UNIT-1

MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical and

biological sciences, (including but not limited to Ecology, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Soil
Science, Geology, Atmospheric Science and Geography) to the study of the environment,
and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental science provides an
integrated, quantitative,and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental
systems.Related areas of study include environmental studies and environmental
engineering.Environmental studies incorporate more of the social sciences for
understanding human relationships, perceptions and policies towards the environment.
Environmental engineering focuses on design and technology for improving environmental
quality.Environmental scientists work on subjects like the understanding of earth
processes, evaluating alternative energy systems, pollution control and mitigation, natural
resource management, and the effects of global climate change. Environmental issues
almost always include an interaction of physical, chemical, and biological processes.

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Because of environmental studies has been seen to be multidisciplinary in nature so it is

considered to be a subject with great scope. Environment is not limited to issues of
sanitation and health but it is now concerned with pollution control, biodiversity
conservation, waste management and conservation of natural resources. This requires
expert eyes and hence is creating new job opportunities. The opportunities in this field are
immense not only for scientists but also for engineers, biologists.There is a good chance of
opportunity to find a job in this field as environmental journalists. Environmental science
can be applied in the following spheres:

Ecosystem Structure and Function

The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of the processes that link the leaving
organism or in other words biotic component to the non-living organism or a biotic
component. So for the study of environment we should aware with biotic and a biotic
components.

Natural Resource Conservation

For managing and maintenance of forests which are natural resources and for the
maintenance of wildlife forms task under natural resource conservation. It is also a scope of
environmental studies

Environmental Pollution Control

With the knowledge of environmental science everybody can control the pollution. He/she
can handle the waste management and also look for ways to control pollution on the aspect
of pollution control.
Environmental management
There are several independent environmental consultants who are working with Central
and State pollution control Board. They offer advice to solve the problems of environment
the optimum solution for the upcoming problems. They give direction for controlling
pollution due to industrial development. There are several current consultants who are
working with government pollution control boobs, involved in policy making, pollution
control and maintenance of ecological balance.

The scope of environmental studies in industry

Environmental scientist’s work towards maintenance of ecological balance, they also work
towards conservation of biodiversity and regulation of natural resources as well as on
preservation of natural resources. Most of the industries have a separate environmental
research and development section. These sections govern the impact that their industry
has on the environment. Our environment is being degraded by the rapid industrialization.
To combat this menace there is a growing trend towards manufacture of "green" goods and
products. So we can say that there is a good scope in the field of industry from
environmental studies.

Research and development

Research and development have tremendous scope due to increment in public awareness
regarding the environment. Various universities and governmental organizations offer a
scope for such research. These universities conduct research studies in order to develop
the methods toward monitoring and controlling the source of environmental pollution. Due
to an increasing threat from global warming, many steps are being undertaken for the
reduction of greenhouse gases and the adoption of renewable energy resources. They
generate awareness now regarding the use of solar energy for variety of purposes. This
provides scope of environmental history in the field of research and development.

Social Development
NGO (Nongovernmental organizations) help in creating awareness regarding the
protection of the environment and making the masses aware of various environmental
issues . They also generate a public opinion in this field. They work towards disseminating
information and in bringing about changes in political policies that are personally effect the
environment. The social dimension of this profession includes controlling population
explosion through organizing advisory awareness camps.

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and
conservation of our indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment.
Environment science has become significant for the following reasons:

1.Environment Issues Being of International Importance

It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming and ozone
depletion,acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national issues but
are global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in the Wake of Development
Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, and
Transportation Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased out
in the developed World. The North, to cleanse their own environment has fact fully,
managed to move ‘dirty’ Factories of South. When the West developed, it did so perhaps in
ignorance of the Environmental impact of its activities. Evidently such a path is neither
practicable nor desirable, even if developing world follows that.

3. Explosively Increase in Pollution

World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planted lives in India.
Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area,
there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural experts have
recognized soils health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and organic matter, soil
salinity and damage of soil structure.

4. Need to Save Humanity from Extinction

It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequent to our activities
Constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development.

5. Need for Wise Planning of Development

Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the
product have all to by synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of development
our actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and
development.

NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

It is essential to make the public aware of the formidable consequences of the
Environmental Degradation, if not retorted and reformative measures undertaken would
result in the extinction of life. We are facing various environmental challenges. It is
essential to get the country acquainted with these challenges so that their acts may be eco-
friendly.Some of these challenges are as under:

1.Growing Population
A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per cent every year. Over 17
million people are added each year. It puts considerable pressure on its natural resources
and reduces the gains of development. Hence, the greatest challenge before us is to limit
the population growth. Although population control does automatically lead to
development, yet the development leads to a decrease in population growth rates. For this
development of the women is essential.

