensing.
 Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of data through multiple
stations.
 Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there is no collision detection.
 It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time.
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 Versions of ALOHA Protocols

Pure ALOHA
In pure ALOHA, the time of transmission is continuous. Whenever a station has an
available frame, it sends the frame. If there is collision and the frame is destroyed, the
sender waits for a random amount of time before retransmitting it.

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 Throughput of ALOHA

• The probability that n packets arrive in two packets time is given by

n
(2G) e-2G
P(n ) =
n!
where G is traffic load.
• The probability P(0) that a packet is successfully received without
collision is calculated by letting n=0 in the above equation. We get

P(0) = e -2G
• We can calculate throughput S with a traffic load G as follows:

S = G  P(0) = G  e-2G

• The Maximum throughput of ALOHA is

1
S max =  0.184
2e
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 Slotted ALOHA
Slotted ALOHA reduces the number of collisions and doubles the capacity of pure
ALOHA. The shared channel is divided into a number of discrete time intervals called slots. A
station can transmit only at the beginning of each slot. However, there can still be collisions if
more than one station tries to transmit at the beginning of the same time slot.

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 Throughput of Slotted ALOHA

• The probability of no collision is given by

P(0) = e -G

• The throughput S is

S = G  P(0) = G  e-G

• The Maximum throughput of slotted ALOHA is

1
S max =  0.368
e

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 Contention Protocols (Cont’d)
• CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
• Improvement: Start transmission only if no transmission is ongoing
• CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)
• Improvement: Stop ongoing transmission if a collision is detected
• CSMA/CA (CSMA with Collision Avoidance)
• Improvement: Wait a random time and try again when carrier is quiet. If still
quiet, then transmit
• CSMA/CA with ACK
• CSMA/CA with RTS/CTS (Request to Send/Clear to Send)
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

 Max throughput achievable by slotted ALOHA is 0.368.

 CSMA gives improved throughput compared to Aloha protocols.
 Listens to the channel before transmitting a packet (avoid avoidable
collisions).

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 Collision Mechanism in CSMA
In a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to sense the
traffic on a channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data. It means that if the
channel is idle, the station can send data to the channel. Otherwise, it must wait
until the channel becomes idle. Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision on a
transmission medium. However there is still chance of collision in CSMA due to
propagation delay.

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 CSMA Access Modes
1-persistent:
The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the data, otherwise it
continuously keeps on checking the medium for being idle and transmits
unconditionally (with 1 probability) as soon as the channel gets idle.
Non-Persistent:
The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the data, otherwise it
checks the medium after a random amount of time (not continuously) and
transmits when found idle.
P-persistent:
The node senses the medium, if idle it sends the data with p probability.
If the data is not transmitted ((1-p) probability) then it waits for some time and
checks the medium again, now if it is found idle then it send with p probability.
This repeat continues until the frame is sent. It is used in Wifi and packet radio
systems.
O-persistent:
Superiority of nodes is decided before and and transmission occurs in
that order. If the medium is idle, node waits for its time slot to send data.
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 CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)

 In CSMA, if 2 terminals begin sending packet at the same time, each will
transmit its complete packet (although collision is taking place).
 Wasting medium for an entire packet time.
 CSMA/CD
 Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit
 Step 2: If the medium is busy, continue to listen until the channel is idle
then transmit
 Step 3: If a collision is detected during transmission, cease transmitting
 Step 4: Wait a random amount of time and repeats the same algorithm

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 CSMA/CA (CSMA with collision Avoidance)

 The process of collisions detection involves sender receiving

acknowledgement signals.
 If there is just one signal(its own) then the data is successfully sent but if
there are two signals(its own and the one with which it has collided) then it
means a collision has occurred.
CSMA/CA avoids collision by:
1.Interframe space – Station waits for medium to become idle and if found idle it
does not immediately send data (to avoid collision due to propagation delay)
rather it waits for a period of time called Interframe space or IFS. After this time
it again checks the medium for being idle. The IFS duration depends on the
priority of station.
2.Contention Window – It is the amount of time divided into slots. If the sender
is ready to send data, it chooses a random number of slots as wait time which
doubles every time medium is not found idle. If the medium is found busy it
does not restart the entire process, rather it restarts the timer when the
channel is found idle again.
3.Acknowledgement – The sender re-transmits the data if acknowledgement is
not received before time-out.

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 Channelization Protocol:
 In this, the available bandwidth of the link is shared in time, frequency and code to multiple
stations to access channel simultaneously.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) –

The available bandwidth is divided into equal bands so that each station can be
allocated its own band. Guard bands are also added so that no two bands overlap to avoid
crosstalk and noise.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) –

In this, the bandwidth is shared between multiple stations. To avoid collision time is
divided into slots and stations are allotted these slots to transmit data. However there is a
overhead of synchronization as each station needs to know its time slot. This is resolved by
adding synchronization bits to each slot. Another issue with TDMA is propagation delay which
is resolved by addition of guard bands.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) –

One channel carries all transmissions simultaneously. There is neither division of
bandwidth nor division of time. For example, if there are many people in a room all speaking
at the same time, then also perfect reception of data is possible if only two person speak the
same language. Similarly, data from different stations can be transmitted simultaneously in
different code languages.

45
 Internet Architecture

 Internet is called the network of networks.

 It is a global communication system that links together thousands of individual
networks.
 As a result, a computer can virtually connect to other computers in any network.
 These connections allow users to interchange messages, to communicate in real
time (getting instant messages and responses), to share data and programs and
to access limitless information.
 Internet architecture is a meta-network, which refers to a congregation of
thousands of distinct networks interacting with a common protocol.
 In simple terms, it is referred as an internetwork that is connected using
protocols.
 Protocol used is TCP/IP. This protocol connects any two networks that differ in
hardware, software and design.
Process
TCP/IP provides end to end transmission, i.e., each and every node on one
network has the ability to communicate with any other node on the network.

46
 Layers of Internet Architecture
Internet architecture consists of three layers −

Internet Protocol Layer (IP):

In order to communicate, we need our data to be
encapsulated as Internet Protocol (IP) packets. These IP
packets travel across number of hosts in a network through
routing to reach the destination. However IP does not support
error detection and error recovery, and is incapable of
detecting loss of packets.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) :
It provides end to end transmission of data, i.e., from
source to destination. It is a very complex protocol as it
supports recovery of lost packets.
Application Protocol
Third layer in internet architecture is the application
layer which has different protocols on which the internet
services are built. Some of the examples of internet services
include email (SMTP facilitates email feature), file transfer
(FTP facilitates file transfer feature), etc.

