Streamlines It is useful to visualise the flow pattern. Lines joining points of equal velocity - velocity contours - can be drawn. These lines are know as streamlines, Horo are 2-D streamlines around a cross-section of an aircraft wing shaped body: TT —eE EEE TS YEE — Fluid flowing past a solid boundary does not flow into or out of the solid surface. ‘Very close to a boundary wall the flow direction ‘must be along the boundary. ‘Some points about streamlines: * Close to a solid boundary, streamlines are parallel to that boundary + The direction of the streamline is the direction of the fluid velocity «Fluid can not cross a streamline + Stroamlines can not cross each other + Any particles starting on one streamline will stay on that same streamline + In unsteady flow streamlines can change position with time + In steady flow, the position of streamlines ‘doos not change.Streamtubes Accircle of points in a flowing fluid each hhas a streamline passing through it. ‘These streamlines make a tube-like shape known as a streamtube In a two-dimensional flow the streamtube is flat (in the plane of the paper): ‘Some points about streamtubes ‘+ The “walls” of a streamtube are streamlines. “Fluid cannot flow across a streamll ‘cannot cross a streamtube “wall! s0 fluid +A streamtube is not like a pipe. Its “walls” move with the fluid. + In unsteady flow streamtubes can change position with time ‘+ In steady flow, the position of streamtubes does not change.Flow rate Mass flow rate din mass ‘di ime taken to accumulate this mass A simple example: ‘An empty bucket weighs 2.0kg, After 7 seconds of ‘collecting water the bucket weighs 8.0kg, then: ‘mass of fluid in bucket time taken to collect the fui mass flow rate = th =OR8STkg/s Volume flow rate - Discharge More commonly we use volume flow rate Also know as discharge. ‘The symbol normally usod for discharge is 0. volume of uid discharge, Q—YoUumeot Hid Q time ‘Aspe oxarp ifthe bucket above fils wih 20 tres in 25 seconds. wnat the aacharge? 9107 me 2 25sec = 00008 /s O8i/sDischarge and mean velocity Hfwe know the discharge and the diameter of a ppipe, we can deduce the mean velocity Cross sectional area of pipe is Mean velocity iS tm. In time ¢, a cylinder of fluid will pass point X with AVOIUME AX ty Xt. ‘The discharge will thus be ‘A simple example: WAs 1.240%? ‘And discharge, @ is 24 Us, ‘mean velocity 1s ty = med 24x10 120 =20m/s Note how we have called this the mean velocity. This is because the velocity in the pipe is not constant across the cross section. This idea, that mean velocity multiplied by the area gives the discharge, applies to all situations - not just pipe flow.Continuity, ‘This principle of conservation of mass says matter ‘cannot be created or destroyed This is applied in fluids to fixed volumes, known as. ‘control volumes (or surfaces) For any control volume the principle of conservation of mass says Mass entering = Mass leaving + Increase Perunittime per unit time of mass in control vol per unit time For stoady flow there is no increase in the mass within the control volume, so For steady flow Mass entering = Mass leaving perunittime per unit time Applying to a streamtube: Mass enters and leaves only through the two ‘ends (it cannot cross the streamtube wall Mass entering = Mass leaving er unit time per unit time rn, = pala Or for steady flow, This Is the continuity equation.In areal pipe (or any other vessel) we use the ‘mean velocity and write PVA tt = PyAdtg2 = Constant = rin For incompressible, fluid py (aropping the m subscript) Ait = Api = O ‘This is the continuity equation most often used. This equation is a very powerful tool It will be used repeatedly throughout the rest of this course. ‘Some example applications of Continuity id is flowing from left to right. By the continuity Amp = AatinP2 ‘As we are considering a liquid, P= P= A= Aquy = Agu ‘An example: the area 4y=10%10" nf and A=3x10" nt And the upstream mean velocity 1/=2./ ms. ‘The downstream mean velocity is.Now try this on a diffuser, a pipe which expands ‘or diverges as in the figure below, Mfdy=30mm and dsm and the velocity w2-3.0ms. The velocity entering the dfuser is given by, Ay rds dl Velocities in pipes coming from a junction, ‘mass flow into the junction = mass flow out POs = pie * pss When incompressible Q1= 02 +05 Aas = Anita + Agta1 pipe 4 diameter = 0mm, mean velocity ‘diameter 40mm takes 30% of total aischar ‘diameter mm. ‘What are the values of discharge and moan velocity in each bee? Discharge in ‘aff Q1= Aw (# lar = 0.00392 /s Discharges out Oy = 0.30, = 0.0011 78m? /s = 2240s 5 = 0, -030, = 070, = 0.00275 0° Velocities out Ds = Ante 1 =0936m/s