FIREFIGHTING

Muhammed Ijas K.M

[email protected]
FIRE
 Rapid oxidisation of materials with evolution of heat and light.
 An exothermic chemical reaction resulting from the combination of fuel, heat and
oxygen.

FLAME
 Visible portion of fire.
 It is a mixture of reacting gases and solids.
 It emits visible, infrared or UV light - frequency spectrum depends on chemical
composition of burning materials and intermediate reaction products.

FIRE TRIANGLE
 Fire = Fuel + Heat + Oxygen
 Fire can be controlled by taking away any one of the three components of the fire
triangle.
 Removal of fuel → Starvation
 Removal of oxygen → Smothering
 Removal of heat → Cooling
Starvation
 Removal of fuel
 Fuels: All combustible materials like wood, dry leaves, oil, flammable gases, etc.

Rates of combustion
Solid fuel - Slow
Liquid fuel - Rapid
Gaseous fuel - Spontaneous

Smothering
Removal of Oxygen

Cooling
 Removal of heat
 Cooling process is mainly carried out using water.
STAGES OF FIRE
1. Incipient stage
2. Growth stage
3. Fully developed stage
4. Decay stage

Incipient Stage
 Beginning stage
 Fires in this initial stage can be extinguished or controlled by portable firefighting
equipment.
 Flames are small and aren’t widespread.
 No visible smoke.
 The heat emitted from the flame is low in comparison with later stages.

Growth Stage
 During the growth stage, a fire increases in size from small flames to full fire that
involves the entire room.
 It may take several seconds to several hours for this to occur depending upon:-
 Combustible content (fuel load).
 Oxygen supply (ventilation openings).
 Size of room.
 Insulation of room.
 It is between the growth and the fully developed stages of fire when a flashover
occurs.
 Flashover is defined as the sudden involvement of a room or area in flames from
floor to ceiling caused by thermal radiation feedback.

Fully developed stage

 In the fully developed stage the entire room and contents are involved in fire.
 The temperature will be at its highest point (700°-1200°C).
 If no efforts are made to extinguish the fire, the fire would continue to burn until
the available fuel and/or oxygen in the room or area is consumed.

Decay stage
 Final stage of fire
 This stage occurs after the fully developed flame starts to run out of fuel or oxygen.
 Fires can be forced into the decay stage by reducing oxygen supply with firefighting
equipment.
 It is critical during this phase to limit the fire’s access to combustible material and
oxygen due to chances of re-ignition.
TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
 Heat flows from hot area to cold area.
 3 types of transmission:
 Conduction: Heat transfer through a body due to molecular action. Eg. Heat
transfer through a metal rod.
 Convection: Heat transfer resulting from movement of fluids. Eg. Heat transfer
between wall and surrounding air.
 Radiation: Heat transfer that occurs between 2 separate bodies by means of
electromagnetic radiation (wave motion). Eg. Heat transfer from sun to earth’s
surface.

FLASH POINT
Flash point is the lowest temperature at which the vapours of a volatile material ignites
when we provide an ignition source.

FIRE POINT
Fire point is the lowest temperature at which the vapours of a fuel can continue to burn
for atleast a short period of time (5 seconds) after the ignition has started.
LOWER EXPLOSIVE LIMIT (LEL)
The lower explosive limit (LEL) is the minimum concentration of a specific combustible
gas required to fire combustion when in contact with oxygen (air). If the concentration
of the gas is below the LEL value, the mix between the gas and the air is too weak to
spark.

UPPER EXPLOSIVE LIMIT (UEL)

The upper explosive limit (UEL) is the maximum level of concentration of the gas that
will burn when mixed with oxygen; when the gas concentration is above the UEL value
for the gas/vapor, the mix is too strong to ignite or explode.

