Python Function

Functions are the most important aspect of an application. A function can be defined as the
organized block of reusable code, which can be called whenever required.

Python allows us to divide a large program into the basic building blocks known as a
function. The function contains the set of programming statements enclosed by {}. A
function can be called multiple times to provide reusability and modularity to the Python
program.

The Function helps to programmer to break the program into the smaller part. It organizes the
code very effectively and avoids the repetition of the code. As the program grows, function
makes the program more organized.

Python provide us various inbuilt functions like range() or print(). Although, the user can
create its functions, which can be called user-defined functions.

There are mainly two types of functions.

o User-define functions - The user-defined functions are those define by the user to
perform the specific task.
o Built-in functions - The built-in functions are those functions that are pre-defined in
Python.

In this tutorial, we will discuss the user define functions.

Advantage of Functions in Python

There are the following advantages of Python functions.

o Using functions, we can avoid rewriting the same logic/code again and again in a
program.
o We can call Python functions multiple times in a program and anywhere in a program.
o We can track a large Python program easily when it is divided into multiple functions.
o Reusability is the main achievement of Python functions.
o However, Function calling is always overhead in a Python program.

Creating a Function
Python provides the def keyword to define the function. The syntax of the define function is
given below.

Syntax:
 def my_function(parameters):
function_block
return expression

Let's understand the syntax of functions definition.

o The def keyword, along with the function name is used to define the function.
o The identifier rule must follow the function name.
o A function accepts the parameter (argument), and they can be optional.
o The function block is started with the colon (:), and block statements must be at the same
indentation.
o The return statement is used to return the value. A function can have only one return

Function Calling
In Python, after the function is created, we can call it from another function. A function must
be defined before the function call; otherwise, the Python interpreter gives an error. To call
the function, use the function name followed by the parentheses.

Consider the following example of a simple example that prints the message "Hello World".

1. #function definition
2. def hello_world():
3. print("hello world")
4. # function calling
5. hello_world()

Output:

hello world

The return statement

The return statement is used at the end of the function and returns the result of the function. It
terminates the function execution and transfers the result where the function is called. The
return statement cannot be used outside of the function.

Syntax

1. return [expression_list]
It can contain the expression which gets evaluated and value is returned to the caller function.
If the return statement has no expression or does not exist itself in the function then it returns
the None object.

Consider the following example:

Example 1
1. # Defining function
2. def sum():
3. a = 10
4. b = 20
5. c = a+b
6. return c
7. # calling sum() function in print statement
8. print("The sum is:",sum())

Output:

The sum is: 30

In the above code, we have defined the function named sum, and it has a statement c =
a+b, which computes the given values, and the result is returned by the return statement to
the caller function.

Example 2 Creating function without return statement

1. # Defining function
2. def sum():
3. a = 10
4. b = 20
5. c = a+b
6. # calling sum() function in print statement
7. print(sum())

Output:

None

In the above code, we have defined the same function without the return statement as we can
see that the sum() function returned the None object to the caller function.

Arguments in function
The arguments are types of information which can be passed into the function. The
arguments are specified in the parentheses. We can pass any number of arguments, but they
must be separate them with a comma.

Consider the following example, which contains a function that accepts a string as the
argument.

Example 1
1. #defining the function
2. def func (name):
3. print("Hi ",name)
4. #calling the function
5. func("Devansh")

Output:

Hi Devansh
Example 2
1. #Python function to calculate the sum of two variables
2. #defining the function
3. def sum (a,b):
4. return a+b;
5.
6. #taking values from the user
7. a = int(input("Enter a: "))
8. b = int(input("Enter b: "))
9.
10. #printing the sum of a and b
11. print("Sum = ",sum(a,b))

Output:

Enter a: 10
Enter b: 20
Sum = 30

Call by reference in Python

In Python, call by reference means passing the actual value as an argument in the function.
All the functions are called by reference, i.e., all the changes made to the reference inside the
function revert back to the original value referred by the reference.
Example 1 Passing Immutable Object (List)
1. #defining the function
2. def change_list(list1):
3. list1.append(20)
4. list1.append(30)
5. print("list inside function = ",list1)
6.
7. #defining the list
8. list1 = [10,30,40,50]
9.
10. #calling the function
11. change_list(list1)
12. print("list outside function = ",list1)

Output:

list inside function = [10, 30, 40, 50, 20, 30]

list outside function = [10, 30, 40, 50, 20, 30]

Example 2 Passing Mutable Object (String)