Os= Agus 14 =0972m/s ‘The Bernoulli equation The Bernoulli equation is a statement of the principle of conservation of energy along a ‘streamline tcan be written: ‘These terms represent: Pressure Kinetic Potential «=Total energy per + energy per +energy per = energy per unit weight unit weight unit weight unit weight ‘These term all have units of length, they are often referred to as the following: pressurehead= "velocity head = we 2g potential head, total head =Restrictions in applicatio ‘sf Bemoull's equation: Flow is steady += Density is constant (incompressible) +Friction losses are negligible ‘lt relates the states at two points along a single streamline, (not conditions on two different streamlines) All these conditions are impossible to satisfy at ‘any instant in time! Fortunately, for many real situations where the ‘conditions are approximately satisfied, the ‘equation gives very good results. {An element of fluid, as that in the figure above, has potential energy duc to ltshelght2 above a datum and inetic energy sin fois velocity wie alament has weight mg ten potential energy = mgz potential energy per unit weight inetic energy. a netic energy per unt woight = 2g [At any cross-section the pressure generates a force, the {uid wl flow, moving the cross-section 30 work willbe done. If the pressure at cross section AB is» and the area ‘ofthe erose-section is « then mass mg of fuid has passed AB, cross-section ‘AB willhave moved 8" volume passing aB == = 7 we P thereforedistance AA’ work done = faree x distance AA? ‘work done por unit woight = This torm is know as the pressure energy ofthe flowing stream. ‘Summing al ofthese energy terms gives By the principe of conservation of energy, the total energy inthe system does not change, thus the otal head does rot change. So the Bemoull equation can be writen ‘H= Constant ‘The Bernoulli equation is applied along streamlines like that joining points 1 and 2 below. ‘This equation assumes no energy losses (e.g. rom friction) ‘or energy gains (¢.9 from a pump) along the streamline. ‘can be expanded to include these simply, by adaing tho ‘spproprite energy termePractical use of the Bernoulli Equation The Bemoulli equation is often combined with the continuity equation to find velocities and Pressures at points in the flow connected by a stream An example: Finding pressures and velocities within a ‘contracting and expanding pipe. Afluid, density p = 960 ky/n' Is flowing steadily ‘through the above tube. ‘The section diameters are dj~10%mm and d;-Simm. ‘The gauge pressure at 1 is p-200kNm? ‘The volocity at 1 is /~Sms. ‘The tube is horizontal (: What is the gauge pressure at section 2? Apply the Bernoulli equation along a streamline Joining section 1 with section 2. 2 rua, pe 2g Use the continuity equation to find u; Aum = Aan, ain (4) a Md) =78125m/s So pressure at section 2 ‘p» = 200000- 1729687 = 182703 N/m? $182.7 N/m? Note how the velocity has increased the pressure has decreasedEXAMPLED [A pipeline with a 348 cm inside diameter is camying liguid at a flowe rate of 00285me/s. A reducer is placed in the line, and the outlet diameter is 1524 cm, Determine the velocity a the beginning al en of the reducer SOLUTION Select the control volume as shown in Figure 1, Flow cronies the control susface at scclions 1 and 2, where the sueamlines are all parallel ae flow properties re al Known or can be determined, ‘With aliquid lowing, = py Using the concept of average velocity, we have AV.2A¥o2q (constant) [Now qis given 45010288 m/s. Soat section 1, Vag = 2008S 9.68 * [£joso0s9ymt At section 2, gure Shek for EsmeEXAMPLE2 Crude ol, specific gravity © 0587, flows through the piping shown in Figuce 2. Pipe Ais 2an, Schedule 40, pipe B sin, Schetle 40, and each of pipes C is 1E-in Scheatule 40, ‘An equal quantity of liquid flows through each ofthe pipes. The flove through pips A. {is 30 gal/min, Calculate (a) the mass flow rate in each pipe, (b) the average linear elo se each pipe and () the mass Velocity i each pipe: Assume the density of ater 1000 Dimensions and crosssectinal areas of standard pipe are given in tables. Cre sectional arcs needed are for Zin Pups, 0.0022 mv for Sin pipe, 20048 me for Ten (0) The density ofthe fai is (P= 0887 5 1000 = 887 kg/m? ‘Since there ate 264.13ga i 1 nv, the total wolumetri one Fate en are “none m/s 7 ug/= ‘The mass flow rato through oach of pupes C te one-half tho foal or 1679/2 have (0) Use Ea, 2). The veloity through pipe A is Fan DOE ose methrough pipe Bis and through each of pipes Cis Pw gnns93 Vee sepoart "0728/5 (0) Use Eq, (6). The mass velocity through pipe A is 1.679 Tapas = 76.18 ke/ ms through pipe Bis 1679 