47
 Architecture of the Internet

 The architecture of the Internet is ever-changing due to continuous changes in the

technologies as well as the nature of the service provided.
 The heterogeneity and vastness of the Internet make it difficult to describe every
aspect of its architecture.
 The overall architecture can be described in three levels −
Backbone ISP (Internet Service Provider)
Regional ISPs
Clients

The diagram shows the three levels of internet architecutre

 The user who wishes to make on this internetwork must store its data in IP packets
delivered to the first network to cross.
 This first network encapsulates the IP packet in its packet structure, package A, which
circulates in this form until an exit door, where it is decapsulated to retrieve the IP
packet.
 The IP address is examined to locate, thanks to a routing algorithm, the following
network to cross, and so on until arriving at the destination terminal.
 To complete the IP, the US Defense added the TCP protocol; specify the nature of the
interface with the user.
 This protocol further determines how to transform a stream of bytes in an IP packet
while ensuring the quality of transport of this IP packet.
 Both protocols, assembled under the TCP / IP abbreviation, are in the form of a
layered architecture. They correspond to the packet level and message-level reference
model.
 The Internet model completed with a third layer called the application level, which
includes different protocols for building Internet services.
 Email (SMTP), file transfer (FTP), the transfer of hypermedia pages, transfer of
distributed databases (World Wide Web), etc., are some of these services. The figure
shows the three layers of Internet architecture.
  IP packets are independent of each other and are
individually routed in the network by interconnecting devices,
subnets, routers.
 The quality of service offered by IP is minimal and provides
no detection of lost or possibility of error recovery packages.
 TCP combines the functionality of the message-level
reference model. It is a fairly complex protocol with many
options for solving all packet loss problems in the lower levels.
 In particular, a lost fragment can be recovered by
retransmission on the stream of bytes. TCP uses a connection-
oriented mode.
 The flexibility of the Internet architecture can sometimes be a default.
 The extent that global optimization of the network is carried out by sub-
network subnet, by a succession of local optimizations.
 It does not allow a homogeneous function in different subnets traversed.
Another essential feature of this architecture is to place the entire control system,
to say, intelligence and control of the network, in the terminal machine, leaving
virtually nothing in the network, at least in the current version, IPv4, the IP
protocol.
 The control intelligence is in the TCP software on the PC connected to the
network.
 It is the TCP protocol that takes care of sending more or fewer packets according to
network load.
 Precise control window the maximum number of unacknowledged fragments that
may be issued.
 The TCP window control increases or decreases the traffic following the time required
to complete a round trip.
 Over this time increases, Considering the more congested network, the transmission
rate must decrease to counter saturation.
 In return, the infrastructure cost is meager; no intelligence is not in the network.
 The service provided by the network of networks corresponds to a quality called the
best effort, which means that the network does its best to carry the traffic. In other
words, the service quality is not assured.
 The new generation of IP, IPv6, introduces new features that make the network nodes
smarter.
 The new generation of routers comes with QoS management algorithms, which allow
them to provide transportation that can meet time constraints or packet loss.
 In IPv4, each new customer is treated the same way as those already connected, with
resources being distributed equitably among all users.
 The resource allocation policies of telecom operator’s networks are different since, on
these networks, a customer who already has a certain quality of service does not suffer
any penalty because of the arrival of a new customer.
Now a days IPV6 is replacing IPV4 because of density increment in the internet world
 IPv4 IPv6
IPv4 has a 32-bit address length IPv6 has a 128-bit address length
It supports Auto and renumbering address
It Supports Manual and DHCP address configuration
configuration
In IPv4 end to end, connection integrity is
In IPv6 end to end, connection integrity is Achievable
Unachievable
Address space of IPv6 is quite large it can produce
It can generate 4.29×109 address space
3.4×1038 address space

The Security feature is dependent on application IPSEC is an inbuilt security feature in the IPv6 protocol

Address representation of IPv4 is in decimal Address Representation of IPv6 is in hexadecimal

Fragmentation performed by Sender and forwarding

In IPv6 fragmentation performed only by the sender
routers
In IPv6 packet flow identification are Available and
In IPv4 Packet flow identification is not available
uses the flow label field in the header
In IPv4 checksum field is available In IPv6 checksum field is not available
In IPv6 multicast and anycast message transmission
It has broadcast Message Transmission Scheme
scheme is available
In IPv4 Encryption and Authentication facility not In IPv6 Encryption and Authentication are provided
provided
IPv6 has header of 40 bytes fixed
IPv4 has a header of 20-60 bytes.
 Switching techniques in Computer Architecture

 In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The
switching technique will decide the best route for data transmission.
 Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one
communication.
Classification Of Switching Techniques
 Circuit Switching

 Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path

between sender and receiver.
 In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then
the dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
 Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone
works.
 A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
 In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data,
voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back
the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path.
 After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
 Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
 Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
 Message Switching
 Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a
complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path
between the sender and receiver.
The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides
a dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based
on the information available in the message.
Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the
most efficient routes.
Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next
node. This type of network is known as store and forward network.
Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
 Packet Switching
 The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in
one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
 The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
 Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
 Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
 All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
 If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend
the message.
 If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment
message will be sent.
 ERROR
Networks must be able to transfer data from one device to another with complete accuracy.
Some part of a message will be altered in transit than that the entire content will arrive intact. Many
factors like line noise can alter or wipe out one or more bits of a given data unit. This is known as
errors.

TYPES OF ERRORS

1. Single Bit Error - It means that only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or
from 0 to 1.

2. Burst Bit Error - It means that two or more bits in the data unit have changed. A burst bit
does not necessarily means that the errors occur in consecutive bits. The length of the bust error is
measured from the first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit. Some bits in between may not be
corrupted.

58
 The Mobile Wireless Communication Technology Journey

 1G or first generation - Analogue cellular network in 1979 in Japan, brought us

the mobile devices, Speed 2kbps, 30KHz Bandwidth
 2G or the second generation - Digital cellular network based on GSM
technology in 1991, brought us the ability to text and receive/send data across
mobile devices, Data speeds of up to 64 kbps, bandwidth of 30 to 200 KHz
 3G or the third generation - Mobile communication based on UMTS and CDMA
technologies in 2001, brought us to the mobile web, Speed of up to 2 Mbps,
Large capacities and broadband capabilities
 4G or fourth generation - Mobile communication technology based on LTE
standard in 2009. Made it faster, Speeds of up to 20 Mbps or more.
 5G network - that will redefine high-speed wireless communications. > 10Gbps59
 Third-Generation (3G) Mobile Phones
Third generation mobile phones, or “3G Internet” mobile phones, is a set of
standards for wireless mobile communication systems, that promises to deliver
quality multimedia services along with high quality voice transmission.

Features

 3G systems comply with the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000

(IMT-2000)
 The first 3G services were available in 1998.
 It provides high speed transmission having data transfer rate more than
0.2Mbps.
 Global roaming services are available for both voice and data.
 It offers advanced multimedia access like playing music, viewing videos,
television services etc.
 It provides access to all advanced Internet services, for example surfing
webpages with audio and video.
 It paved the way for the increased usage of smartphones with wide screens
as they provided better viewing of mobile webpages, videos and mobile
televisions.