1. #defining the function

2. def change_string (str):
3. str = str + " Hows you "
4. print("printing the string inside function :",str)
5.
6. string1 = "Hi I am there"
7.
8. #calling the function
9. change_string(string1)
10.
11. print("printing the string outside function :",string1)

Output:

printing the string inside function : Hi I am there Hows you

printing the string outside function : Hi I am there

Types of arguments
There may be several types of arguments which can be passed at the time of function call.
 1. Required arguments
2. Keyword arguments
3. Default arguments
4. Variable-length arguments

Required Arguments
Till now, we have learned about function calling in Python. However, we can provide the
arguments at the time of the function call. As far as the required arguments are concerned,
these are the arguments which are required to be passed at the time of function calling with
the exact match of their positions in the function call and function definition. If either of the
arguments is not provided in the function call, or the position of the arguments is changed,
the Python interpreter will show the error.

Consider the following example.

Example 1

1. def func(name):
2. message = "Hi "+name
3. return message
4. name = input("Enter the name:")
5. print(func(name))

Output:

Enter the name: John

Hi John

Example 2

1. #the function simple_interest accepts three arguments and returns the simple interest a
ccordingly
2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4. p = float(input("Enter the principle amount? "))
5. r = float(input("Enter the rate of interest? "))
6. t = float(input("Enter the time in years? "))
7. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(p,r,t))

Output:

Enter the principle amount: 5000

 Enter the rate of interest: 5
Enter the time in years: 3
Simple Interest: 750.0

Example 3

1. #the function calculate returns the sum of two arguments a and b

2. def calculate(a,b):
3. return a+b
4. calculate(10) # this causes an error as we are missing a required arguments b.

Output:

TypeError: calculate() missing 1 required positional argument: 'b'

Default Arguments
Python allows us to initialize the arguments at the function definition. If the value of any of
the arguments is not provided at the time of function call, then that argument can be
initialized with the value given in the definition even if the argument is not specified at the
function call.

Example 1

1. def printme(name,age=22):
2. print("My name is",name,"and age is",age)
3. printme(name = "john")

Output:

My name is John and age is 22

Example 2

1. def printme(name,age=22):
2. print("My name is",name,"and age is",age)
3. printme(name = "john") #the variable age is not passed into the function however the
default value of age is considered in the function
4. printme(age = 10,name="David") #the value of age is overwritten here, 10 will be printed as a
ge

Output:

My name is john and age is 22

My name is David and age is 10
Variable-length Arguments (*args)
In large projects, sometimes we may not know the number of arguments to be passed in
advance. In such cases, Python provides us the flexibility to offer the comma-separated
values which are internally treated as tuples at the function call. By using the variable-length
arguments, we can pass any number of arguments.

However, at the function definition, we define the variable-length argument using

the *args (star) as *<variable - name >.

Consider the following example.

Example

1. def printme(*names):
2. print("type of passed argument is ",type(names))
3. print("printing the passed arguments...")
4. for name in names:
5. print(name)
6. printme("john","David","smith","nick")

Output:

type of passed argument is <class 'tuple'>

printing the passed arguments...
john
David
smith
nick

In the above code, we passed *names as variable-length argument. We called the function
and passed values which are treated as tuple internally. The tuple is an iterable sequence the
same as the list. To print the given values, we iterated *arg names using for loop.

Keyword arguments(**kwargs)
Python allows us to call the function with the keyword arguments. This kind of function call
will enable us to pass the arguments in the random order.

The name of the arguments is treated as the keywords and matched in the function calling and
definition. If the same match is found, the values of the arguments are copied in the function
definition.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
 1. #function func is called with the name and message as the keyword arguments
2. def func(name,message):
3. print("printing the message with",name,"and ",message)
4.
5. #name and message is copied with the values John and hello respectively
6. func(name = "John",message="hello")

Output:

printing the message with John and hello

Example 2 providing the values in different order at the calling

1. #The function simple_interest(p, t, r) is called with the keyword arguments the order o
f arguments doesn't matter in this case
2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(t=10,r=10,p=1900))

Output:

Simple Interest: 1900.0

If we provide the different name of arguments at the time of function call, an error will be
thrown.

Consider the following example.

Example 3

1. #The function simple_interest(p, t, r) is called with the keyword arguments.