AUTO IGNITION TEMPERATURE

The auto-ignition temperature or kindling point of a substance is the lowest
temperature at which it spontaneously ignites in a normal atmosphere without an
external source of ignition, such as a flame or spark. Auto ignition takes place in
between its LEL and UEL.
CATEGORIES OF FIRE
 Class A fires: Ordinary combustible materials such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber,
etc.
 Class B fires: Flammable/combustible liquids and gases. Eg. petroleum, greases, tars,
oils, paints, solvents, alcohol, methane, hydrogen etc.
 Class C fires: Fires involving electrical equipment.
 Class D fires: Fires involving combustible metals such as Al, Mg, Na, Ti, Zr, Li, K, etc.
 Class K/F fires: Fires involving cooking appliances that involve combustible cooking
media like vegetable oil, animal fats, etc.

FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
 Used to control or extinguish small or incipient stage fires.
 Used to protect evacuation routes that is blocked directly or indirectly by fire.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER TYPES
PRESSURISED WATER
 Class A Fires only.
 Maximum effective range: 30-40 ft
 2.5 gal discharged in 1 min.
 Can be started and stopped as necessary.
 Cooling process
 Placement: 75 ft or less

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

 Class B and C fires.
 Maximum effective range: 3-8 ft
 2.5-100 lb of CO2
 8-30s discharge time
 Smothering process
 No pressure gauge (liquefied CO2)
 Placement: 50 ft or less
Note:
 After CO2 dissipates, fire may reignite.
 Never use CO2 extinguishers in a confined space.

DRY CHEMICAL POWDER (DCP)

 Class A, B and C fires
 Maximum effective range: 5-20 ft
 Mono ammonium Phosphate → non-conductive, mildly corrosive
 Sensitive to electronic equipment as it is mildly corrosive.
 8-25s discharge time
 Has pressure gauge for inspection.
 Smothering process
 Placement: Based on class A or B hazard

CLASS D FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

 Class D fire extinguisher uses dry powder.
 The powder agent used may be either powdered graphite, granular sodium chloride
or copper.
 Smothering process
 These extinguishers are designated for metal powder, flakes, chips, etc. of
combustible metals.
 The heat of the fire causes the dry powder to form an exterior crust. This crust
excludes air and results in extinguishment.
 Has a pressure gauge
 Placement: <75 ft
Note:
 Metal fires often burn at more than 2500℃.
 It is hot enough to disassemble water into its component parts, and one of those
parts is hydrogen gas, which is not only flammable but explosive.
 Some burning metals can react with CO2 to fuel the flames.
 A CO2 fire extinguisher not only might make the fire worse, but the blast of air can
also send flaming metal dust flying in all directions.

FOAM FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

 Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) - most common.
 Class A & B fires.
 Smothering process.
 Sizes available: 2L, 3L, 6L and 9L.

CLASS K FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

 These fire extinguishers work on the principle of saponification.
 Saponification takes place when alkaline mixtures are applied to burning cooking oil
or fat.
 The alkaline mixture combined with the fatty acid creates a soapy foam on the
surface that holds in the vapors and steam and extinguishes the fire.
 Potassium acetate, potassium citrate, or potassium carbonate.
 Has pressure gauge
 Electrical power to the kitchen appliances should be cut off as class K fire
extinguishers are electrically conductive.
 Placement: <30 ft to cooking area
FIRE EXTINGUISHER COLOUR CODING

EXTINGUISHING A FIRE

Note: Do not touch the plastic discharge nozzle on a CO2 extinguisher. It gets cold and
may damage our skin.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER INSPECTION
 Position of fire extinguisher - easy access and visibility
 Pressure gauge in operable range.
 Safety seal or tamper indicator.
 Mechanical damage to cylindrical shell, nozzle, handle or pressure gauge.
 Corrosion of cylindrical shell, pressure gauge or name plate.
 Obstructions blocking hose or nozzle opening.
 Name plate and instructions should be legible.
 Hydrostatic test date