2. Poverty
India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and
environmental degradation have a nexus between them. The vast majority of our people
are directly dependent on the nature resources of the country for their basic needs of food,
fuel shelter and fodder.
About 40% of our people are still below the poverty line. Environment degradation has
adversely affected the poor who depend upon the resources of their immediate
surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the challenge environment degradation
are two facets of the same challenge. The population growth is essentially a function of
poverty. Because, to the very poor,every child is an earner and helper and global concerns
have little relevance for him.

3. Agricultural Growth
The people must be acquainted with the methods to sustain and increase agricultural
growth with damaging the environment. High yielding varieties have caused soil salinity
and damage to physical structure of soil.

4. Need to Ground water

It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater. Factors like community wastes,
industrial effluents and chemical fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface water
and affected quality of the groundwater. It is essential to restore the water quality of our
rivers and other water bodies as lakes are an important challenge. It so finding our suitable
strategies for consecration of water, provision of safe drinking water and keeping water
bodies clean which are difficult challenges is essential.

5. Development and Forests

Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With increasing demand of water, plan to harness
the mighty river through large irrigation projects were made. Certainly, these would
submerge forests; displace local people, damage flora and fauna. As such, the dams on the
river Narmada, Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become areas of political and scientific
Debate.

NATURAL RESOURCES
The word resource means a source of supply. The natural resources include water, air, soil,
minerals, coal, forests, crops and wildlife are examples. All the resources are classified
based on quantity, quality, re-usability, men’s activity and availability.

Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their
relatively unmodified (natural) form. A natural resource’s value rests in the amount of the
material available and the demand for it. The term was introduced to a broad audience by
E.F.Schumacher in his 1970s book Small is Beautiful.

a) Renewable resource or inexhaustible resources

The renewable resources can maintain themselves or can be replaced if managed wisely.
These resources are constantly renewed in nature. The renewable resources are therefore
not likely to be lost due to excessive and unwise use.

b) Non-renewable resources or exhaustible resources

These resources once used are lost forever, as they are not restored. They include metallic
minerals and fossil fuels. At current rates of usage, all the industrial metals may lose for
less than a century and those of petroleum and natural gas may exhaust in 15-20 years.

Natural Resources and Associated Problems

Human population is growing day-by-day. Continuous increase in population caused an
increasing demand for natural resources. Due to urban expansion, electricity need and
industrialization, man started utilizing natural resources at a much larger scale. Non-
renewable resources are limited. They cannot be replaced easily. After some time, these
resources may come to an end. It is a matter of much concern and ensures a balance
between population growth and utilization of resources. This overutilization creates many
problems. In some regions there are problems of water logging due to over irrigation. In
some areas, there is no sufficient water for industry and agriculture. Thus, there is need for
conservation of natural resources.There are many problems associated with natural
resources:

Forest resources and associated problems

1. Use and over-exploitation.
2. Deforestation.
3. Timber extraction.
4. Mining and its effects on forest.
5. Dams and their effects on forests and tribal people.

Water resources and associated problems

1. Use and overutilization of water.
2. Floods, droughts etc.
3. Conflicts over water.
4. Dams and problems.

Mineral resource and associated problems

1. Use and exploitation.
2. Environmental effects of extracting and using minerals.

Food resources and associated problems

1. World food problems.
2. Changes caused by agriculture and over grazing.
3. Effects of modern agriculture.
4. Fertilizer-pesticide problems.
5. Water logging and salinity.

Energy resources and associated problems

1. Growing energy needs.

Land resources and associated problems

1. Land degradation.
2. Man-induced landslides.
3. Soil erosion and desertification.
A. Non – renewable energy resources
Fossil fuels: Fossil means the remains of an animal or a plant which have become hard and
turned into rock. All these found in earth’s crusts which have been formed in the past by
the geological processes. Fossil fuels are solid coal (lignite), liquid (crude oil / petroleum)
and gases (natural gas ).
a)Coal: Huge quantity of plant materials buried under earths crust and altered by
geological process and converted into carbon rich fuel. It is a non – renewable source
because it takes a very long period (million of years) for its formation.
Coal is extracted by the process of mining and involves accidents due to mine collapse,
ground water pollution, accumulation of poisonous material, explosive gases etc cause
diseases. CO2 pollution leads to green house effect (global warming).

b) Crude oil: It is obtained in the form of liquid . The crude oil is heated up to 600oC in the
oil refinery and condense the vapours of hydro – carbons. Petrol another petroleum
products are refined fuels from crude oil. Petroleum products are used in large quantities
in the manufacture of detergents, plastics, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, synthetic rubber
etc.The transport sector consumes about 40% of diesel; 25% industries and 19%household
and rest 16% agriculture and other sectors. .
c) Natural Gas: Gas deposits are trapped from the sedimentary formations by means
drilling holes into the rock formations. While burning of natural gas, the emission of CO2 is
less and thus reduces green house effect and global warming. A total of 734 billion cubic
mts of gas is estimated as proven reserves.

