Simplex Stop-and-Wait Protocol :In Simplex Stop-and-Wait Protocol, the sender sends one frame at

a time and waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) before sending the next frame.

Data flows only in one direction (simplex communication).

If ACK is received, the next frame is sent; if not, the sender retransmits after timeout.

It is simple, reliable, but inefficient for high-speed networks because the sender stays idle while
waiting.

Key Points:

-One frame transmission at a time.

-Wait for ACK before next frame.

-Simple design but not efficient for long distances.

Error Detection :Errors can occur during data transmission.We use techniques to detect and correct
these errors.

Error Detection Techniques:

-Parity Check: Adds one parity bit for error detection.

-Checksum: Sum of data segments used for verifying data.

-CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check): Uses polynomial division to detect errors.

Error Correction Techniques:

-Hamming Code: Detects and corrects single-bit errors by adding redundant bits.

-ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request): Retransmits data if error is detected.

Note:

-Detection only finds errors.

-Correction finds and fixes errors.

Go-Back-N ARQ vsARQ

1)Frame Sending:

-Go-Back-N: Send multiple frames.

-Selective Repeat: Send multiple frames.

2)Error Handling:

-Go-Back-N: On error, discard all after error.

-Selective Repeat: Only erroneous frame is resent.

3)Retransmission:

-Go-Back-N: Retransmit multiple frames.

-Selective Repeat: Retransmit only specific frame.

4)Receiver’s Work:

-Go-Back-N: Cannot store out-of-order frames.

-Selective Repeat: Stores out-of-order frames.

5)Efficiency:

-Go-Back-N: Less efficient.

-Selective Repeat: More efficient.

6)Buffering:

-Go-Back-N: Less buffer needed.

-Selective Repeat: More buffer needed.

7)Complexity:

-Go-Back-N: Simple.

-Selective Repeat: Complex.

 FDMA TDMA CDMA
Definition: Divides bandwidth into Divides time into time Uses unique codes for
frequency slots. slots. each user.
Resource Allocation: Each user gets a fixed Each user gets a time All users share the
frequency band. slot in a shared same frequency and
frequency. time, differentiated by
codes.
Efficiency: Less efficient in More efficient than Most efficient in terms
frequency usage. FDMA. of spectrum usage.
Interference:- Less prone to Can face interference Less interference due
interference but has between time slots. to spreading codes.
limited capacity.
Complexity: Simple to implement. Moderate complexity. High complexity due to
code management.
Bandwidth Sharing: Fixed bandwidth Dynamic, depends on Flexible, as multiple
allocation. the number of time users share the same
slots. bandwidth.
Use Case: Used in older analog Used in 2G systems Used in 3G and 4G
systems (e.g., radio). (e.g., GSM). systems (e.g.,
CDMA2000, WCDMA).
Pure ALOHA vs Slotted ALOHA

1. Definition:

Pure ALOHA: Transmits data at any time, no synchronization between sender and receiver.

Slotted ALOHA: Data is transmitted only at the beginning of predefined time slots.

2. Synchronization:

Pure ALOHA: No synchronization; sender can transmit anytime.

Slotted ALOHA: Time is divided into slots; synchronization is required for sending.

3. Efficiency:

Pure ALOHA: Less efficient due to higher chances of collision.

Slotted ALOHA: More efficient than Pure ALOHA, as it reduces collision probability.

4. Time Slot Usage:

Pure ALOHA: No concept of time slots.

Slotted ALOHA: Time is divided into equal slots, and transmission occurs only at the beginning of a
slot.

5. Collision Handling:

Pure ALOHA: Higher number of collisions as the sender can transmit at any time.

Slotted ALOHA: Fewer collisions because transmissions are synchronized to slots.

6. Throughput:

Pure ALOHA: Maximum throughput is 18.4% of the total available capacity.

Slotted ALOHA: Maximum throughput increases to 36.8%.

7. Implementation Complexity:

Pure ALOHA: Simpler, but less efficient.

Slotted ALOHA: Requires synchronization but offers better performance.

CSMA Protocol (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

1)Definition:

CSMA is a protocol for media access control in shared communication channels.