HYDROSTATIC TESTING OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

 Hydrostatic testing is completed on rechargeable fire extinguisher tanks to evaluate
the cylinder’s ability to hold pressure.
 Hydrostatic testing consists of visual inspection, pressure testing, re-pressurization,
re-installation of safety components such as the tamper seals etc.
 It checks for leaks and overall strength, and is completed to ensure the safety and
effectiveness of a pressurized fire extinguisher.
 Testing frequency:
 A, B, C, D → once every 12 years
 K → once every 5 years
COMMON CODES
 NFPA - National Fire Protection Association
 NBC - National Building Code
 FSAI - Fire & Security Association of India
 NFPA 1 - Uniform Fire Code
 NFPA 10 - Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers
 NFPA 11 - Standard for Low, Medium and High Expansion Foam
 NFPA 12 - Standard on Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems
 NFPA 13 - Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems
 NFPA 14 - Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems
 NFPA 20 - Standard for the Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection
 NFPA 22 - Standard for Water Tanks for Private Fire Protection
 NFPA 25 - Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based
Fire Protection Systems
 NFPA 92 - Standard for Smoke Control Systems
 NFPA 2001 - Standard on Clean Agent Fire Extinguishing Systems

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Active Fire Protection Systems
 Active fire protection requires action to be taken to detect and alert, stop or contain
a fire.
 Manual and automatic methods of controlling fire.
 Manual control involves a person taking a manual action, such as using a portable
fire extinguisher, standpipe systems, etc.
 Automatic control includes detectors like smoke detector that triggers an alarm or
automatic sprinkler.
Passive Fire Protection Systems
 PFP attempts to contain fires or slow down the spread through use of fire–resistant
walls, floors and fire rated doors.
 PFP systems are known as building materials that are always present and available
within the building, placed and located evenly in every floor of the building.
 These materials do not rely on the operation of any mechanical device in order to
be activated or triggered, but it does need to be correctly installed and used
properly.
FIRE SPRINKLER SYSTEM
Fire sprinkler system is an active fire protection system, consisting of a water supply
system, providing adequate pressure and flow of water through a distribution piping
system, onto which fire sprinklers are connected.
Sprinkler Head
It is a part of a fire sprinkler system that discharges water when the effects of a fire have
been detected, such as when a predetermined temperature has been reached.
System Riser
The horizontal or vertical pipe above ground between water supply and mains that
contains a control valve, pressure gauge, drain and water flow alarm device.
Branch Lines
Pipes supplying sprinkler heads.
Cross Mains
The pipes supplying the branch lines, either directly or through riser nipples

Riser Nipple
A vertical pipe between the cross main and branch line.
Return Bend
The purpose of a return bend, also known as gooseneck, is to prevent the accumulation
of sediment, mineral deposits, and pipe scale in the pipe drop to a fire sprinkler.
Arm over
A horizontal pipe that extends from the branch line to a single sprinkler or a sprinkler
above and below a ceiling.
SPRINKLER HEAD
SPRINKLER HEAD WORKING
 The glass bulb contains a liquid with high coefficient of expansion.
 Heat causes this liquid to expand and the glass bulb breaks to activate the sprinkler.

SPRINKLER CHARACTERISTICS
1. SPRINKLER IDENTIFICATION NUMBER (SIN)
2. THERMAL SENSITIVITY
3. SPRINKLER DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS (K-FACTOR)
4. TEMPERATURE RATING
5. INSTALLATION ORIENTATION

1. SPRINKLER IDENTIFICATION NUMBER (SIN)

 SIN consists of one or two characters identifying the manufacturer, followed by
three or four digits to uniquely identify a sprinkler characteristic such as K-factor,
deflector characteristic, pressure rating, and thermal sensitivity.
 The three or four numbers are the model numbers and are set by the manufacturer
themselves.
 Eg. C/CS - Central Sprinkler, F/G - Grinnell Corporation, S - Star Sprinkler Inc., TY -
Tyco, etc.