2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4.
5. # doesn't find the exact match of the name of the arguments (keywords)
6. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(time=10,rate=10,principle=1900))

Output:

TypeError: simple_interest() got an unexpected keyword argument 'time'

The Python allows us to provide the mix of the required arguments and keyword arguments
at the time of function call. However, the required argument must not be given after the
keyword argument, i.e., once the keyword argument is encountered in the function call, the
following arguments must also be the keyword arguments.

Consider the following example.

Example 4

1. def func(name1,message,name2):
2. print("printing the message with",name1,",",message,",and",name2)
3. #the first argument is not the keyword argument
4. func("John",message="hello",name2="David")

Output:

printing the message with John , hello ,and David

The following example will cause an error due to an in-proper mix of keyword and required
arguments being passed in the function call.

Example 5

1. def func(name1,message,name2):
2. print("printing the message with",name1,",",message,",and",name2)
3. func("John",message="hello","David")

Output:

SyntaxError: positional argument follows keyword argument

Python provides the facility to pass the multiple keyword arguments which can be
represented as **kwargs. It is similar as the *args but it stores the argument in the dictionary
format.

This type of arguments is useful when we do not know the number of arguments in advance.

Consider the following example:

Example 6: Many arguments using Keyword argument

1. def food(**kwargs):
2. print(kwargs)
3. food(a="Apple")
4. food(fruits="Orange", Vagitables="Carrot")

Output:
{'a': 'Apple'}
{'fruits': 'Orange', 'Vagitables': 'Carrot'}

Scope of variables
The scopes of the variables depend upon the location where the variable is being declared.
The variable declared in one part of the program may not be accessible to the other parts.

In python, the variables are defined with the two types of scopes.

1. Global variables
2. Local variables

The variable defined outside any function is known to have a global scope, whereas the
variable defined inside a function is known to have a local scope.

Consider the following example.

Example 1 Local Variable

1. def print_message():
2. message = "hello !! I am going to print a message." # the variable message is local to the fu
nction itself
3. print(message)
4. print_message()
5. print(message) # this will cause an error since a local variable cannot be accessible he
re.

Output:

hello !! I am going to print a message.

File "/root/PycharmProjects/PythonTest/Test1.py", line 5, in
print(message)
NameError: name 'message' is not defined

Example 2 Global Variable

1. def calculate(*args):
2. sum=0
3. for arg in args:
4. sum = sum +arg
5. print("The sum is",sum)
6. sum=0
7. calculate(10,20,30) #60 will be printed as the sum
8. print("Value of sum outside the function:",sum) # 0 will be printed Output:
Output:

The sum is 60
Value of sum outside the function: 0

Python Built-in Functions

The Python built-in functions are defined as the functions whose functionality is pre-defined
in Python. The python interpreter has several functions that are always present for use. These
functions are known as Built-in Functions. There are several built-in functions in Python
which are listed below:

Python abs() Function

The python abs() function is used to return the absolute value of a number. It takes only one
argument, a number whose absolute value is to be returned. The argument can be an integer
and floating-point number. If the argument is a complex number, then, abs() returns its
magnitude.

Python abs() Function Example

1. # integer number
2. integer = -20
3. print('Absolute value of -40 is:', abs(integer))
4.
5. # floating number
6. floating = -20.83
7. print('Absolute value of -40.83 is:', abs(floating))

Output:

Absolute value of -20 is: 20

Absolute value of -20.83 is: 20.83

Python all() Function

The python all() function accepts an iterable object (such as list, dictionary, etc.). It returns
true if all items in passed iterable are true. Otherwise, it returns False. If the iterable object is
empty, the all() function returns True.

Python all() Function Example

1. # all values true

 2. k = [1, 3, 4, 6]
3. print(all(k))
4.
5. # all values false
6. k = [0, False]
7. print(all(k))
8.
9. # one false value
10. k = [1, 3, 7, 0]
11. print(all(k))
12.
13. # one true value
14. k = [0, False, 5]
15. print(all(k))
16.
17. # empty iterable
18. k = []
19. print(all(k))

Output:

True
False
False
False
True

Python bin() Function

The python bin() function is used to return the binary representation of a specified integer. A
result always starts with the prefix 0b.

Python bin() Function Example

1. x = 10
2. y = bin(x)
3. print (y)

Output:

0b1010
Python Built-in Functions
The Python built-in functions are defined as the functions whose functionality is pre-defined
in Python. The python interpreter has several functions that are always present for use. These
functions are known as Built-in Functions. There are several built-in functions in Python
which are listed below:

Python abs() Function

The python abs() function is used to return the absolute value of a number. It takes only one
argument, a number whose absolute value is to be returned. The argument can be an integer
and floating-point number. If the argument is a complex number, then, abs() returns its
magnitude.