2)Carrier Sensing:

Before transmitting, the sender listens (senses) the channel to see if it is free (idle).

3)Transmission Process:

-If the channel is idle, the sender transmits the data.

-If the channel is busy, the sender waits.

4)Collision Possibility:

-CSMA does not guarantee collision-free transmission.

-If two devices transmit at the same time, a collision occurs.

5)Types of CSMA:

-1-persistent CSMA: Transmits immediately when the channel is free.

-Non-persistent CSMA: Waits a random time before retransmitting if the channel is busy.

-p-persistent CSMA: Transmits with probability p when the channel is free.

6)Efficiency:

CSMA improves efficiency over simpler methods like ALOHA but can still face collisions.

7)Use Case:

Common in Ethernet networks (for basic access control in LANs).

Distance Vector Routing (7 Short Points)

1)Definition:

A routing algorithm where routers share their routing tables with neighbors.

2)Routing Table:

Each router keeps a table with distances to every destination.

3)Updates:

Routers update their tables by exchanging information with direct neighbors.

4)Distance Metric:

Distance is typically measured in hops, but other metrics are possible.

5)Convergence:

It can take time to stabilize, causing slow convergence.

6)Bellman-Ford:

Uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm to find the shortest paths.

7)Limitations:

Prone to count-to-infinity problems and routing loops.

HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control)

1)Definition:

HDLC is a synchronous data link layer protocol used for communication between devices over a
point-to-point or multipoint link.

2)Frame Structure:

HDLC uses frames for communication, ensuring error detection, flow control, and synchronization.

3)Types of Frames:

HDLC has three types of frames:

-Information Frame (I-Frame)

-Supervisory Frame (S-Frame)

-Unnumbered Frame (U-Frame)

4)I-Frame (Information Frame):

Used to carry user data.

-Example: Used in data transmission to send information between devices.

5)S-Frame (Supervisory Frame):

Used for error control and acknowledgment.

-Example: Used to request retransmission if data was lost.

6)U-Frame (Unnumbered Frame):

Used for link management (e.g., establishing or terminating a connection).

-Example: Used to start or end a session between two devices.

7)HDLC Benefits:

Provides reliable, efficient communication with mechanisms like error detection and flow control.
Different Network Criteria

1)Performance:

Refers to how well the network performs under various conditions. Includes factors like throughput,
response time, and packet loss.

Reliability:

Measures the ability of the network to operate without failure. A reliable network has high uptime
and can recover quickly from faults.

3)Scalability:

The capacity of the network to expand and handle increasing traffic or a larger number of devices
without significant degradation in performance.

4)Security:

Refers to the protection of data and resources in the network against unauthorized access or
attacks, using mechanisms like encryption and firewalls.

5)Maintainability:

The ease with which a network can be maintained and troubleshot. This includes ease of upgrades,
repairs, and the ability to fix issues quickly.

6)Cost:

The total financial cost of setting up, running, and maintaining the network, including hardware,
software, and operational costs.

7)Flexibility:

The ability of a network to adapt to changing requirements, such as adding new devices, changing
topologies, or supporting new applications.
Types of Data Transmitted Through Computer Networks

1)Text Data:

Represents alphanumeric characters (letters, numbers, symbols) that can be transmitted as plain
text.

-Example: Email, messages, documents.

2)Audio Data:

Refers to sound or speech data, often transmitted in compressed formats to reduce bandwidth
usage.

-Example: VoIP calls, streaming music, podcasts.

3)Video Data:

Consists of moving images along with audio, requiring high bandwidth for transmission.

-Example: Video conferencing, online video streaming.

4)Image Data:

Includes static pictures or graphics, which can be transmitted in formats like JPEG, PNG, or GIF.

-Example: Photo sharing, website images.

5)Control Data:

Used for managing and controlling the flow of other types of data across the network, including
routing and flow control information.

-Example: Network management packets, routing updates.

6)File Data:

Refers to any type of file data (e.g., documents, applications, executables) transmitted over the
network.

-Example: File sharing, cloud storage access.

7)Multimedia Data:

Combines text, audio, video, and images into a single format for efficient transmission.

-Example: Multimedia presentations, web pages with embedded media.