60
Specifications for 3G
3G specifications are laid down by two groups, 3GPP and 3GPP2.
3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project)
These specifications are based upon Global System for Mobile (GSM)
communications, and are known as Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems (UMTS).
The technologies includes in it are −
• Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA)
• General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
• Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
3GPP2
These specifications are based upon Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA). Two
main specifications under this are −
• Wideband CDMA (WCDMA)
• CDMA2000
Areas of Application
 Wireless voice telephony
 Fixed wireless Internet access
 Mobile Internet access
 Video calls
 Mobile TV technologies
 Video-on-demand
 Video conferencing
 Tele-medicine
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
 Location-based services
61
 UMTS - Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
 Based on the GSM standard.
 Developed and maintained by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project)
 UMTS is a component of the Standard International Union all IMT-2000
telecommunications and compares it with the standard set for CDMA2000 networks
 UMTS uses wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) radio access
technology to provide greater spectral efficiency and bandwidth mobile network
operators.
 It specifies a complete network system and the technology described in it is popularly
referred as Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access (FOMA).

Fig. 3G UMTS network architecture 62

 3G UMTS network architecture

 The UMTS network architecture can be divided into three main elements:

 User Equipment (UE):

The User Equipment or UE is the name given to what was previous termed the
mobile, or cellphone. The new name was chosen because the considerably greater
functionality that the UE could have. It could also be anything between a mobile phone
used for talking to a data terminal attached to a computer with no voice capability.

 Radio Network Subsystem (RNS):

The RNS also known as the UMTS Radio Access Network, UTRAN, is the
equivalent of the previous Base Station Subsystem (BSS) in GSM. It provides and manages
the air interface for the overall network.

 Core Network:
The core network provides all the central processing and management for the
system. It is the equivalent of the GSM Network Switching Subsystem (NSS). The core
network is then the overall entity that interfaces to external networks including the
public phone network and other cellular telecommunications networks.

63
  User Equipment, UE

 The USER Equipment or UE is a major element of the overall 3G UMTS network

architecture.
 It consists of a variety of different elements including RF circuitry, processing,
antenna, battery, etc.
 UE RF circuitry: The RF areas handle all elements of the signal, both for the receiver and
for the transmitter
 Baseband processing: The base-band signal processing consists mainly of digital circuitry.
This is considerably more complicated than that used in phones for previous generations.
This has been optimized to reduce the current consumption as far as possible.
 Battery: While current consumption has been minimized as far as possible within the
circuitry of the phone, there has been an increase in current drain on the battery. With
users expecting the same lifetime between charging batteries as experienced on the
previous generation phones, this has necessitated the use of new and improved battery
technology. Now Lithium Ion (Li-ion) batteries are used. These phones to remain small
and relatively light while still retaining or even improving the overall life between
charges.
 Universal Subscriber Identity Module, USIM: The UE also contains a SIM card, although
in the case of UMTS it is termed a USIM (Universal Subscriber Identity Module). This is a
more advanced version of the SIM card used in GSM and other systems, but embodies
the same types of information. It contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity
number (IMSI) as well as the Mobile Station International ISDN Number (MSISDN).
64
 3G UMTS Radio Network Subsystem

The 3G UMTS / WCDMA network that interfaces to both the UE and the
core network. The overall radio access network, i.e. collectively all the Radio Network
Subsystem is known as the UTRAN UMTS Radio Access Network.
The radio network subsystem is also known as the UMTS Radio Access
Network or UTRAN.

 3G UMTS Core Network

The 3G UMTS core network architecture is a migration of that used for GSM
with further elements overlaid to enable the additional functionality demanded by
UMTS.
In view of the different ways in which data may be carried, the UMTS core
network may be split into two different areas:
 Circuit switched elements: These elements are primarily based on the
GSM network entities and carry data in a circuit switched manner, i.e. a
permanent channel for the duration of the call.
 Packet switched elements: These network entities are designed to carry
packet data.

65
  Circuit switched elements
The circuit switched elements of the UMTS core network architecture include
the following network entities:
Mobile Switching Centre (MSC): This is essentially the same as that within
GSM, and it manages the circuit switched calls under way.
Gateway MSC (GMSC): This is effectively the interface to the external
networks.

 Packet switched elements

The packet switched elements of the 3G UMTS core network architecture
include the following network entities:
 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): As the name implies, this entity was
first developed when GPRS was introduced, and its use has been carried
over into the UMTS network architecture. The SGSN provides a number of
functions within the UMTS network architecture.
 Mobility Management When a UE attaches to the Packet Switched
domain of the UMTS Core Network, the SGSN generates MM
information based on the mobile's current location.

66
 Session management: The SGSN manages the data sessions providing the
required quality of service and also managing what are termed the PDP (Packet
data Protocol) contexts, i.e. the pipes over which the data is sent.
 Interaction with other areas of the network: The SGSN is able to manage its
elements within the network only by communicating with other areas of the
network, e.g. MSC and other circuit switched areas.
 Billing: The SGSN is also responsible billing. It achieves this by monitoring the
flow of user data across the GPRS network. CDRs (Call Detail Records) are
generated by the SGSN before being transferred to the charging entities
(Charging Gateway Function, CGF).

 Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): Like the SGSN, this entity was also first
introduced into the GPRS network. The Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) is
the central element within the UMTS packet switched network. It handles inter-
working between the UMTS packet switched network and external packet
switched networks, and can be considered as a very sophisticated router. In
operation, when the GGSN receives data addressed to a specific user, it checks if
the user is active and then forwards the data to the SGSN serving the particular
UE.
67
  Shared elements
The shared elements of the 3G UMTS core network architecture include the
following network entities:

Home Location Register (HLR): This database contains all the administrative
information about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way,
the UMTS network is able to route calls to the relevant RNC / Node B. When a user
switches on their UE, it registers with the network and from this it is possible to
determine which Node B it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed
appropriately. Even when the UE is not active (but switched on) it re-registers
periodically to ensure that the network (HLR) is aware of its latest position with their
current or last known location on the network.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR): The EIR is the entity that decides whether a
given UE equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each UE equipment has a
number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity. This number, as
mentioned above, is installed in the equipment and is checked by the network during
registration.

Authentication Centre (AuC) : The AuC is a protected database that contains the
secret key also contained in the user's USIM card.

68
 Wired LANs: Ethernet

IEEE STANDARDS

 In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a project, called Project 802, to set
standards to enable intercommunication among equipment from a variety of
manufacturers.
 Project 802 is a way of specifying functions of the physical layer and the data link layer
of major LAN protocols.
IEEE standard for LANs

69
 STANDARD ETHERNET
 The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox s’ Palo Alto Research Center
(PARC). Since then, it has gone through four generations.