B. Renewable energy resources: Renewable energy systems use resources that are
constantly replaced and are usually less polluting. Examples include hydropower, solar,
wind, and geothermal (energy from the heat inside the earth).
1. Solar energy: The energy which is derived from the sun is known as solar energy. It can
be used for direct heating or sun’s heat is converted into electricity. Photo voltaic cells
convert direct solar energy into electricity. A number of solar equipments have been
developed to utilize sun rays to heat water, to cook food, to pump water and to run certain
machines and used for street lighting, railway signals etc. But the major problem with solar
energy is that during cloudy weather it is available in less quantity than on sunny days.

How Solar Power Works

The sun's energy can be captured to generate electricity or heat through a system of panels
or mirrors.
• Solar, or photovoltaic, cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. Most photovoltaic
cells are made primarily of silicon, the material used in computer semiconductor chips, and
arranged on rectangular panels. When sunlight hits a cell, the energy knocks electrons free
of their atoms, allowing them to flow through the material. The resulting DC (direct
current) electricity is then sent to a power inverter for conversion to AC (alternating
current).
• Solar thermal collectors use heat-absorbing panels and a series of attached circulation
tubes to heat water or buildings.
• Solar concentration systems use mirrors -- usually arranged in a series of long, parabolic
troughs, a large round dish, or a circle surrounding a "power tower" -- to focus the sun's
reflected rays on a heat-collecting element. The concentrated sunlight heats water or a heat
transferring fluid such as molten salt to generate steam, which is then used conventionally
to spin turbines and generate electricity.
• Passive solar design is the creative use of windows, skylights and sunrooms, building site
and orientation, and thermal construction materials to heat and light buildings, or to heat
water, the natural way.

2. Hydro-Power energy: Electrical power is generated by hydro-electric projects in which

dams are constructed across the river. The kinetic energy of water is converted into
mechanical energy by means of turbines and in turn, the mechanical energy is transferred
into electrical energy by generators. Hydro power projects lead to several environmental
problems like destruction of animal habitats, deforestation, migration of people etc..

3. Geothermal energy: Geothermal energy found within rock formations. Inside the earth
the temperature rises with depth .The temperature in earth’s crust is around 4000o C.
Geysers ( a natural spring that emits hot water ) and hot springs are examples for
geothermal energy where the steam and hot water come to the surface, in areas where the
steam is tapped by drilling. The obtained steam is then used to generate power. Air
pollution results in case of geothermal energy where the gases like H2S, NH3, CO2 present in
the steam coming out of the geothermal sources.
The overall efficiency for power production is low (15%) as compared to fossil fuels (40%).

4. Wind energy: Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of
atmospheric air. Wind mills convert the wind energy into electrical energy. On an average
wind mills can convert 30 – 40 % of available wind energy into electrical energy at a steady
wind speed of 8.5mts / sec. The efficiency of wind mill is increased with the speed of wind
and length of rotor blade.The total wind energy potential in India’s estimate is 25,000 MW
of this about6000 MW is located in Tamil Nadu; 5000 MW in Gujarat and contribute
thestates of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan for balance
quantity.

Merits & demerits of wind energy:

1. It is a non – polluting and environment friendly source of energy.
2. It is a renewable energy available at free of cost
3. Power generation is cheaper with nil recurring expenses.
4. Wind mills are suitable to erect at on shore, remote and rural areaswhere wind blows
with required intensity.
5. Favorable in geographic locations which are away from cities.
6. Wind turbine design, manufacturing, installation is complex due tovarying atmospheric
conditions.
7. Wind power doesn’t suitable for large scale generation.

5. Ocean energy: Seas and oceans are large water bodies . Seas absorb solar radiation and
large
amounts of solar energy are stored in the tides and waves of the ocean. Ocean energy is non
–
polluting in nature and suitable at a few places only. Energy from seas or oceans is obtained
fromthe following:
(1) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion: The oceans collect and store huge quantities of
solar on the surface of the water while the temperature of deepwater is very low. Using this
temperature difference it is possible to convert heat into electricity.
(2) Tidal energy: Tidal waves of the sea can be used to turn turbine and generate
electricity.Asia’s first tidal power plant of 800 - 1000 MW capacity is proposed to be set up
at Kandla in Gulf of Kutch.