Serial vs Parallel Transmission

1)Data Transmission:

-Serial: Transmits data one bit at a time over a single channel.

-Parallel: Transmits multiple bits simultaneously over multiple channels.

2)Speed:

-Serial: Generally slower due to one bit transmission at a time.

-Parallel: Faster, as multiple bits are sent in parallel.

3)Wiring:

-Serial: Requires only one wire for data transmission.

-Parallel: Requires multiple wires for each bit in the data.

4)Distance:

-Serial: Effective for long-distance transmission as it experiences less interference.

-Parallel: Suitable for short-distance transmission due to signal degradation over long distances.

5)Cost:

-Serial: More cost-effective due to fewer cables and simpler setup.

-Parallel: More expensive because of the need for multiple wires.

6)Signal Integrity:

-Serial: Better signal integrity over long distances as it avoids issues like crosstalk.

-Parallel: Prone to crosstalk and signal degradation over long distances.

7)Applications:

-Serial: Used in long-distance communication (e.g., USB, RS-232, Ethernet).

-Parallel: Used in short-distance scenarios like internal connections in computers (e.g., parallel port,
printer connections).
Twisted Pair Cable

-Structure: Two insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce electromagnetic interference.

-Types: Unshielded (UTP) and Shielded (STP).

-Use: Commonly used in LANs and telephone networks.

2)Coaxial Cable

-Structure: Central copper conductor, insulating layer, metallic shield, and outer insulating layer.

-Use: Used in cable TV, broadband internet, and CCTV systems.

3)Fiber Optic Cable

-Structure: Thin strands of glass or plastic fibers transmitting data as light signals.

-Types: Single-mode (long-distance) and Multi-mode (short-distance).

-Use: Ideal for high-speed, long-distance data transmission.

FRAMING is a technique in the Data Link Layer that divides a continuous stream of bits from the
Physical Layer into manageable units called frames. Each frame contains data and control
information, including delimiters to mark the beginning and end of the frame. This helps in efficient
data transmission and error detection.

1)Character Count Method

-Description: In this method, the header of each frame includes a field specifying the number of
characters (or bytes) in that frame. This informs the receiver about the length of the frame and helps
in identifying where the frame ends.

Example:-Data Stream: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

-Frames:

-Frame 1: Header = 5, Data = A B C D E

-Frame 2: Header = 5, Data = F G H I J

-Frame 3: Header = 5, Data = K L M N O

-Frame 4: Header = 5, Data = P Q R S T

Advantages:1₹Simple to implement.

2)Efficient for fixed-length data.

-Dis:1)If the character count is corrupted, synchronization is lost.

2)Not suitable for binary data

Bit Stuffing Method

-Description: Bit Stuffing involves inserting a non-information bit into the data stream to prevent
certain bit patterns from appearing within the data, which could be misinterpreted as frame
delimiters.

-Example:

-Data Stream: 01111110 01111110

-After Bit Stuffing: 01111110 011111110

In this example, a 0 is inserted after five consecutive 1s to prevent the sequence 01111110 from
appearing in the data, which is used as a frame delimiter.

-Adv1)Maintains synchronization.

2)Suitable for binary data transmission.

-Dis:1)Increases the data size due to inserted bits.

2)Requires additional processing at both sender and receiver ends.

Here are the various types of transmission error:

1)Single-bit error

2)Burst error

3) Random error

4)Impulse noise error

5)White noise error

6)Cross-talk error

7)Attenuation error

8)Jitter error

9)Synchronization error

10)Dropped bits or frames

Transmission error

1) Single-Bit Error

-Definition: Occurs when a single bit in a data unit is altered during transmission.

-Example: Transmitting 0110 might result in 0010 due to noise, changing the data.

2)Multiple-Bit Error

-Definition: Involves the alteration of two or more bits in a data unit during transmission.

-Example: Transmitting 1101 might result in 1000, affecting multiple bits.

3)Burst Error

-Definition: Affects a contiguous sequence of bits in a data unit during transmission.

-Example: Transmitting 110101 might result in 111000, altering a burst of bits.

4)Data Packet Loss

-Definition: Occurs when data packets are lost during transmission.