Python abs() Function Example

1. # integer number
2. integer = -20
3. print('Absolute value of -40 is:', abs(integer))
4.
5. # floating number
6. floating = -20.83
7. print('Absolute value of -40.83 is:', abs(floating))

Output:

Absolute value of -20 is: 20

Absolute value of -20.83 is: 20.83

Python all() Function

The python all() function accepts an iterable object (such as list, dictionary, etc.). It returns
true if all items in passed iterable are true. Otherwise, it returns False. If the iterable object is
empty, the all() function returns True.

Python all() Function Example

1. # all values true

2. k = [1, 3, 4, 6]
3. print(all(k))
4.
5. # all values false
6. k = [0, False]
 7. print(all(k))
8.
9. # one false value
10. k = [1, 3, 7, 0]
11. print(all(k))
12.
13. # one true value
14. k = [0, False, 5]
15. print(all(k))
16.
17. # empty iterable
18. k = []
19. print(all(k))

Output:

True
False
False
False
True

Python bin() Function

The python bin() function is used to return the binary representation of a specified integer. A
result always starts with the prefix 0b.

Python bin() Function Example

1. x = 10
2. y = bin(x)
3. print (y)

Output:

0b1010

Python bool()
The python bool() converts a value to boolean(True or False) using the standard truth testing
procedure.
Python bool() Example

1. test1 = []
2. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
3. test1 = [0]
4. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
5. test1 = 0.0
6. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
7. test1 = None
8. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
9. test1 = True
10. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
11. test1 = 'Easy string'
12. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))

Output:

[] is False
[0] is True
0.0 is False
None is False
True is True
Easy string is True

Python bytes()
The python bytes() in Python is used for returning a bytes object. It is an immutable version
of the bytearray() function.

It can create empty bytes object of the specified size.

Python bytes() Example

1. string = "Hello World."

2. array = bytes(string, 'utf-8')
3. print(array)

Output:

b ' Hello World.'

Python callable() Function

A python callable() function in Python is something that can be called. This built-in function
checks and returns true if the object passed appears to be callable, otherwise false.

Python callable() Function Example

1. x = 8
2. print(callable(x))

Output:

False

Python compile() Function

The python compile() function takes source code as input and returns a code object which
can later be executed by exec() function.

Python compile() Function Example

1. # compile string source to code

2. code_str = 'x=5\ny=10\nprint("sum =",x+y)'
3. code = compile(code_str, 'sum.py', 'exec')
4. print(type(code))
5. exec(code)
6. exec(x)

Output:

<class 'code'>
sum = 15

Python exec() Function

The python exec() function is used for the dynamic execution of Python program which can
either be a string or object code and it accepts large blocks of code, unlike the eval() function
which only accepts a single expression.

Python exec() Function Example

1. x = 8
2. exec('print(x==8)')
3. exec('print(x+4)')
Output:

True
12

Python sum() Function

As the name says, python sum() function is used to get the sum of numbers of an iterable,
i.e., list.

Python sum() Function Example

1. s = sum([1, 2,4 ])
2. print(s)
3.
4. s = sum([1, 2, 4], 10)
5. print(s)

Output:

7
17

Python any() Function

The python any() function returns true if any item in an iterable is true. Otherwise, it returns
False.

Python any() Function Example

1. l = [4, 3, 2, 0]
2. print(any(l))
3.
4. l = [0, False]
5. print(any(l))
6.
7. l = [0, False, 5]
8. print(any(l))
9.
10. l = []
11. print(any(l))
Output:

True
False
True
False

Python ascii() Function

The python ascii() function returns a string containing a printable representation of an object
and escapes the non-ASCII characters in the string using \x, \u or \U escapes.

Python ascii() Function Example

1. normalText = 'Python is interesting'

2. print(ascii(normalText))
3.
4. otherText = 'Pythön is interesting'
5. print(ascii(otherText))
6.
7. print('Pyth\xf6n is interesting')

Output:

'Python is interesting'
'Pyth\xf6n is interesting'
Pythön is interesting

Python bytearray()
The python bytearray() returns a bytearray object and can convert objects into bytearray
objects, or create an empty bytearray object of the specified size.

Python bytearray() Example

1. string = "Python is a programming language."

2.
3. # string with encoding 'utf-8'
4. arr = bytearray(string, 'utf-8')
5. print(arr)

Output:

bytearray(b'Python is a programming language.')