Ethernet evolution through four generations

802.3 MAC frame

70
 Preamble.
The first field of the 802.3 frame contains 7 bytes (56 bits) of alternating 0s and 1s that alerts
the receiving system to the coming frame and enables it to synchronize its input timing.
The pattern provides only an alert and a timing pulse.
The 56-bit pattern allows the stations to miss some bits at the beginning of the frame.
The preamble is actually added at the physical layer and is not (formally) part of the frame.
 Start frame delimiter (SFD).
The second field (1 byte: 10101011) signals the beginning of the frame.
The SFD warns the station or stations that this is the last chance for synchronization.
The last 2 bits is 11 and alerts the receiver that the next field is the destination address.
 Destination address (DA).
The DA field is 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the destination station or stations
to receive the packet.
 Source address (SA).
The SA field is also 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the sender of the packet.
 Length or type.
This field is defined as a type field or length field. The original Ethernet used this field as the
type field to define the upper-layer protocol using the MAC frame. The IEEE standard used it as
the length field to define the number of bytes in the data field.
 Data.
This field carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols. It is a minimum of 46
and a maximum of 1500 bytes
 CRC.
The last field contains error detection information, in this case a CRC-32
71
 Minimum and Maximum length of DATA

Frame length:
Min: 64 bytes (512 bit )
Max: 1518 bytes (12,144 bits)

 An Ethernet frame needs to have a minimum length of 512 bits or 64 bytes. Part of this length
is the header and the trailer.
 If we count 18 bytes of header and trailer (6 bytes of source address, 6 bytes of destination
address, 2 bytes of length or type, and 4 bytes of CRC), then the minimum length of data from
the upper layer is 64 − 18 = 46 bytes.
 If the upper-layer packet is less than 46 bytes, padding is added to make up the difference.
 The standard defines the maximum length of a frame (without preamble and SFD field) as 1518
bytes.
 If we subtract the 18 bytes of header and trailer, the maximum length of the payload is 1500
bytes.
 The maximum length restriction has two historical reasons. First, memory was very expensive
when Ethernet was designed: a maximum length restriction helped to reduce the size of the
buffer. Second, the maximum length restriction prevents one station from monopolizing the
shared medium, blocking other stations that have data to send. 72
 Addressing
 Each station on an Ethernet network (such as a PC, workstation, or printer)
has its own network interface card (NIC).
 The NIC fits inside the station and provides the station with a 6-byte physical
address. (MAC Address or Physical address or Hardware address)

Example of an Ethernet address in hexadecimal notation

Addressing Types
 Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses
 A source address is always a unicast address—the frame comes from only one
station.
 The destination address, however, can be unicast, multicast, or broadcast.
 If the least significant bit of the first byte in a destination address is 0, the address
is unicast; otherwise, it is multicast.
 The broadcast destination address is a special case of the multicast address in
which all bits are 1s.

73
 Categories of Standard Ethernet

10Base5:

 Thick Ethernet The first implementation is called 10Base5, thick Ethernet, or

Thicknet.
 The nickname derives from the size of the cable, which is roughly the size of a
garden hose and too stiff to bend with your hands.
 10Base5 was the first Ethernet specification to use a bus topology with an
external transceiver (transmitter/receiver) connected via a tap to a thick
coaxial cable.

74
 10Base2:
 Thin Ethernet The second implementation is called 10Base2, thin Ethernet, or
Cheapernet.
 10Base2 also uses a bus topology, but the cable is much thinner and more flexible.
 The cable can be bent to pass very close to the stations. In this case, the transceiver is
normally part of the network interface card (NIC), which is installed inside the station

10Base-T:
 Twisted-Pair Ethernet The third implementation is called 10Base-T or twisted-pair
Ethernet.
 10Base-T uses a physical star topology.
 The stations are connected to a hub via two pairs of twisted cable.
 Note that two pairs of twisted cable create two paths (one for sending and one for
receiving) between the station and the hub.
 Any collision here happens in the hub. Compared to 10Base5 or 10Base2, we can see
that the hub actually replaces the coaxial cable as far as a collision is concerned.
 The maximum length of the twisted cable here is defined as 100 m, to minimize the
effect of attenuation in the twisted cable.
10Base-F:
 Fiber Ethernet Although there are several types of optical fiber 10-Mbps Ethernet,
the most common is called 10Base-F.
 10Base-F uses a star topology to connect stations to a hub.
 The stations are connected to the hub using two fiber-optic cable 75
 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

A wireless LAN or WLAN is a wireless local area network that uses radio waves as
its carrier.
The last link with the users is wireless, to give a network connection to all users in
a building or campus.
The backbone network usually uses cables

Integration with Existing Networks

Wireless Access Points (APs) - a

small device that bridges wireless
traffic to your network.
Most access points bridge wireless
LANs into Ethernet networks, but
Token-Ring options are available as
well.

76
 How are WLANs Different?

They use specialized physical and data link protocols

They integrate into existing networks through access points which provide a bridging
function
They let you stay connected as you roam from one coverage area to another
They have unique security considerations
They have specific interoperability requirements
They require different hardware
They offer performance that differs from wired LANs.

Classification of Wireless Networks

• Base Station :: all communication through an Access Point (AP)
{note hub topology}. Other nodes can be fixed or mobile.
• Infrastructure Wireless :: AP is connected to the wired Internet.
• Ad Hoc Wireless :: wireless nodes communicate directly with one
another.
• MANETs (Mobile Ad Hoc Networks) :: ad hoc nodes are mobile. 77
 Standardization of Wireless Networks
• Wireless networks are standardized by IEEE.
• Under 802 LAN MAN standards committee.

Application
Presentation
ISO
OSI Session IEEE 802
7-layer Transport standards
model Network Logical Link Control
Data Link Medium Access (MAC)

Physical Physical (PHY)

 Architecture of WLAN

The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic service set (BSS) and the
extended service set (ESS).

Basic Service Set

IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as the building blocks of a
wireless LAN. A basic service set is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and
an optional central base station, known as the access point (AP).

The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other
BSSs. It is called an ad hoc architecture. In this architecture, stations can form a network
without the need of an AP; they can locate one another and agree to be part of a BSS. A
BSS with an AP is sometimes referred to as an infrastructure BSS.
79
 Extended Service Set

 An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSs with APs.
 In this case, the BSSs are connected through a distribution system, which is a wired or a
wireless network.
 The distribution system connects the APs in the BSSs.
 IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution system; it can be any IEEE LAN such as an
Ethernet.
 The extended service set uses two types of stations: mobile and stationary. The mobile
stations are normal stations inside a BSS. The stationary stations are AP stations that are
part of a wired LAN.
 When BSSs are connected, the stations within reach of one another can communicate
without the use of an AP.
 However, communication between a station in a BSS and the outside BSS occurs via the
AP.