6. Bio mass energy: Bio-mass is an organic material from living beings or its residues. It is
a renewable source of energy derived from the waste of various human and natural
activities. The bio-mass energy sources include Wood, animal manure, sugarcane waste,
agriculture crops, house hold waste, roots of plants, garbage etc. The simplest way of using
bio-mass energy sources is to allow them to dry out in the sun and burn them.

7. Bio-gas: Bio-gas is a sustainable source of energy by virtue of its production from

available natural organic wastes of cattle dung, human excreta, poultry waste, plant leaves,
paddy husk etc…. Bio-gas is amixture of methane (68%), CO2 (31%) and N2 (1%). Methane
gas (CH4) is produced by bio-gas plants and this gas is utilized as cooking gas whose
calorific value varies from 4400 – 6200 Kilo Calories / cum. Heat value of biogas can be
improved by reducing its CO2 content.Bio-gas production is carried out in an enclosed bio-
gas plant made of bricks or steel. Aslurry of waste organic matter is fed into the plant
through an inlet and gas formed is tapped by an inverted drum. As gas is produced the
drum rises and the gas may be drawn through an outlet.Bio-gas is commonly produced
from cattle dung in a bio gas plant known as Gobar Gas plant. Bio-gas is a clean, cheap fuel
that can be used for lighting purpose, lifting water through small pumps.

C.Nuclear Energy or Atomic power: It is the energy which is trapped inside the atom. It is
non–renewable source of energy which is released during fission or fusion of certain
radioactive elements. The most important advantage of atomic power is the production of
an enormous amount of energy from a small quantity of radioactive element. For eg: 1 kg of
Uranium liberates energy equivalent to 30000 kgs of coal.Energy released during nuclear
reaction (mass – energy equation as per Albert Einstein’s
formula E = mc2).

Nuclear Energy is produced by two processes namely (1) Nuclear Fission and (2) Nuclear
Fusion.
Nuclear Fission: The nucleus in atoms is split by fast moving neutrons and in turn a
tremendous amount of energy in the form of heat, light etc is released by a chain of
reactions. Uranium is used as fuel. The energy released slowly in this process is utilized to
generate electricity or else released suddenly all at once, results a tremendous explosion as
in the case of Atom bomb.

Nuclear Fusion: Nuclear energy can be generated by fusion process which involves two
hydrogen atoms combine to produce one helium atom.
Eg: hydrogen bomb. The disposal of nuclear wastes during mining, fuel production and
reactoroperation for a long time period resulting in adverse effects on environment.
Disposable ofnuclear waste is a national and global problem.

CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather conditions, seasonal
variations and extremes of weather in region. Such conditions which average over a long
periodat least 30 years is called climate.The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) in 1990 and 1992published bestavailable evidence about past climate change, the
green house effect and recent changes in global temperature. It is observed that earth’s
temperature has changed considerably during the geological times. It has experienced
several glacial and interglacial periods.However, during the past10000 years of the current
interglacial period, the mean average temperature has fluctuated by 0.51˚ c over 100 to 200
year period. We have relatively stable climate for thousands of years due to which we have
practiced agriculture and increased population. Even small changes in climatic conditions
may disturb agriculture that would lead to migration of animals including humans.
Anthropogenic activities are upsetting the delicate balance that has been established
between various components of the environment.
Green house gases are increasing in atmosphere resulting in increase in the average global
temperature. This may upset the hydrological cycle; result in floods and droughts in
different regions of the world, cause sea level rise, changes in agricultural productivity,
famines and death of humans as well as livestock.