Python eval() Function
The python eval() function parses the expression passed to it and runs python
expression(code) within the program.

Python eval() Function Example

1. x = 8
2. print(eval('x + 1'))

Output:

Python float()
The python float() function returns a floating-point number from a number or string.

Python float() Example

1. # for integers
2. print(float(9))
3.
4. # for floats
5. print(float(8.19))
6.
7. # for string floats
8. print(float("-24.27"))
9.
10. # for string floats with whitespaces
11. print(float(" -17.19\n"))
12.
13. # string float error
14. print(float("xyz"))

Output:

9.0
8.19
-24.27
-17.19
ValueError: could not convert string to float: 'xyz'

Python format() Function

The python format() function returns a formatted representation of the given value.

Python format() Function Example

1. # d, f and b are a type

2.
3. # integer
4. print(format(123, "d"))
5.
6. # float arguments
7. print(format(123.4567898, "f"))
8.
9. # binary format
10. print(format(12, "b"))

Output:

123
123.456790
1100

Python frozenset()
The python frozenset() function returns an immutable frozenset object initialized with
elements from the given iterable.

Python frozenset() Example

1. # tuple of letters
2. letters = ('m', 'r', 'o', 't', 's')
3.
4. fSet = frozenset(letters)
5. print('Frozen set is:', fSet)
6. print('Empty frozen set is:', frozenset())

Output:

Frozen set is: frozenset({'o', 'm', 's', 'r', 't'})

Empty frozen set is: frozenset()

Python getattr() Function

The python getattr() function returns the value of a named attribute of an object. If it is not
found, it returns the default value.

Python getattr() Function Example

1. class Details:
2. age = 22
3. name = "Phill"
4.
5. details = Details()
6. print('The age is:', getattr(details, "age"))
7. print('The age is:', details.age)

Output:

The age is: 22

The age is: 22

Python globals() Function

The python globals() function returns the dictionary of the current global symbol table.

A Symbol table is defined as a data structure which contains all the necessary information
about the program. It includes variable names, methods, classes, etc.

Python globals() Function Example

1. age = 22
2.
3. globals()['age'] = 22
4. print('The age is:', age)

Output:

The age is: 22

Python hasattr() Function

The python any() function returns true if any item in an iterable is true, otherwise it returns
False.

Python hasattr() Function Example

1. l = [4, 3, 2, 0]
2. print(any(l))
3.
4. l = [0, False]
5. print(any(l))
6.
7. l = [0, False, 5]
8. print(any(l))
9.
10. l = []
11. print(any(l))

Output:

True
False
True
False

Python iter() Function

The python iter() function is used to return an iterator object. It creates an object which can
be iterated one element at a time.

Python iter() Function Example

1. # list of numbers
2. list = [1,2,3,4,5]
3.
4. listIter = iter(list)
5.
6. # prints '1'
7. print(next(listIter))
8.
9. # prints '2'
10. print(next(listIter))
 11.
12. # prints '3'
13. print(next(listIter))
14.
15. # prints '4'
16. print(next(listIter))
17.
18. # prints '5'
19. print(next(listIter))

Output:

1
2
3
4
5

Python len() Function

The python len() function is used to return the length (the number of items) of an object.

Python len() Function Example

1. strA = 'Python'
2. print(len(strA))

Output:

Python list()
The python list() creates a list in python.

Python list() Example

1. # empty list
2. print(list())
3.
4. # string
5. String = 'abcde'
6. print(list(String))
 7.
8. # tuple
9. Tuple = (1,2,3,4,5)
10. print(list(Tuple))
11. # list
12. List = [1,2,3,4,5]
13. print(list(List))

Output:

[]
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']
[1,2,3,4,5]
[1,2,3,4,5]

Python locals() Function

The python locals() method updates and returns the dictionary of the current local symbol
table.

A Symbol table is defined as a data structure which contains all the necessary information
about the program. It includes variable names, methods, classes, etc.

Python locals() Function Example

1. def localsAbsent():
2. return locals()
3.
4. def localsPresent():
5. present = True
6. return locals()
7.
8. print('localsNotPresent:', localsAbsent())
9. print('localsPresent:', localsPresent())

Output:

localsAbsent: {}
localsPresent: {'present': True}

Python map() Function

The python map() function is used to return a list of results after applying a given function to
each item of an iterable(list, tuple etc.).