80
Station Types

 IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations based on their mobility in a

wireless LAN:
No-transition, BSS-transition, and ESS-transition mobility.
 A station with no-transition mobility is either stationary (not moving) or
moving only inside a BSS.
 A station with BSS-transition mobility can move from one BSS to
another, but the movement is confined inside one ESS.
 A station with ESS-transition mobility can move from one ESS to
another.

81
The 802.11 Protocol Stack

82
 Wireless Physical Layer
• Physical layer conforms to OSI
• 1997: 802.11 infrared, FHSS, DSSS {FHSS and DSSS run in the 2.4GHz band}
• 1999: 802.11a OFDM and 802.11b HR-DSSS
• 2001: 802.11g OFDM
• 802.11 Infrared
• Two capacities: 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps.
• Range is 10 to 20 meters and cannot penetrate walls.
• Does not work outdoors.
• 802.11 FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
• The main issue is multipath fading.
• The idea behind spread spectrum is to spread the signal over a wider frequency to
minimize the interference from other devices.
• 79 non-overlapping channels, each 1 Mhz wide at low end of 2.4 GHz ISM band.
• The same pseudo-random number generator used by all stations to start the
hopping process.
• Dwell time: min. time on channel before hopping (400msec).

83
• 802.11 DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
• The main idea is to represent each bit in the frame by multiple bits in the
transmitted signal (i.e., it sends the XOR of that bit and n random bits).
• Spreads signal over entire spectrum using pseudo-random sequence
• Each bit transmitted using an 11-bit chipping Barker sequence, PSK at
1Mbaud.
• This yields a capacity of 1 or 2 Mbps.

1
0 Data stream: 1010

1
0 Random sequence: 0100101101011001

1
0 XOR of the tw o: 1011101110101001

Figure Example 4-bit chipping sequence

84
• 802.11a OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Divisional Multiplexing)
• Compatible with European HiperLan2.
• 54 Mbps in wider 5.5 GHz band  transmission range is limited.
• Uses 52 FDM channels (48 for data; 4 for synchronization).
• Encoding is complex ( PSM up to 18 Mbps and QAM above this capacity).
• E.g., at 54 Mbps 216 data bits encoded into into 288-bit symbols.
• More difficulty penetrating walls.
• 802.11b HR-DSSS (High Rate Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
• 11a and 11b shows a split in the standards committee.
• 11b approved and hit the market before 11a.
• Up to 11 Mbps in 2.4 GHz band using 11 million chips/sec.
• Note in this bandwidth all these protocols have to deal with interference from
microwave ovens, cordless phones and garage door openers.
• Range is 7 times greater than 11a.
• 11b and 11a are incompatible!!
• 802.11g OFDM(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)
• An attempt to combine the best of both 802.11a and 802.11b.
• Supports bandwidths up to 54 Mbps.
• Uses 2.4 GHz frequency for greater range.
• Is backward compatible with 802.11b.

85
 MAC Sublayer
 IEEE 802.11 defines two MAC sublayer functions: the distributed coordination
function (DCF) and point coordination function (PCF).

Distributed Coordination Function

DCF uses CSMA/CA as the access method

1. Before sending a frame, the source station senses the medium by checking the
energy level at the carrier frequency.

a. The channel uses a persistence strategy with backoff until the channel is idle.
b. After the station is found to be idle, the station waits for a period of time called
the Distributed Interframe Space (DIFS); then the station sends a control
frame called the Request To Send (RTS).

2. After receiving the RTS and waiting a period of time called the Short Interframe
Space (SIFS), the destination station sends a control frame, called the Clear To
Send (CTS), to the source station. This control frame indicates that the destination
station is ready to receive data.

3. The source station sends data after waiting an amount of time equal to SIFS.

86
4. The destination station, after waiting
an amount of time equal to SIFS,
sends an acknowledgment to show
that the frame has been received.
Acknowledgment is needed
in this protocol because the station
does not have any means to check for
the successful arrival of its data at the
destination. On the other hand, the
lack of collision in CSMA/CD is a kind
of indication to the source that data
have arrived.

87
 Network Allocation Vector

 How is the collision avoidance aspect of this protocol accomplished? The key is a feature
called NAV.
 When a station sends an RTS frame, it includes the duration of time that it needs to occupy
the channel.
 The stations that are affected by this transmission create a timer called a network
allocation vector (NAV) that shows how much time must pass before these stations are
allowed to check the channel for idleness.
 Each time a station accesses the system and sends an RTS frame, other stations start
their NAV.
 In other words, each station, before sensing the physical medium to see if it is idle, first
checks its NAV to see if it has expired.

Collision During Handshaking

 What happens if there is a collision during the time when RTS or CTS control frames are in
transition, often called the handshaking period?
 Two or more stations may try to send RTS frames at the same time. These control frames
may collide.
 However, because there is no mechanism for collision detection, the sender assumes there
has been a collision if it has not received a CTS frame from the receiver.
 The backoff strategy is employed, and the sender tries again.
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 (a) Hidden Station Problem and (b)
Exposed Station Problem
• Since not all stations are within radio range of each other, transmissions going on in one part of
a cell may not be received elsewhere in the same cell.

• To deal with these problems, 802.11 supports two modes of operation: DCF and PCF.
 Point Coordination Function (PCF)

 The point coordination function (PCF) is an optional access method that can be
implemented in an infrastructure network (not in an ad hoc network).
 It is implemented on top of the DCF and is used mostly for time-sensitive transmission.
 PCF has a centralized, contention-free polling access method.
 The AP performs polling for stations that are capable of being polled.
 The stations are polled one after another, sending any data they have to the AP.
 To give priority to PCF over DCF, another interframe space, PIFS, has been defined.
 PIFS (PCF IFS) is shorter than DIFS.
 This means that if, at the same time, a station wants to use only DCF and an AP wants to
use PCF, the AP has priority.
 Due to the priority of PCF over DCF, stations that only use DCF may not gain access to the
medium.
 To prevent this, a repetition interval has been designed to cover both contention-free PCF
and contention-based DCF traffic.
 The repetition interval, which is repeated continuously, starts with a special control frame,
called a beacon frame.
 When the stations hear the beacon frame, they start their NAV for the duration of the
contention-free period of the repetition interval.
 During the repetition interval, the PC (point controller) can send a poll frame, receive data,
send an ACK, receive an ACK, or do any combination of these (802.11 uses piggybacking).
 At the end of the contention-free period, the PC sends a CF end (contention-free end)
frame to allow the contention-based stations to use the medium.
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 Fragmentation

 The wireless environment is very noisy, so frames are often corrupted.