2. THERMAL SENSITIVITY
 A measure of the rapidity with which the thermal element operates as installed in a
specific sprinkler or sprinkler assembly.
 One measure of thermal sensitivity is the Response Time Index (RTI).
 For RTI of 50√ms or less, sprinkler is defined as fast response or quick response.
 For RTI of 80√ms or more, Sprinkler is defined as standard response.
 For RTI greater than 50 and less than 80√ms, sprinkler is defined as special response.
3. SPRINKLER DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS
 The k-factor for a fire sprinkler is the discharge coefficient, or in normal terms,
relates to the amount of water that is permitted through the sprinkler.
 The k-factor is dependent upon the orifice diameter of the sprinkler.
 A low k-factor (such as K2.8) restricts the flow of water, while a larger k-factor (such
as K22.4, K25.2, or K28.0) permit much more water to flow through.

4. TEMPERATURE RATING

5. INSTALLATION ORIENTATION
Pendent sprinkler
 Hangs down from the ceiling.
 Sprays water downward in circular pattern to maximize coverage.
 Ideal for offices, hotels, and factories etc.
Upright sprinkler
 Sprays water upward in a hemispherical pattern.
 Useful in buildings with exposed ceilings like mechanical rooms or hard to reach
places like beams and ducts.
Sidewall sprinkler
 Mounted on the side of wall, only have half of a deflector.
 Sprays water in half circle/crescent shape.
 Great for small rooms, hallways, etc.
Concealed sprinkler
 Are located within the ceiling and are hidden by a cover plate.
 Works similar to a pendent sprinkler head after the cover plate falls off once it
reaches 20˚ lower than fire sprinkler temperature.
 Ideal for places where aesthetic is a concern.
Recessed sprinkler
 Recessed sprinkler heads remain exposed and surrounded by a disc-shaped
escutcheon.
 Like concealed sprinklers, these are also used at places where aesthetic is a concern.
TYPES OF FIRE SPRINKLER SYSTEMS
1. Wet Pipe System
2. Dry Pipe System
3. Deluge System
4. Pre-action System

WET PIPE SYSTEM

 Occupancies with temperature above 0℃
 Most commonly used
 Pipes are always filled with water.
 Heat from fire opens sprinkler heads (usually 1 or 2).
 Water flows until it is shut off.
 The open sprinkler heads are replaced and system is reset.
 Gauges are provided on supply and system sides to register pressure.
 Main drain valve: Drains the system for maintenance.
 The alarm check valves help to minimize corrosion by limiting the pressure within
the pipes. Once alarm is activated, the alarm check valves will open, allowing the
full pressure of water to fill the system.
 Inspector’s test valve: used to stimulate flow from a single head and measure
system response.
DRY PIPE SYSTEM
 Occupancies with temperature <0℃ and >100℃.
 Used where water freezing or water evaporation is possible.
 Difficult to design and harder to reset than wet pipe systems.
 Pipes are filled with pressurized air or gas.
 Heat from fire opens sprinkler heads (usually 1 or 2).
 Air pressure drops in the piping and opens a water valve (clapper valve).
 Water fills the pipes and exits through open sprinkler heads.
 Water flows until it is shut off.
 The open sprinkler heads are replaced and system is reset.
 The valve room in a dry pipe system must be heated.
 Clapper valve: It is the interface between the air and the water within a dry pipe
system. Its purpose is to remain closed when air pressure is sufficient in the system,
and open when the air pressure falls.
 Dry pipe systems are slower to activate than wet pipe systems. So most systems
have either an exhauster or accelerator to speed up the system.
 Exhauster: It detects decrease in air pressure and helps bleed off air.
 Accelerator: It detects decrease in air pressure and speeds up opening of the
clapper valve.