Python map() Function Example

1. def calculateAddition(n):
2. return n+n
3.
4. numbers = (1, 2, 3, 4)
5. result = map(calculateAddition, numbers)
6. print(result)
7.
8. # converting map object to set
9. numbersAddition = set(result)
10. print(numbersAddition)

Output:

<map object at 0x7fb04a6bec18>

{8, 2, 4, 6}

Python memoryview() Function

The python memoryview() function returns a memoryview object of the given argument.

Python memoryview () Function Example

1. #A random bytearray
2. randomByteArray = bytearray('ABC', 'utf-8')
3.
4. mv = memoryview(randomByteArray)
5.
6. # access the memory view's zeroth index
7. print(mv[0])
8.
9. # It create byte from memory view
10. print(bytes(mv[0:2]))
11.
12. # It create list from memory view
13. print(list(mv[0:3]))
Output:

65
b'AB'
[65, 66, 67]

Python object()
The python object() returns an empty object. It is a base for all the classes and holds the
built-in properties and methods which are default for all the classes.

Python object() Example

1. python = object()
2.
3. print(type(python))
4. print(dir(python))

Output:

<class 'object'>
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__',
'__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__',
'__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__']

Python open() Function

The python open() function opens the file and returns a corresponding file object.

Python open() Function Example

1. # opens python.text file of the current directory

2. f = open("python.txt")
3. # specifying full path
4. f = open("C:/Python33/README.txt")

Output:

Since the mode is omitted, the file is opened in 'r' mode; opens for reading.

Python chr() Function

Python chr() function is used to get a string representing a character which points to a
Unicode code integer. For example, chr(97) returns the string 'a'. This function takes an
integer argument and throws an error if it exceeds the specified range. The standard range of
the argument is from 0 to 1,114,111.

Python chr() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = chr(102) # It returns string representation of a char
3. result2 = chr(112)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)
7. # Verify, is it string type?
8. print("is it string type:", type(result) is str)

Output:

ValueError: chr() arg not in range(0x110000)

Python complex()
Python complex() function is used to convert numbers or string into a complex number. This
method takes two optional parameters and returns a complex number. The first parameter is
called a real and second as imaginary parts.

Python complex() Example

1. # Python complex() function example

2. # Calling function
3. a = complex(1) # Passing single parameter
4. b = complex(1,2) # Passing both parameters
5. # Displaying result
6. print(a)
7. print(b)

Output:

(1.5+0j)
(1.5+2.2j)

Python delattr() Function

Python delattr() function is used to delete an attribute from a class. It takes two parameters,
first is an object of the class and second is an attribute which we want to delete. After
deleting the attribute, it no longer available in the class and throws an error if try to call it
using the class object.

Python delattr() Function Example

1. class Student:
2. id = 101
3. name = "Pranshu"
4. email = "[email protected]"
5. # Declaring function
6. def getinfo(self):
7. print(self.id, self.name, self.email)
8. s = Student()
9. s.getinfo()
10. delattr(Student,'course') # Removing attribute which is not available
11. s.getinfo() # error: throws an error

Output:

101 Pranshu [email protected]

AttributeError: course

Python dir() Function

Python dir() function returns the list of names in the current local scope. If the object on
which method is called has a method named __dir__(), this method will be called and must
return the list of attributes. It takes a single object type argument.

Python dir() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. att = dir()
3. # Displaying result
4. print(att)

Output:

['__annotations__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__loader__',

'__name__', '__package__', '__spec__']
Python divmod() Function
Python divmod() function is used to get remainder and quotient of two numbers. This
function takes two numeric arguments and returns a tuple. Both arguments are required and
numeric

Python divmod() Function Example

1. # Python divmod() function example

2. # Calling function
3. result = divmod(10,2)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)

Output:

(5, 0)

Python enumerate() Function

Python enumerate() function returns an enumerated object. It takes two parameters, first is a
sequence of elements and the second is the start index of the sequence. We can get the
elements in sequence either through a loop or next() method.

Python enumerate() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = enumerate([1,2,3])
3. # Displaying result
4. print(result)
5. print(list(result))

Output:

<enumerate object at 0x7ff641093d80>

[(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3)]

Python dict()
Python dict() function is a constructor which creates a dictionary. Python dictionary provides
three different constructors to create a dictionary:

o If no argument is passed, it creates an empty dictionary.

 o If a positional argument is given, a dictionary is created with the same key-value
pairs. Otherwise, pass an iterable object.
o If keyword arguments are given, the keyword arguments and their values are added to
the dictionary created from the positional argument.