 A corrupt frame has to be retransmitted.
 The protocol, therefore, recommends fragmentation - The division of a large
frame into smaller ones.
 It is more efficient to resend a small frame than a large one.

Frame Format

The MAC layer frame consists of nine fields, as shown in Figure

91
Frame control (FC).
The FC field is 2 bytes long and defines the type of frame and some
control information.

92
D. This field defines the duration of the transmission that is used to set the value
of NAV. In one control frame, it defines the ID of the frame.

Addresses. There are four address fields, each 6 bytes long. The meaning of
each address field depends on the value of the To DS and From DS subfields

Sequence control. This field, often called the SC field, defines a 16-bit value.
The first four bits define the fragment number; the last 12 bits define the
sequence number, which is the same in all fragments.

Frame body. This field, which can be between 0 and 2312 bytes, contains
information based on the type and the subtype defined in the FC field.

FCS. The FCS field is 4 bytes long and contains a CRC-32 error-detection
sequence.

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 Frame Types

A wireless LAN defined by IEEE 802.11 has three categories of frames:

management frames, control frames, and data frames.
Management Frames
Management frames are used for the initial communication between
stations and access points.
Control Frames
Control frames are used for accessing the channel and acknowledging
frames.

For control frames the value of the type field is 01; the values of the subtype fields
for frames

Data Frames - Data frames are used for carrying data and control information.
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 Addressing Mechanism
 The IEEE 802.11 addressing mechanism specifies four cases, defined by the
value of the two flags in the FC field, To DS and From DS.
 Each flag can be either 0 or 1, resulting in four different situations.
 The interpretation of the four addresses (address 1 to address 4) in the MAC
frame depends on the value of these flags

 Address 1 is always the address of the next device that the frame will visit.
 Address 2 is always the address of the previous device that the frame has left.
 Address 3 is the address of the final destination station if it is not defined by
address 1 or the original source station if it is not defined by address 2.
 Address 4 is the original source when the distribution system is also wireless.

95
 Case 1: 00 In this case, To DS = 0 and From DS = 0. This means that the
frame is not going to a distribution system (To DS = 0) and is not coming
from a distribution system (From DS = 0). The frame is going from one
station in a BSS to another without passing through the distribution system.

Case 2: 01 In this case, To DS = 0 and From DS = 1. This means that the frame is
coming from a distribution system (From DS = 1). The frame is coming from an AP
and going to a station. Note that address 3 contains the original sender of the
frame (in another BSS).

96
Case 3: 10 In this case, To DS = 1 and From DS = 0. This means that the frame
is going to a distribution system (To DS = 1). The frame is going from a station
to an AP. The ACK is sent to the original station. Note that address 3 contains the
final destination of the frame in the distribution system.

Case 4: 11 In this case, To DS = 1 and From DS = 1. This is the case in which

the distribution system is also wireless. The frame is going from one AP to
another AP in a wireless distribution system. Here, we need four addresses to
define the original sender, the final destination, and two intermediate APs.

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 Radio Frequency Identification RFID

 Is a method that is used to track or identify an object by radio transmission uses over
the web.
 Data digitally encoded in an RFID tag which might be read by the reader.
 This is device work as a tag or label during which data read from tags that are stored in
the database through the reader as compared to traditional barcodes and QR codes.
 It is often read outside the road of sight either passive or active RFID.

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 Types of RFID :

Based upon the battery used:

Passive RFID –
In this device, RF tags are not attached by a power supply and passive RF tag
stored their power. When it is emitted from active antennas and the RF tag
are used specific frequency like 125-134MHZ as low frequency, 13.56MHZ as
a high frequency and 856MHZ to 960MHZ as ultra-high frequency.

Active RFID –
In this device, RF tags are attached by a power supply that emits a signal and
there is an antenna which receives the data.

Based on Frequencies

 LF – Low frequency @ 125 khz

 HF: High frequency @ 13.56 Mhz
 UHF: Ultra high frequency @ 860 – 960 Mhz

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 UHF RHID (Ultra-High Frequency RFID)

 It is used on shipping pallets and some driver’s licenses.

 Readers send signals in the 902-928 MHz band.
 Tags communicate at distances of several meters by changing the way they
reflect the reader signals; the reader is able to pick up these reflections.
 This way of operating is called backscatter.
 Ranges - inches to 50ft +, depending on the strength of the RFID reader/
interrogator)
HF RFID (High-Frequency RFID)
 It operates at 13.56 MHz and is likely to be in your passport, credit cards,
books, and noncontact payment systems.
 HF RFID has a short-range, typically a meter or less because the physical
mechanism is based on induction rather than backscatter.
 Max read range is 3 feet to 1 meter

LF RFID(Low-Frequency RFID)
 Are ideal for reading metal objects or objects with high water content
such as fruit & veg/Animals.
 But the read rage is limited to inches or cm.
 It operates at 125 KHz
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 Working Principle of RFID :

 Generally, RFID uses radio waves to perform AIDC function.

 AIDC stands for Automatic Identification and Data Capture technology which
performs object identification and collection and mapping of the data.
 An antenna is an device which converts power into radio waves which are used for
communication between reader and tag.
 RFID readers retrieve the information from RFID tag which detects the tag and
reads or writes the data into the tag.
 It may include one processor, package, storage and transmitter and receiver unit.

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 An RFID system comprises a number of elements:

RFID reader / writer:

 The reader write is used to communicate with the tags that may pass within range.
 The RFID reader writer will normally be located in a fixed position and will be used to
interrogate an RFID tag.
 Dependent upon the application and the format of the system and the RFID reader /
writer, data may also be written to the RFID tag
RFID tag:
 RFID tags may also be called RFID transponders and are typically located on items
that are mobile.
 They are small and generally cheap so that they can be attached to low cost (or high
cost) items that need to have information associated with them.
 They are also generally considered as being disposable.
 The RFID tag contains data that is relayed to the reader, and in some systems it may
also be possible to update the data within the tag to indicate that the tag and hence the
item has undergone a specific stage in a process, etc.
RFID application software:
 Like all systems these days, RFID systems need application software to run the overall
system.
 With many systems there will be a number of different reader / writers and the data to
and from these needs to be coordinated and analyzed.
 Application software will be required for these.
Although each RFID system will vary according to its requirements, these are the
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main elements which can be found.
Features of RFID :
 An RFID tag consists of two-part which is an microcircuit and an antenna.
 This tag is covered by protective material which acts as a shield against the outer environment
effect.
 This tag may active or passive in which we mainly and widely used passive RFID.
Application of RFID :
 It utilized in tracking shipping containers, trucks and railroad, cars.
 It uses in Asset tracking.
 It utilized in credit-card shaped for access application.
 It uses in Personnel tracking.
 Controlling access to restricted areas.
 It uses ID badging.
 Supply chain management.
 Counterfeit prevention (e.g., in the pharmaceutical industry).
Advantages of RFID :
 It provides data access and real-time information without taking to much time.
 RFID tags follow the instruction and store a large amount of information.
 The RFID system is non-line of sight nature of the technology.
 It improves the Efficiency, traceability of production.
 In RFID hundred of tags read in a short time.
Disadvantages of RFID :
 It takes longer to program RFID Devices.
 RFID intercepted easily even it is Encrypted.
 In an RFID system, there are two or three layers of ordinary household foil to dam the radio wave.
 There is privacy concern about RFID devices anybody can access information about anything.
 Active RFID can costlier due to battery.
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 Wireless Sensor Networks
 Sensor networks are highly distributed networks of small, lightweight wireless
node, deployed in large numbers to monitor the environment or system.
 Each node of the sensor networks consist of three subsystem:
 Sensor subsystem: senses the environment
 Processing subsystem: performs local computations on the sensed data
 Communication subsystem: responsible for message exchange with neighboring sensor nodes
 The features of sensor nodes
 Limited sensing region, processing power, energy
 The advantage of sensor networks
 Robust : a large number of sensors
 Reliable :
 Accurate : sensor networks covering a wider region
 Fault-tolerant : many nodes are sensing the same event
 Two important operations in a sensor networks
 Data dissemination : the propagation of data/queries throughout the network
 Data gathering : the collection of observed data from the individual sensor nodes to a sink
 The different types of sensors
 Thermal, visual, infrared
 Applications of Sensor Networks

Using in military
Battlefield surveillance and monitoring, guidance systems of intelligent missiles,
detection of attack by weapons of mass destruction such as chemical, biological, or
nuclear
Using in nature
Forest fire, flood detection, habitat exploration of animals
Using in health
Monitor the patient’s heart rate or blood pressure, and sent regularly to alert the
concerned doctor, provide patients a greater freedom of movement
Using in home (smart home)
Sensor node can built into appliances at home, such as ovens, refrigerators, and vacuum
cleaners, which enable them to interact with each other and be remote-controlled
Using in office building
Airflow and temperature of different parts of the building can be automatically
controlled
Using in warehouse
Improve their inventory control system by installing sensors on the products to track
their movement
 Comparison with Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
Different from Ad Hoc wireless networks

 The number of nodes in sensor network can be several orders of magnitude

large than the number of nodes in an ad hoc network.
 Sensor nodes are more easy to failure and energy drain, and their battery
sources are usually not replaceable or rechargeable.
 Sensor nodes may not have unique global identifiers (ID), so unique addressing
is not always feasible in sensor networks.
 Sensor networks are data-centric, the queries in sensor networks are addressed
to nodes which have data satisfying some conditions. Ad Hoc networks are
address-centric, with queries addressed to particular nodes specified by their
unique address.
 Data fusion/aggregation: the sensor nodes aggregate the local information
before relaying. The goals are reduce bandwidth consumption, media access
delay, and power consumption for communication.
 Issues and Challenges in Designing a Sensor Network

Issues and Challenges

 Sensor nodes are randomly deployed and hence do not fit into any regular topology.
Once deployed, they usually do not require any human intervention. Hence, the setup
and maintenance of the network should be entirely autonomous.
 Sensor networks are infrastructure-less. Therefore, all routing and maintenance
algorithms need to be distributed.
 Energy problem
 Hardware and software should be designed to conserve power
 Sensor nodes should be able to synchronize with each other in a completely distributed
manner, so that TDMA schedules can be imposed.
 A sensor network should also be capable of adapting to changing connectivity due to the
failure of nodes, or new nodes powering up. The routing protocols should be able to
dynamically include or avoid sensor nodes in their paths.
 Real-time communication over sensor networks must be supported through provision of
guarantees on maximum delay, minimum bandwidth, or other QoS parameters.
 Provision must be made for secure communication over sensor networks, especially for
military applications which carry sensitive data.
 Sensor Network Architecture

The two basic kinds of sensor network architecture : Layered and Clustered
Layered Architecture
A layered architecture has a single powerful base station, and the layers of sensor
nodes around it correspond to the nodes that have the same hop-count to the BS.
In the in-building scenario, the BS acts an access point to a wired network, and small
nodes form a wireless backbone to provide wireless connectivity.
The advantage of a layered architecture is that each node is involved only in short-
distance, low-power transmissions to nodes of the neighboring layers.
 Unified Network Protocol Framework (UNPF)
UNPF is a set of protocols for complete implementation of a layered
architecture for sensor networks
UNPF integrates three operations in its protocol structure:
Network initialization and maintenance
MAC protocol
Routing protocol

Network initialization and Maintenance

 The BS broadcasts its ID using a known CDMA code on the common control channel.
 All node which hear this broadcast then record the BS ID. They send a beacon signal
with their own IDs at their low default power levels.
 Those nodes which the BS can hear will form layer one
 BS broadcasts a control packet with all layer one node IDs.
 All nodes send a beacon signal again.
 The layer one nodes record the IDs which they hear (form layer two) and inform the
BS of the layer two nodes IDs.
 Periodic beaconing updates neighbor information and change the layer structure if
nodes die out or move out of range.
 MAC protocol

 During the data transmission phase, the distributed TDMA receiver

oriented channel (DTROC) assignment MAC protocol is used.
 Two steps of DTROC :
Channel allocation : Each node is assigned a reception channel by the BS, and
channel reuse is such that collisions are avoided.
Channel scheduling : The node schedules transmission slots for all its
neighbors and broadcasts the schedule. This enables collision-free
transmission and saves energy, as nodes can turn off when they are not
involved on a send/receive operation.

Routing protocol
 Downlink from the BS is by direct broadcast on the control channel. Uplink
from the sensor nodes to BS is by multi-hop data forwarding.

 The node to which a packet is to be forwarded is selected considering the

remaining energy of the nodes. This achieves a higher network lifetime.
 Clustered Architecture

A clustered architecture organizes the

sensor nodes into clusters, each
governed by a cluster-head. The nodes
in each cluster are involved in message
exchanges with their cluster-heads, and
these heads send message to a BS.
Clustered architecture is useful for
sensor networks because of its inherent
suitability for data fusion.
The data gathered by all member of the
cluster can be fused at the cluster-head,
and only the resulting information
needs to be communicated to the BS.
The cluster formation and election of
cluster-heads must be an autonomous,
distributed process.
 Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH)

 LEACH is a clustering-based protocol that minimizes energy dissipation in sensor networks.