DELUGE SYSTEM
 Used where rapid fire spread may occur (high hazard applications). Eg. petroleum
facilities, industries that deals with hazardous materials, etc.
 Pipes are not filled with water or gas.
 All sprinkler heads are pre-opened.
 A signal from a detecting device mechanically opens a water valve.
 Water fills the pipes and flows from all heads.
 Water flows until shut off and the system is reset.
 Activation will cause great quantities of water or foam to flow.
 Requires several detectors to activate before discharging.
PRE-ACTION SYSTEM
 Used where water damage by accidental activation is not tolerated. Eg. archival
vaults, fine art storage rooms, rare book libraries, computer centers, etc.
 Pipes are not filled with water.
 All sprinkler heads are closed.
 A detection device opens a water valve and pipes are filled with water.
 Water only flows from a sprinkler head only if it is opened by sensing heat from fire.
 Water flows until shut off and system is reset.

FOAM
Made up of 3 ingredients - water, foam concentrate and air. When mixed in the correct
proportions, these three ingredients form a homogeneous foam blanket which can be
used for smothering process.
FOAM CONCENTRATE: A liquid concentrate supplied by the manufacturer which when
mixed with water in the correct proportion forms a foam solution.
FOAM SOLUTION: A solution of water and foam concentrate after they have been
mixed together in the correct proportions.
FINISHED FOAM: Foam solution as it exits a discharge device, having been aerated.
EXPANSION RATE: Volume of finished foam divided by the volume of foam solution
used to create the finished foam. Eg. a ratio of 5:1 would mean that one gallon of foam
solution after aeration would fill an empty 5-gallon container with the expanded foam
mass.
LOW EXPANSION FOAM: Foam aerated to an expansion ratio of between 2:1 and 20:1.
MEDIUM EXPANSION FOAM: Expansion ratio between 20:1 and 200:1.
HIGH EXPANSION FOAM: Expansion ratio above 200:1.
MIXING RATE: Correct amount of foam concentrate to be mixed with water. The
amount is normally shown on the container of the concentrate. Normal figures shown
are 1%, 2%, 3% or 6%. If the container of foam concentrate has 3% shown, it means that
for every 100 gallons of foam solution required, 3 gallons of the foam concentrate must
be used in the solution with the balance being 97 gallons of water.

SPRINKLER SYSTEM LAYOUTS

Tree/Dead End Layout
A sprinkler system in which cross mains and branch lines are supplied by and extend
from a single system riser in a pattern in which pipe diameters get progressively smaller
and branch lines are not tied together.

Gridded Layout
A sprinkler system in which parallel cross mains are connected by multiple branch lines,
causing an operating sprinkler to receive water from both ends of its branch line while
other branch lines help transfer water between cross mains.
Looped Layout
A sprinkler system in which multiple cross mains are tied together so as to provide more
than one path for water to flow to an operating sprinkler and branch lines are not tied
together.

Classification of sprinkler system based on occupancy

1. Light Hazard
2. Ordinary Hazard (Group 1)
3. Ordinary Hazard (Group 2)
4. Extra Hazard (Group 1)
5. Extra Hazard (Group 2)

1. Light Hazard
 Spaces where the quantity of combustibles is low and/or the combustibility of
contents is low.
 Spaces which would result in relatively low rates of heat release if ignited.
 Consist of animal shelters, educational institutions, meeting rooms, healthcare
facilities, churches, residential areas, auditoriums and theaters (aside from
prosceniums and stages), seating areas in restaurants, offices, and data processing.
2. Ordinary Hazard (Group 1)
 Spaces in which the combustibility of materials present is low and the quantity is
moderate, with no stockpiles of combustible material exceeding 8 feet (2.4 meters).
 Spaces in which a fire would release moderate rates of heat.
 Examples of spaces with this classification include mechanical plants, laundries,
food processing facilities or other manufacturing operations.

3. Ordinary Hazard (Group 2)

 Spaces where the quantity and combustibility of contents are moderate to high, and
which may have stockpiles of materials up to 12 feet high (3.7 meters).
 Spaces that could release moderate rates of heat when ignited.
 Examples of this occupancy include distilleries, barns and stables, dry cleaners,
libraries, machine rooms, and auto repair shops.