Python dict() Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = dict() # returns an empty dictionary
3. result2 = dict(a=1,b=2)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)

Output:

{}
{'a': 1, 'b': 2}

Python filter() Function

Python filter() function is used to get filtered elements. This function takes two arguments,
first is a function and the second is iterable. The filter function returns a sequence of those
elements of iterable object for which function returns true value.

The first argument can be none, if the function is not available and returns only elements that
are true.

Python filter() Function Example

1. # Python filter() function example

2. def filterdata(x):
3. if x>5:
4. return x
5. # Calling function
6. result = filter(filterdata,(1,2,6))
7. # Displaying result
8. print(list(result))

Output:

[6]
Python hash() Function
Python hash() function is used to get the hash value of an object. Python calculates the hash
value by using the hash algorithm. The hash values are integers and used to compare
dictionary keys during a dictionary lookup. We can hash only the types which are given
below:

Hashable types: * bool * int * long * float * string * Unicode * tuple * code object.

Python hash() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = hash(21) # integer value
3. result2 = hash(22.2) # decimal value
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)

Output:

21
461168601842737174

Python help() Function

Python help() function is used to get help related to the object passed during the call. It takes
an optional parameter and returns help information. If no argument is given, it shows the
Python help console. It internally calls python's help function.

Python help() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. info = help() # No argument
3. # Displaying result
4. print(info)

Output:

Welcome to Python 3.5's help utility!

Python min() Function

Python min() function is used to get the smallest element from the collection. This function
takes two arguments, first is a collection of elements and second is key, and returns the
smallest element from the collection.

Python min() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. small = min(2225,325,2025) # returns smallest element
3. small2 = min(1000.25,2025.35,5625.36,10052.50)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(small)
6. print(small2)

Output:

325
1000.25

Python set() Function

In python, a set is a built-in class, and this function is a constructor of this class. It is used to
create a new set using elements passed during the call. It takes an iterable object as an
argument and returns a new set object.

Python set() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = set() # empty set
3. result2 = set('12')
4. result3 = set('javatpoint')
5. # Displaying result
6. print(result)
7. print(result2)
8. print(result3)

Output:

set()
{'1', '2'}
{'a', 'n', 'v', 't', 'j', 'p', 'i', 'o'}

Python hex() Function

Python hex() function is used to generate hex value of an integer argument. It takes an integer
argument and returns an integer converted into a hexadecimal string. In case, we want to get a
hexadecimal value of a float, then use float.hex() function.

Python hex() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = hex(1)
3. # integer value
4. result2 = hex(342)
5. # Displaying result
6. print(result)
7. print(result2)

Output:

0x1
0x156

Python id() Function

Python id() function returns the identity of an object. This is an integer which is guaranteed
to be unique. This function takes an argument as an object and returns a unique integer
number which represents identity. Two objects with non-overlapping lifetimes may have the
same id() value.

Python id() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. val = id("Javatpoint") # string object
3. val2 = id(1200) # integer object
4. val3 = id([25,336,95,236,92,3225]) # List object
5. # Displaying result
6. print(val)
7. print(val2)
8. print(val3)

Output:

139963782059696
139963805666864
139963781994504
Python setattr() Function
Python setattr() function is used to set a value to the object's attribute. It takes three
arguments, i.e., an object, a string, and an arbitrary value, and returns none. It is helpful when
we want to add a new attribute to an object and set a value to it.

Python setattr() Function Example

1. class Student:
2. id = 0
3. name = ""
4.
5. def __init__(self, id, name):
6. self.id = id
7. self.name = name
8.
9. student = Student(102,"Sohan")
10. print(student.id)
11. print(student.name)
12. #print(student.email) product error
13. setattr(student, 'email','[email protected]') # adding new attribute
14. print(student.email)

Output:

102
Sohan
[email protected]

Python slice() Function

Python slice() function is used to get a slice of elements from the collection of elements.
Python provides two overloaded slice functions. The first function takes a single argument
while the second function takes three arguments and returns a slice object. This slice object
can be used to get a subsection of the collection.

Python slice() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = slice(5) # returns slice object
3. result2 = slice(0,5,3) # returns slice object
4. # Displaying result
 5. print(result)
6. print(result2)

Output:

slice(None, 5, None)
slice(0, 5, 3)

Python sorted() Function

Python sorted() function is used to sort elements. By default, it sorts elements in an
ascending order but can be sorted in descending also. It takes four arguments and returns a
collection in sorted order. In the case of a dictionary, it sorts only keys, not values.