-Example: A packet containing critical data fails to reach its destination, requiring retransmission.
 IPV4 IPV6
-Full Form: IPv4 stands for Internet IPv6 stands for Internet Protocol version 6.
Protocol version 4.
Address Size: IPv4 uses 32-bit IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses.
addresses.
Address Format: IPv4 addresses are IPv6 addresses are written in hexadecimal
written in decimal (e.g., (e.g., 2001:0db8::1).
192.168.1.1).
Number of Addresses: IPv4 supports around IPv6 supports approximately 3.4 × 10³⁸
4.3 billion addresses. addresses.
Header Size: IPv4 headers are 20–60 IPv6 headers are fixed at 40 bytes.
bytes.
Security: Security is optional in Security is mandatory in IPv6 (IPSec built-
IPv4 (IPSec optional). in).
Address Configuration: IPv4 uses manual IPv6 supports auto-configuration (stateless).
configuration or DHCP.
Broadcast: IPv4 supports IPv6 does not support broadcasting; it uses
broadcasting. multicast.
Fragmentation: In IPv4, fragmentation is In IPv6, fragmentation is done only by the
done by sender and sender.
routers.
Example Address: IPv4 example: IPv6 example:
192.168.0.1 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
Techniques to Improve Quality of Service (QoS):

1. Scheduling – Prioritizing packets.

2. Traffic Shaping – Controlling traffic flow.

3. Admission Control – Allowing traffic based on network load.

4. Resource Reservation – Reserving bandwidth.

5. Congestion Control – Managing network congestion.

6. Buffer Management – Handling packet queues.

7. Load Balancing – Distributing traffic evenly.

DNS (Domain Name System):

A distributed, hierarchical database that maps human-readable domain names (e.g.

www.example.com) to IP addresses. It uses root, TLD, and authoritative name servers, supporting
recursive and iterative queries for name resolution.

2. Firewall:

A security device (hardware and/or software) that enforces a policy to permit or deny network traffic
based on rules (e.g. IP address, port, protocol). Types include packet-filtering, stateful inspection,
and application-level gateways, all aimed at preventing unauthorized access.

3. Voice over IP (VoIP):

A suite of technologies for delivering voice communications over IP networks by digitizing and
packetizing audio signals. Common protocols include SIP for signaling and RTP for media transport,
offering cost savings and integration with other IP-based services.

Firewall

A firewall is like a security guard for your network.

It controls what data is allowed to come in and what is allowed to go out of your computer or
network.

It blocks bad traffic (like hackers, viruses) and allows good traffic.

Can be a hardware device or software program.

Example: Windows Firewall in computers.

Voice over IP (VoIP)

VoIP stands for Voice over Internet Protocol.

It means making phone calls using the internet instead of normal telephone lines.

It converts your voice into data and sends it over the internet.

Examples: WhatsApp call, Zoom call, Skype.

What is Layered Protocol Structure?

When sending data in a network, many small tasks are needed — like connecting, sending, checking
for errors, etc.

This makes it easy to design, manage, and fix networks.Addressing

➔ Every device must have a unique name (like a house address).

Error Control

➔ Make sure no mistakes happen when sending data. If mistakes happen, correct them.

Flow Control

➔ Send data at a speed the receiver can handle (don’t overload).

Multiplexing

➔ Share one communication line for many messages at the same time.

Routing

➔ Find the best path for the data to travel.

Congestion Control

➔ Avoid "traffic jams" in the network when too much data is sent at once.

Security

➔ Protect data from hackers and bad people.

Scalability

➔ The network should work well even when it becomes very big.

Interoperability

➔ Devices from different companies should be able to work together.

Link State Routing Algorithm is a method where each router finds its neighbors, measures the cost
(like distance or delay) to them, and then shares this information with all other routers. Using this
full map of the network, each router calculates the best (shortest) path to every destination using
Dijkstra’s Algorithm. This way, routers quickly know the most efficient way to send data. Link State
Routing is faster, more reliable, and responds quickly to network changes compared to older
methods.

Example:

Imagine you live in a city and want to travel somewhere:

First, you learn all roads (neighbors) and their conditions (cost).

Then you share this road info with everyone.

Then you plan the best route to your destination.

Routers do the same thing in Link State Routing!