The operation of LEACH is spilt into two phases : setup and steady.
 Setup phase : each sensor node chooses a random number between 0 and 1. If this is lower
than the threshold for node n, T(n), the sensor node becomes a cluster-head. The threshold
T(n) is calculated as
𝑃
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 ∈ 𝐺
𝑇 𝑛 = ቐ 1−𝑃 ( 𝑟×𝑚𝑜𝑑(1Τ𝑃)
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
 P : the percentage of nodes which are cluster-heads
 r : the current round
 G : the set of nodes that has not been cluster-heads in the past 1/P rounds
 After selection, the cluster-heads advertise their selection to all nodes. All nodes choose
their nearest cluster-head by signal strength (RSSI). The cluster-heads then assign a TDMA
schedule for their cluster members.
 Steady phase : data transmission takes place based on the TDMA schedule, and the cluster-
heads perform data aggregation/fusion.
 After a certain period of time in the steady phase, cluster-heads are selected again
through the setup phase.
 Data Dissemination
Data dissemination is the process by which queries or data are routed in the
sensor network. The data collected by sensor nodes has to be communicated to
the node which interested in the data.
The node that generates data is call source and the information to be reported is
called an event. A node which interested in an event is called sink.
Data dissemination consist of a two-step process : interest propagation and data
propagation.
Interest propagation : for every event that a sink is interested in, it broadcasts its
interest to is neighbor, and across the network.
Data dissemination : When an event is detected, it reported to the interested nodes
(sink).
Flooding
Each node which receives a packet (queries/data) broadcasts it if the maximum hop-
count of the packet is not reached and the node itself is not the destination of the
packet.
Disadvantages :
Implosion : this is the situation when duplicate messages are send to the same node. This
occurs when a node receives copies of the same messages from many of its neighbors.
Overlap : the same event may be sensed by more than one node due to overlapping
regions of coverage. This results in their neighbors receiving duplicate reports of the same
event.
Resource blindness : the flooding protocol does not consider the available energy at the
nodes and results in many redundant transmissions. Hence, it reduces the network
lifetime.
 Gossiping
 Modified version of flooding
 The nodes do not broadcast a packet, but send it to a randomly selected neighbor.
 Avoid the problem of implosion
 It takes a long time for message to propagate throughout the network.
 It does not guarantee that all nodes of network will receive the message.

Rumor Routing

 Agent-based path creation algorithm

 Agent is a long-lived packet created at random by nodes, and it will die after visit k
hops.
 It circulated in the network to establish shortest paths to events that they encounter.
 When an agent finds a node whose path to an event is longer than its own, it
updates the node’s routing table.
 MAC Protocols for Sensor Networks
The challenges posed by sensor network MAC protocol
 No single controlling authority, so global synchronization is difficult
 Power efficiency issue
 Frequent topology changes due to mobility and failure
There are three kinds of MAC protocols used in sensor network
 Fixed-allocation
 Demand-based
 Contention-based
Fixed-allocation MAC protocol
 Share the common medium through a predetermined assignment.
 It is suitable for sensor network that continuously monitor and generate deterministic data traffic
 Provide a bounded delay for each node
 However, in the case of bursty traffic, where the channel requirements of each node may vary over
time, it may lead to inefficient usage of the channel
Demand-based MAC protocol
 Used in such cases, where the channel is allocated according to the demand of the node
 Variable rate traffic can be efficiently transmitted
 Require the additional overhead of a reservation process
Contention-based MAC protocol
 Random-access-based contention for the channel when packets need to be transmitted
 Suitable for bursty traffic
 Collisions and no delay guarantees, are not suitable for delay-sensitive or real-time traffic
 Quality of a Sensor Network
 The purpose of a sensor network is to monitor and report events take
place in a particular area.
 Hence, the main parameters which define how well the network
observes a given area “coverage” and “exposure”.
Coverage
 Coverage is a measure of how well the network can observe or cover an
event.
 The worst-case coverage defines area of breach, where coverage is the
poorest. This can used to improve the deployment of network.
 The best-case coverage defines the areas of best coverage.
 A path along the areas of best coverage is called maximum support path or
maximum exposure path.
Exposure
 Exposure is defined as the expected ability of observing a target in the sensor
field.
 GENERIC NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

Consider the generic WSN depicted in Figure 1. It has 17 sense nodes and 2 sink
nodes. The sink node connection to the outside network may be a wired or wireless
link.

117
 Single-hop network architecture

 A simple method to have nodes participate in the WSN is the single-hop network
architecture as shown in Figure 2.
 In the single-hop architecture the nodes have the ability to communicate with sink
nodes but not with other nodes.
 Some nodes in the figure are unconnected to the sink nodes because they are out
of range so they cannot participate in the WSN with this simple architecture.
 This is a disadvantage of the single-hop architecture.
 In order to access the nodes that are further away from the sink nodes, it is
necessary to alter the network architecture so that those nodes can participate.
 Altering the network architecture consist of changing the behavior of nodes. This
is normally done by changing the software stack running on a node.

118
 Cluster multi-hop network architecture
 With the network architecture shown in Figure 3, some nodes have been assigned to
function as cluster nodes. The cluster nodes provide the following additional abilities;
 To aggregate data from other nodes.
 To disseminate data to other nodes.
 To perform a multi-hop routing function. Because of the multi-hop function of the cluster
nodes, almost all the nodes in the network are now reachable and can participate in the
WSN.
 However one node is out of range from any cluster node so it cannot participate in the WSN.
 If any one of the cluster nodes is unreachable or unavailable, then the network will lose
connectivity with any nodes that are associated with that cluster node.

119
 Mesh multi-hop network architecture

 In the network architecture shown in Figure 4, all of the nodes have the ability to
communicate with multiple neighbouring nodes and also have the ability to
aggregate, disseminate and multi-hop data through the network.
 Now all the nodes in the network are reachable.
 If a communication link between any nodes is unavailable due to malfunction or
mobility, there may be an alternative path through the network for communication
with one of the sink nodes.

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 The advantage of multi-hop communications

 The nodes in a WSN will generally have severe energy constraints, primarily due to their
power source being a battery.
 Therefore it is important to see the benefit of a multi-hop WSN architecture. The radio
communications over a link between nodes is relatively expensive in terms of power.
 The communications of 1-bit of information over a radio link is equivalent to the execution of
1000 to 3000 instructions on a microprocessor
 In a line of sight radio system, the losses are mainly due to free-space path loss (FSPL); the
following equation which describes that path loss is due to Friis

 So if the distance reduced by a factor of two but all other factors remain unchanged, then
d = d/2, so the FSPL will change by,

 This change of -6 dB is a four-fold reduction in power required for the link.

 This means a sensor node needs a quarter of the transmit power to communicate over half
the distance.
 This means that multi-hop networking is more efficient in terms of transmit power and the
expense of more nodes.
 A node in any WSN could use a routing table with range to neighbouring nodes as a metric
to control the transmit power to the minimum it requires to reliably communicate with that
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