Boos = 39.79 ke/ ms Problem 6.1 Water is flowing through a pipe of 5 om diameter under a pressure of 29:43 Nien (gauge) and with mean velocity of 2.0 mis. Find the total head or total energy per unit weight of the ‘Water ata cross-section, which is 5 m above the datum line ‘Solution. Given: Diameter of pipe =Sem=05m Pressure, (p=2943 Nlem® = 29.43% 10' Nim? = 20m p=5m = pressure head + kinetic head + datum head Pressure head tg w= 0 Kinetichead ‘Total headProblem 6.5 Water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 300 mm and 200 mm atthe botiom ‘and upper end respectively. The intensity of pressure at the botiom end is 24.525 Nlom’ and the pressure at the upper end is 9.81 Nlem?. Determine the difference in datum head if the rate of flow through pipe is 40 ls. e Solution. Given: p= 200 mm, Section 1, ‘D, =300mm= 0.3m Pes Sat him (P, = 24.525 Niem? = 24.525 x 10* Nim? Section2, Dz =200mm=0.2m P= 9.81 Nlem?= 9.81 x10' Nim? cara Rate of flow = 40 livs Fi 24.825 Nem: 40 ; Pes e @ 1000 eens DATUM LINE. Now A\V) =A;V,= rate of flow = 004 Fig. 64 # * po = 0 0.5658 ms b Ep Fost Pha af 2 Applying Bernoulli's equation at (1) and (2), we get Pi My, = ps 2g pa 2g 24.525 10% | .566%.566 981x10* , (1274), 1000x981 2x981 1000x981 2x981 o 254.3242 = 104 1623+ 2 o 2532 +2,= 11.623 +5 7-4 =2532~ 11,623 Difference indatumhead =z, —z) = 13.70 m. Ans. 3.70 mEXAMPLE 5-5 Spraying Wate: Water is flowing from a hose attached to a water main at 400 kPa gage (Fie. 5-38), A child places his thumb to cover most of the hose outlet, causing a thin jet of high-speed water to emerge. If the hose is held upward, what is the maximum height that the jet could achieve? into the Air SOLUTION Water from a hose attached to the water main is sprayed into the air. The maximum height the water jet can rise is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flow exiting into the air is steady, incompressible, and inrotational (so that the Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2 The water pressure 1n the hose near te outlet fs equa othe water main pressure. 3 The sutace tension eftects are nelle. 4 The fiction between te water and ais neg- ligile. 5 The irevesibities that may occur at the out f the hose due to brupt expansion are nelle Propeties We take the density of water tobe 1000 kgm’. 4Anaiysis This problem involves the conversion of flow, kinetic, and potential energies to each other without involving any pumps, turbines, and wasteful ‘components with large fietona losses, an thus it is sitabe forthe se of the Bernoulli equation. The water height wil be maximum under the stated assumptions. The velocity inside the hose is relatively low (V, = 0) and we {ake the hose outlet as the reference level (2, trajectory V, = 0, and atmospheric pressure pertains. Then the Berne equation simplifies to wy 2g . Solving for 2 ond substituting *) = Pan _ Pro a +m ao want ina Cre) ‘Therefore, the water jet high as 40.8 m into the sky in thi ee , the wae jet cane 9 hgh 5 0.8 m no the sy in hs case femal for ample = Discussion The result obtained by the Bernoulli equation represents the cca a {ope lim and shouldbe interpreted accordingly. tes us at the water anno pss rise more than 40.8 m, and in all iene, there wl be tnuch ins tan 402m due fo reverse loses that wo neglected,EXAMPLE 5-6 Water Discharge from a Large Tank A large tank open to the atmosphere is filled with water to a height of 5m from the outlet tap (Fig. 5-39). A tap near the bottom of the tank is now © ‘opened, and water flows out from the smooth and rounded outlet. Determine a 1 the water velocity at the outlet. | SOLUTION A tap near the bottom of a tank is opened. The exit velocity of m water from the tank is to be determined. Assumptions 1 The flove is incompressible and irrotational (except very close to the walls). 2 The water drains slowly enough that the flow can be approxi- mated as steady (actually quasi-steady when the tank begins to drain). Analysis This problem involves the conversion of flow, kinetic, and potential ‘energies to each other without involving any pumps, turbines, and wasteful | @ ‘components with large frictional losses, and thus it is suitable for the use of FIGURE 5-39 the Bernoulli equation. We take point 1 to be at the free surface of water so Schematic for xample - . that P; = Pye, (open to the atmosphere), V, = 0 (the tank is large relative to ‘the outlet), and 2, = 5 m and z = O (we take the reference level at the Center of the outlet). Also, P = Pyim (water discharges into the atmosphere). Then the Bernoulli equation simplifies to Ph VIZ Ph v2 v3 ee Solving for V, and substituting, V2 = V2g 1 = V2(.. 1ms’)(_m) = s