4. Extra Hazard (Group 1)

 Spaces where the quantity and combustibility of contents are very high and dust,
lint, or other materials are present, which introduce the probability of fires that
burn hot and spread fast.
 Examples include upholstery shops, sawmills, plywood manufacturers, or textile
factories.
 This classification include spaces with little or no combustible or flammable liquids.
The classification is primarily based on the presence of highly combustible solids.

5. Extra Hazard (Group 2)

 Spaces in which moderate to substantial amounts of flammable or combustible
liquids are routinely present.
 Examples of these include plastic manufacturing operations, steel manufacturing,
and automobile paint spray booths.

SPRINKLER DESIGN
 Max. floor area on any floor to be protected by sprinklers, supplied by any one
sprinkler system riser or combined system riser shall be as follows:
 Light hazard - 52000ft2 (4831m2)
 Ordinary hazard - 52000ft2 (4831m2)
 Extra hazard - 40000ft2 (3716m2)

 Protection area for sprinklers,

As = SxL

S → Distance b/w sprinklers in the branch

L → Distance b/w branches
 The maximum protection area is,
 Light hazard - 225ft2 (20.9m2)

Ordinary hazard - 130ft2

Extra hazard - 100ft2
 The maximum spacing between sprinklers,
 Light hazard - 15ft
 Ordinary hazard - 15ft
 Extra hazard - 12ft
 The minimum distance between sprinklers should be 6ft (1.8m)
 The distance from sprinklers to the end walls shall not exceed ½ of the allowable
distance between sprinklers.
 The distance between sprinkler deflector and ceiling shall be a minimum of 1 inch
(25.4mm) and a maximum of 12 inches (305mm).

PIPE FRICTION LOSS

STANDPIPE SYSTEMS
 A series of pipes which connect a water supply to hose connections.
 They are designed to provide a pre-piped water system for building occupants or
the fire department.
 Strategically placed at locations where it is easily accessible.
Class I
 Provides a 2½ inch hose connection.
 Basically known as landing valve.
 This class has no hose attached.
 The fire department will usually carry hose packs to the floor level.
 The connections must match the hose thread utilized by the fire department.

Class II
 Provides 1½ inch hose station to supply water.
 Each hose station should be within:
 130ft length for 1½ inch hose.
 120ft length for less than 1½ inch hose.
Class III
Provides a 1½ inch hose station to supply water and a 2½ inch hose connection to supply
a larger volume of water.

Design Considerations
 For Class I and III standpipes:
 Flow rate should be 500 GPM for the most hydraulically remote standpipe.
 250 GPM for each additional standpipe.
 Minimum 100 psi at the hose valves outlet.
 For Class II standpipes:
 Flow rate should be 100 GPM for the most hydraulically remote standpipe.
 Minimum 65psi at the hose valves outlet.
 The minimum pipe size for Class I and III standpipes is 4 inches (100 mm).
 If the standpipe is part of a combined sprinkler system in a partially sprinklered
building, that is increased to 6 inches (150 mm).
 The branch lines of the standpipe system cannot be smaller than 2-2½ inches (65
mm).
FIRE DEPARTMENT CONNECTION (FDC)
 FDC is found on most sprinkler and standpipe systems.
 In the event of a fire, the emergency responders can connect a hose line from their
pumper truck to the FDC and pump additional water into the fire sprinkler system
to ensure sufficient water and pressure to suppress the fire in the building
effectively.