GLOBAL WARMING

Before the Industrial Revolution, human activities released very few gases into the
atmosphere and all climate changes happened naturally. After the Industrial Revolution,
through fossil fuel combustion, changing agricultural practices and deforestation, the
natural composition of gases in the atmosphere is getting affected and climate and
environment began to alter significantly.Over the last 100 years, it was found out that the
earth is getting warmer and warmer, unlike previous 8000 years when temperatures have
been relatively constant. The present temperature is 0.3 - 0.6 C warmer than it was 100
years ago. The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring process that aids in heating the
Earth's surface and atmosphere. It results from the fact that certain atmospheric gases,
such as carbon dioxide,water vapor, and methane, are able to change the energy balance
of the planet by absorbing long wave radiation emitted from the Earth's surface. Without
the greenhouse effect life on this planet would probably not exist as the average
temperature of the Earth would be a chilly -18°Celsius, rather than the present 15°
Celsius.Some greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere, while others result from
human activities. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone (refer Figure 9.4). Certain human activities,
however, add to the levels of most of these naturally occurring gases.Carbon dioxide is
released to the atmosphere when solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), and
wood and wood products are burned.
Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil.
Methaneemissions also result from the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid
waste landfills, and the raising of livestock. Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and
industrial activities, as well as during combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels.
Very powerful greenhouse gases that are not naturally occurring include hydro
fluorocarbons(HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), which are
generated in a variety of industrial processes.
Often, estimates of greenhouse gas emissions are presented in units of millions of metric
tons of carbon equivalents (MMTCE), which weights each gas by its Global Warming
Potential or GWP value. As energy from the Sun passes through the atmosphere a number
of things take place. A portion of the energy (26% globally) is reflected or scattered back
to space by clouds and otheratmospheric particles. About 19% of the energy available is
absorbed by clouds, gases (like ozone), and particles in the atmosphere. Of the remaining
55% of the solar energy passing through the Earth's atmosphere, 4% is reflected from the
surface back to space. On average, about 51% of the Sun's radiation reaches the surface.
This energy is then used in a number of processes, including the heating of the ground
surface; the melting of ice and snow and the evaporation of water; and plant
photosynthesis. The heating of the ground by sunlight causes the Earth's surface to become
a radiator of energy in the long wave band (sometimes called infrared radiation). This
emission of energy is generally directed to space . However, only a small portion of this
energy actually makes it back to space. The majority of the outgoing infrared radiation is
absorbed by the greenhouse gases.Absorption of long wave radiation by the atmosphere
causes additional heat energy to be added to the Earth's atmospheric system. The now
warmer atmospheric greenhouse gas molecules begin radiating long wave energy in all
directions. Over 90% of this emission of long wave energy is directed back to the Earth's
surface where it once again is absorbed by the surface. The heating of the ground by the
long wave radiation causes the ground surface to once again radiate,repeating the cycle
described above, again and again, until no more long wave is available for absorption.
A number of gases are involved in the human caused enhancement of the greenhouse effect
These gases include: carbon dioxide (CO2); methane (CH4); nitrous oxide (N2O);
chlorofluorocarbons (CFxClx); and tropospheric ozone (O3). Of these gases, the single
most important gas is carbon dioxide which accounts for about 55% of the change in the
intensity of the Earth's greenhouse effect. The contributions of the other gases are 25% for
chlorofluorocarbons, 15% for methane, and 5% for nitrous oxide. Ozone's contribution
to theenhancement of green house effect is still yet to be quantified.Average concentrations
of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the year 2005 were about 380 parts per million .Prior to
1700,levels of carbon dioxide were about 280 parts per million. This increase in carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere is primarily due to the activities of humans. Beginning in 1700,
societal changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution increased the amount of
carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere. The major sources of this gas include fossil fuel
combustion for industry,transportation, space heating, electricity generation and cooking;
and vegetation changes in natural prairie, woodland, and forested ecosystems. Emissions
from fossil fuel combustion account for about 65% of the extra carbon dioxide now found
in our atmosphere. The remaining 35% is derived from deforestation and the conversion of
prairie, woodland, and forested ecosystems primarily into agricultural systems.
Natural ecosystems can hold 20 to 100 times more carbon dioxide per unit area than
agricultural systems. Artificially created chlorofluorocarbons are the strongest
greenhouse gas per molecule. However, low concentrations in the atmosphere reduce their
overall importance in the enhancement of the greenhouse effect.
Current measurements in the atmosphere indicate that the concentration of these
chemicals may soon begin declining because of reduced emissions. Reports of the
development of ozone holes over the North and South Poles and a general decline in global
stratospheric ozone levels over the last two decades has caused many nations to cut back
on their production and use of these chemicals.
Since 1750, methane concentrations in the atmosphere have increased by more than
150%. The primary sources for the additional methane added to the atmosphere (in order
of importance) are rice cultivation, domestic grazing animals, termites, landfills, coal
mining, and oil and gas extraction. Anaerobic conditions associated with rice paddy
flooding results in the formation of methane gas. However, an accurate estimate of how
much methane is being produced from rice paddies has been difficult to obtain. More than
60% of all rice paddies are found in India and China where scientific data concerning
emission rates are unavailable. Nevertheless, scientists believe that the contribution of rice
paddies is large because this form of crop production has more than doubled since 1950.
Grazing animals release methane to the environment as a result of herbaceous digestion.
Some researchers believe the addition of methane from this source has more than
quadrupled over the last century. Termites also release methane through similar
processes. Land-use change in the tropics, due to deforestation, ranching, and farming, may
be causing termite numbers to expand. If this assumption is correct, the contribution from
these insects may be important. Methane is also released from landfills, coal mines, and gas
and oil drilling. Landfills produce methane as organic wastes decompose over time. Coal,
oil, and natural gas deposits release methane to the atmosphere when these deposits are
excavated or drilled.
The average concentration of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere is now increasing at a rate
of 0.2 to 0.3% per year. Sources for this increase include land-use conversion; fossil fuel
combustion;biomass burning; and soil fertilization. Most of the nitrous oxide added to the
atmosphere each year comes from deforestation and the conversion of forest, savanna and
grassland ecosystems into agricultural fields and rangeland. Both of these processes reduce
the amount of nitrogen stored in living vegetation and soil through the decomposition of
organic matter. Nitrous oxide is also released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels and
biomass are burned. However, the combined contribution of these sources to the increase
of this gas in the atmosphere is thought to be minor. The use of nitrate and ammonium
fertilizers to enhance plant growth is another source of nitrous oxide. Accurate
measurements of how much nitrous oxide is being released from fertilization have been
difficult to obtain. Estimates suggest that the contribution from this source may represent
from 50% to 0.2% of nitrous oxide added to the atmosphere annually.