FIRE HYDRANTS
Fire hydrants operate by allowing your local firefighters to quickly tap into your water
utility's pressurized water system.
Types
WET BARREL HYDRANTS
Used in areas where freezing is not an issue. This is because all of the mechanical parts
are located above ground.
DRY BARREL HYDRANTS
In dry barrel hydrants, the water valve for the hydrant is far below ground in the
hydrant's base. As the entire water system is below the frost line, no water remains in
the hydrant's system after it's been used.
ZONE CONTROL VALVE (ZCV)
 Zone control valve is a combined unit of 4 parts: signal butterfly valve, water flow
indicator, pressure gauge and test & drain valve.
 They are assembled on fire pipeline to separate the fire area into small distribution
zone for indication and maintenance purposes.
 When fire sprinkler or test valve activates, the indicator detects water flow and
transmits signal to control system.
 After fire suppression, butterfly valve gets signal and shut down the water flow for
recovering the system.
FM-200 FIRE SUPPRESSION SYSTEM
 FM-200 is a clean agent fire suppressant for Class A, B, and C fires and meets NFPA
Standard 2001 Clean Agent Fire Extinguishing Systems.
 Clean agents are fast and effective in suppressing fires, are safe in occupied spaces,
and do not leave a residue.
 The chemical name for FM-200 is 1,1,1,2,3,3,3-Heptafluoropropane. It is also
referred to as hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) 227ea.
 FM-200 uses Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) to suppress fires, which is not as eco-
friendly as other clean agents.
 This system is used mostly in rooms with electrical equipment. Eg. Server rooms

GAS SUPPRESSION SYSTEMS

 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Clean agents, including HFC-227ea (FM200) and FK-5-1-12 (Novec 1230)
 Inert Gases, including Inergen - composition of nitrogen, argon and carbon dioxide
 Halons

FIRE STRATEGY PLAN

 A fire strategy is a complex document specifically tailored to a building, reviewing all
aspects of the building’s fire safety features including construction,
compartmentation strategy, means of escape and other fire safety
features/measures.
 Fire strategies should only be developed by a competent person with
comprehensive training and experience.
 It includes:
 Means of warning
 Means of escape
 Internal fire spread/passive fire protection
 External fire spread
 Access/facilities for the FRS
 Use of sprinkler or other suppression systems
 Smoke control and ventilation systems

FIRE WATER PUMPS

 Positive Displacement Pump
 Centrifugal Pump
 Horizontal and vertical split case
 Vertical inline
 Vertical turbine
 End suction
 Jockey Pump
 IC (Diesel) Engine Pump
Positive Displacement Pump
 Positive displacement pumps include gear pumps, piston pumps, plunger pumps,etc.
 A fixed volume of fluid is drawn into the pump, pressurized, and discharged at high
pressure into the line.

Centrifugal Pump
 Most commonly used.
 Works on the principle of centrifugal force.
 Centrifugal fire pumps shall have one of these rated capacities: 25, 50, 100, 150,
200, 250, 300, 400, 450, 500, 750, 1000, 1250, 1500, 2000, 2500, 3000, 3500, 4000,
4500, or 5000 gpm.
 Rated at net pressures of 40psi (2.7 bar) or more.

Horizontal and Vertical Split Case

 Its casing is divided into two distinct chambers
 The casing can be split vertically or horizontally, relative to the impeller, which gives
you either a vertical split case or a horizontal split case pump, respectively.
Vertical inline
 Designed for vertical installation.
 Their suction and delivery are inline to provide a smooth flow of liquid through the
system.
 Applications where space is an issue as its horizontal alternative can take up to 2-3
times more space.
 Used commonly for the transfer of low viscosity fluids.

Vertical turbine
 Designed to transport fluid from a reservoir that is often deep underground.
 These pumps are connected to a surface motor through the use of a long vertical
shaft.
End suction
 Centrifugal Pump where the suction is axial and the discharge is at 90 degrees to
the suction.
 They are almost always single stage pumps - only one impeller.
 Most common and least expensive centrifugal pump.
 Variety of sizes, materials of construction, and designs are offered by manufacturers.
 It can handle everything from water at ambient temperature to high pressure and
high temperature viscous oils, abrasive slurries, and corrosive chemicals.

Jockey Pump
 A jockey pump is a small pump connected to a fire sprinkler system to maintain
pressure in the sprinkler pipes.
 This is to ensure that if a fire-sprinkler is activated, there will be a pressure drop,
jockey pump would be activated to overcome this pressure drop.
 Its power will be 1% of the main pump.
IC (Diesel) Engine Pumps
 Uses diesel as fuel to power the pump.
 Used when power supply is unavailable.

PUMP ACCESSORIES
Pressure Gauge
● The devices that are used for measuring pressure are called pressure gauges.
● The pressure gauge is also known as pressure meters or vacuum gauges.
Strainer
● A Y(wye) strainer is designed to mechanically remove solids and other particles
from fluids.
● They ensure no down-stream component is affected by particles within the fluid.

Flexible Connector
● A flexible connector consists of a length of flexible hose with a fitting on each
end.
● The hose’s flexibility allows it to bend and flex to absorb line shock and other
movement.
Non-return Valve
 It only allows the flow of fluids in one direction.
 Also known as check valves.

Gate Valve
 Uses linear motion to start and stop the flow.
 Used in the fully open or closed positions.
 Not used for flow regulation.

Butterfly Valve
 Regulates the flow by quarter-turn rotation of a disc.
 A rod feeds through the center of a disc and this rod is connected to an actuator
that controls the motion of the disc.
HEAT DETECTORS
Heat detectors have two main classifications based on operation:
 Rate-of-rise heat detectors
 Fixed temperature heat detectors

Rate of Rise Heat Detectors

 Rate of Rise Thermal Detectors triggers the fire alarm when the rate of
temperature-increase in the surroundings rises above a certain rate.
 Measuring the change in temperature provides a faster alarm response than
measuring the temperature level in a space.
 The rate-of-rise detector uses of a differential pressure switch to measure the
change in the temperature.
 This switch contains an air chamber separated for the air in the ambient space by a
flexible diaphragm.

Fixed Temperature Heat Detector

 These are the most commonly used heat detectors.
 When the ambient temperature rises more than a particular set point, the detector
is activated and the alarm is sounded.
 Designed to respond when thermal energy of a fire increases the temperature of a
heat sensitive element.
 The conductivity of the element regulates the rate of flow of heat into the element.
 Once activated these detectors are destroyed and can’t be reused.
FLAME DETECTORS
 A flame detector is a sensor designed to detect and respond to the presence of a
flame or fire, allowing flame detection.
 It can include sounding an alarm, deactivating a fuel line (such as a propane or a
natural gas line), or activating a fire suppression system.

SMOKE DETECTORS
 Smoke detectors are devices that sound alerts when they detect smoke.
 They’re great at detecting fires in the early stages, ensuring that people can get out
of the building.
 Disadvantage: unwanted alarms.
LINEAR HEAT DETECTION (LHD) CABLES
 The Linear Heat Detection (LHD) cable is a combination of advanced polymer and
digital technologies which can detect heat anywhere along its entire length.
 At the core of the LHD cable is a twisted pair of extremely low resistance, tri-
metallic conductors sheathed in new advanced thermal polymers.
 These polymers are chemically engineered to break down at specific fixed
temperatures allowing the twisted conductors to make contact and initiate an
alarm.
 The polymer used for the protective outer coating of LHD cable is chemical resistant
and UV protected.
STAIRWELL PRESSURIZATION SYSTEM
 A pressurization system used to prevent smoke leaking past closed doors into stairs
by injecting clean air into the stair enclosure such that the pressure in the stair
enclosure is greater than the adjacent fire compartment.
 The quantity of air required to maintain the pressure criterion can be calculated by:-

Q = 0.83 x Ae x (ΔP)1/n
where,
Q=volume of air required (m3/s)
Ae=effective leakage area (m2)
ΔP=Pressure difference between staircase and adjacent spaces (Pa)
n=leakage factor=2