Ozone's role in the enhancement of the greenhouse effect has been difficult to determine
scientifically. Accurate measurements of past long-term (more than 25 years in the past)
levels of this gas in the atmosphere are currently unavailable. Concentrations of ozone gas
are found in two different regions of the Earth's atmosphere. The majority of the ozone
(about 97%) found in the atmosphere is localized in the stratosphere at an altitude of 15
to 55 kilometers above the Earth's surface. In recent years, the concentration of the
stratospheric ozone has been decreasing because of the buildup of chlorofluorocarbons
in the atmosphere. Since the late 1970s, scientists have discovered that total column
ozone amounts over Antarctica in the springtime have decreased by as much as 70%.
Satellite measurements have indicated that the zone from 65° North to 65° South latitude
has had a 3% decrease in stratospheric ozone since 1978. Ozone is also highly concentrated
at the Earth's surface. Most of this ozone is created as an artificial by product of
photochemical smog.

Global Warming (Climate Change) Implications

Rise in global temperature

Observations show that global temperatures have risen by about 0.6 °C over the 20th
century.There is strong evidence now that most of the observed warming over the last 50
years is causedby human activities. Climate models predict that the global temperature will
rise by about 6 °C by the year 2100.

Rise in sea level

In general, the faster the climate change, the greater will be the risk of damage. The mean
sealevel is expected to rise 9 - 88 cm by the year 2100, causing flooding of low lying areas
andother damages.

Food shortages and hunger

Water resources will be affected as precipitation and evaporation patterns change around
theworld. This will affect agricultural output. Food security is likely to be threatened and
some regions are likely to experience food shortages and hunger.

COMMON PROPERTY RESOURCES AND SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT
Typology of Resource Ownership

Resources are classified by their physical nature, ownership and use pattern. A property
right is a claim of benefit that is legally and socially recognized and respected by the
communities and state. There are four forms of properties prevalent in society, they are
private, public or state, common property and open access. A distinction is made between
property rights and tenure. Property right brings some kind of management status to the
ownership of property, but tenure refers to acts of pure ownership with no references to
management (Singh, 1994). The most commonly found form of property is private, here the
individual, households, even groups (corporate bodies and firms) own the resources with
exclusive right to use them, to exclude others from using them and right to trade with them.
We all own properties like our clothes, cars, houses etc. and they are best examples for
private property. A family based company like The Tatas (owning Tata group of industries)
is an example of corporate private ownership. The public good or property resources are
not owned by any individual or firm, and people in general are not excluded from using or
enjoying them. They allow collective use and consumption, often indivisible. Examples of
public property is natural and environmental resources, national parks, rivers, waterways,
oceans, marine fisheries in exclusive economic zones (EEZ) etc. Other examples are state
owned minerals units, municipal corporations, and national highway authority owning
public roads. Therefore, public goods are also considered as state property, as it is the
exclusive owner of the resources or properties.

Common Property Resources

The most commonly talked commons are grazing lands, village ponds, Non Timber Forest
produces and forests, etc. Common represents all natural resources used for human
welfare, which are not necessarily owned by an individual or a group of individuals. A
definition of Common Property Resources quite acceptable to thinkers of Economics is: ‘A
property on which well defined collective claims by an exclusive group are established, the
use of the resources is subtractive, having the characteristic of a public good such as
indivisibility, shall be termed as Common Property Resources (Kadekodi, 2004). Does this
definition explain to you the status of village open areas, rivers and other such resources
which are not clearly owned by a defined group? Such confusion was further clarified and
Ostrom (1992) explained that such resources are owned by state and state extends the ‘use
right’ to the defined communities to use it to meet their needs. Therefore, in Common pool
Resources the group may or may not have a collective claim, ownership or custodianship
but may have access or ‘use rights’ to the resource. Two important examples of CPRs in
India are Panchayat lands in villages and water or canal irrigation owned by the village
communities. Open access resources are considered to be a variation of CPR, but it is better
to view them as a situation where there are no enforceable property rules. Stevenson
(1991) defined open access resource as a dilatable fugitive resource characterized by
rivalry in extraction, it is subject to use by any person who has the capability and desire to
enter and harvest or extract of it; and its extraction results in symmetric or asymmetric
negative impact on the resources. The question of their appropriate use and prevention of
misuse remains open.

CPR and Sustainable Development

However, we observe that a large section of human population depends on CPR for various
tangible or non tangible services giving rise to the question of sustainable utilization of
these CPR’s. In recent times, the earlier thinking about abundance of resources has changed
and limitation of resources became accepted, secondly the increase of biotic pressures like
population, livestock and human induced problems also impact the carrying capacity and
sustainability of the natural resources. The other factors of development like
industrialization, nationalization of resources has also led to degradation of natural
resources. This brings us to the definition of sustainable development. When the World
Commission on Environment and Development presented its 1987 report, Our Common
Future, they sought to address the problem of conflicts between environment and
development goals by formulating a definition of sustainable development: ‘Sustainable
development is development which meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. Therefore in the present era it is
utmost important that we sustainably manage CPR so that our generation as well as future
generations can avail of them. CPR as stocks can provide either flows or other types of
resources. Their relevance to the communities has significant importance for advocating
their sustainable use. In India they mostly constitute of wastelands, biodiversity hot spots,
forests, fisheries, Non-timber forest produce (NTFP) and water systems. Since they are a
part of natural resources systems, there is a need for sustainable maintenance of CPRs. The
first issue is with respect to efficiency and feasibility of resource management under
alternative property regimes as there is a strong link between CPRs and livelihood as
observed among the communities owning and living around them (Kadekodi 2004). We
can see two distinctive types of CPR-livelihood linkages, first is the level of the present
generation needs and quality of life, and second is with the sustenance of livelihood with
resilience, equitable distribution of benefits, regeneration and growth. Jodha (1986) in his
famous study of seven states and 20 districts of India found that about 84 to 100 percent of
the rural poor depended on common property resources for fuel, fodder and food; the
corresponding proportion of rich farmers did not exceed 20 percent (except in very dry
villages of Rajasthan); and an intermediate categories of farm households depended on
these resources more than the rich. The heavy dependence of the rural poor links these
resources to the poverty and failure of development interventions centered on the poor.
Therefore, any change in the status and productivity of common property resources
directly influences the economy of the rural poor. This basically means change of CPR
ownership, reduction in extent of area and quality of produce directly influenced the
income of the poor households who derived significant benefit from commons like
collection NTFP, fodder, fuel wood which supplemented its household income, with
privatization and decline of common, such tangible and intangible benefit was an added
cost to household economy and poor were mostly effected by it. For example, mostly
potters used to get mud for making pots from the CPR, but after privatization they either
became dependent on the owner of area or had to pay the cost of mud. The immediate
consequence of increased pressure due to market oriented government policies relating to
land, water and forest of privatization of CPR resulted in their overexploitation and
degradation. Their physical degradation is strongly felt and observed, but its quantification
is difficult owing to a lack of benchmark data. Nevertheless, case histories and close
monitoring do provide the basic details. Declines in the number of products available and
their yields are the main indicators of physical depletion. The decline of products was due
to weakening of the traditional management institutions like village council control over
the resources and lack of effective management of CPR under panchayati system which
took control of CPR in and around villages in the new government set up. For instance, the
number of different common property products collected by villagers ranged from 27% to
46% before 1952. At present, this statistic only ranges from 8% to 22%. The decline in the
number of products also suggests reduced biodiversity in common property resources
(Jodha, 1992). One of the important causes of degradation is a slackening of traditional
management. As the traditional institutions which had hereditary pattern of leadership,
were sometime not as per democratic principles, therefore government replaced them with
roaster system of PRI institution or administrative system like Joint forest Management, or
irrigation committee. But these government institutions did not have the local peoples
consent and support, because they were mostly constituted by government official to
protect their interest with weak leadership or else traditional leaders did not participate in
the new process and new leader lacked skills to manage the resources collectively and
effectively which resulted in their degradation and decline. Therefore State interventions
have been ineffective in substituting formal institution for the previous informal
institutions which provided social sanctions and customary arrangements for protecting,
upgrading and regulating the use of common property. As a result, many have become open
access resources, with everyone using them without any reciprocal obligation to maintain
them. Nearly 90 percent of villages fail to enforce historical regulations, in both formal and
informal institutions. Until 1990, due to government intervention, changes in CPR
ownership and management took place and further decline in participation of local people
resulted in decline of monitoring and protection of resources. Secondly, as the new system
had the sanction and conflict resolution framework, these also allowed free-riders to
escape: leading to CPRs becoming open access. The reduction in areas of land CPR, water
CPR, poor maintenance and the decline in their carrying capacity led to reduction of supplies of
products for those who depended on those common property resources. Seen in relation to earlier
evidence of the rural poor’s heavy dependence on these resources, their decline represents a
definite step towards further pauperization of the poor. Therefore at the advent of 1990, stage was
set for participatory management approach of development, because of the earlier few decades of
development, and Jodha’s work (1986) of their impact on CPR provided classic case of the vicious
circle of poverty and resource degradation reinforcing each other and therefore providing
opportunities for sustainable management of CPR to address poverty issues which are at the core of
development planning process.

TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS

The Tragedy of the Commons refers to a scenario in which commonly held land is
inevitably degraded because everyone in a community is allowed to graze livestock
there. It was embraced as a principle by the emerging environmental movement.
The tragedy of the commons states that individuals acting independently and
rationally according to each's self-interest behave contrary to the best interests of
the whole group by depleting some common resource. The term is taken from the
title of an article written by Hardin in 1968, which is in turn based upon an essay
by a Victorian economist on the effects of unregulated grazing on common land.
"Commons" in this sense has come to mean such resources as atmosphere, oceans,
rivers, fish stocks, the office refrigerator, energy or any other shared resource
which is not formally regulated; not common land in its agricultural sense.
The tragedy of the commons concept is often cited in connection with sustainable
development, meshing economic growth and environmental protection, as well as
in the debate over global warming. It has also been used in analyzing behavior in
the fields of economics, evolutionary psychology, anthropology, game theory,
politics, taxation, and sociology. However the concept as originally developed has
also received criticism for not taking into account the many other factors operating to
enforce or agree regulation in this scenario.
The tragedy of the commons can be considered in relation to environmental issues such as
sustainability. The commons dilemma stands as a model for a great variety of resource
problems in society today, such as water, forests, fish, and non-renewable energy sources
such as oil and coal.Situations exemplifying the "tragedy of the commons" include the
overfishing and destruction of the Grand Banks, the destruction of salmon runs on rivers
that have been dammed – most prominently in modern times on the Columbia River in the
Northwest United States, and historically in North Atlantic rivers – the devastation
of the sturgeon fishery – in modern Russia, but historically in the United States as
well – and, in terms of water supply, the limited water available in arid regions
(e.g., the area of the Aral Sea) and the Los Angeles water system supply, especially
at Mono Lake and Owens Lake. Other situations exemplifying the "tragedy of the commons"
include congestion caused by driving cars. There are many negative externalities of
driving; these include pollution, carbon emissions, and traffic accidents. For example,
every time 'Person A' gets in a car, it becomes more likely that 'Person Z' – and millions of
others – will suffer in each of those areas.
More general examples (some alluded to by Hardin) of potential and actual
tragedies include:
A. Planet Earth ecology
1. Uncontrolled human population growth leading to overpopulation.
2. Air, whether ambient air polluted by industrial emissions and cars among
other sources of air pollution, or indoor air
3. Water – Water pollution, water crisis of over-extraction of groundwater and
wasting water due to over irrigation
4. Forests – Frontier logging of old growth forest and slash and burn
5. Energy resources and climate – Environmental residue of mining and
drilling, Burning of fossil fuels and consequential global warming
6. Animals – Habitat destruction and poaching leading to the Holocene mass
extinction
7. Oceans – Overfishing
(Hardin, G (1968); I.A. Shiklomanov, (2000); Wilson, E.O., (2002); and
Leakey, Richard and Roger Lewin, 1996)