Python sorted() Function Example

1. str = "javatpoint" # declaring string

2. # Calling function
3. sorted1 = sorted(str) # sorting string
4. # Displaying result
5. print(sorted1)

Output:

['a', 'a', 'i', 'j', 'n', 'o', 'p', 't', 't', 'v']

Python next() Function

Python next() function is used to fetch next item from the collection. It takes two arguments,
i.e., an iterator and a default value, and returns an element.

This method calls on iterator and throws an error if no item is present. To avoid the error, we
can set a default value.

Python next() Function Example

1. number = iter([256, 32, 82]) # Creating iterator

2. # Calling function
3. item = next(number)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(item)
6. # second item
 7. item = next(number)
8. print(item)
9. # third item
10. item = next(number)
11. print(item)

Output:

256
32
82

Python input() Function

Python input() function is used to get an input from the user. It prompts for the user input
and reads a line. After reading data, it converts it into a string and returns it. It throws an
error EOFError if EOF is read.

Python input() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. val = input("Enter a value: ")
3. # Displaying result
4. print("You entered:",val)

Output:

Enter a value: 45
You entered: 45

Python int() Function

Python int() function is used to get an integer value. It returns an expression converted into
an integer number. If the argument is a floating-point, the conversion truncates the number. If
the argument is outside the integer range, then it converts the number into a long type.

If the number is not a number or if a base is given, the number must be a string.

Python int() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. val = int(10) # integer value
3. val2 = int(10.52) # float value
 4. val3 = int('10') # string value
5. # Displaying result
6. print("integer values :",val, val2, val3)

Output:

integer values : 10 10 10

Python isinstance() Function

Python isinstance() function is used to check whether the given object is an instance of that
class. If the object belongs to the class, it returns true. Otherwise returns False. It also returns
true if the class is a subclass.

The isinstance() function takes two arguments, i.e., object and classinfo, and then it returns
either True or False.

Python isinstance() function Example

1. class Student:
2. id = 101
3. name = "John"
4. def __init__(self, id, name):
5. self.id=id
6. self.name=name
7.
8. student = Student(1010,"John")
9. lst = [12,34,5,6,767]
10. # Calling function
11. print(isinstance(student, Student)) # isinstance of Student class
12. print(isinstance(lst, Student))

Output:

True
False

Python oct() Function

Python oct() function is used to get an octal value of an integer number. This method takes an
argument and returns an integer converted into an octal string. It throws an error TypeError,
if argument type is other than an integer.
Python oct() function Example

1. # Calling function
2. val = oct(10)
3. # Displaying result
4. print("Octal value of 10:",val)

Output:

Octal value of 10: 0o12

Python ord() Function

The python ord() function returns an integer representing Unicode code point for the given
Unicode character.

Python ord() function Example

1. # Code point of an integer

2. print(ord('8'))
3.
4. # Code point of an alphabet
5. print(ord('R'))
6.
7. # Code point of a character
8. print(ord('&'))

Output:

56
82
38

Python pow() Function

The python pow() function is used to compute the power of a number. It returns x to the
power of y. If the third argument(z) is given, it returns x to the power of y modulus z, i.e. (x,
y) % z.

Python pow() function Example

1. # positive x, positive y (x**y)

 2. print(pow(4, 2))
3.
4. # negative x, positive y
5. print(pow(-4, 2))
6.
7. # positive x, negative y (x**-y)
8. print(pow(4, -2))
9.
10. # negative x, negative y
11. print(pow(-4, -2))

Output:

16
16
0.0625
0.0625

Python print() Function

The python print() function prints the given object to the screen or other standard output
devices.

Python print() function Example

1. print("Python is programming language.")

2.
3. x = 7
4. # Two objects passed
5. print("x =", x)
6.
7. y = x
8. # Three objects passed
9. print('x =', x, '= y')

Output:

Python is programming language.

x=7
x=7=y
Python range() Function
The python range() function returns an immutable sequence of numbers starting from 0 by
default, increments by 1 (by default) and ends at a specified number.

Python range() function Example

1. # empty range
2. print(list(range(0)))
3.
4. # using the range(stop)
5. print(list(range(4)))
6.
7. # using the range(start, stop)
8. print(list(range(1,7 )))

Output:

[]
[0, 1, 2, 3]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

Python reversed() Function

The python reversed() function returns the reversed iterator of the given sequence.

Python reversed() function Example

1. # for string
2. String = 'Java'
3. print(list(reversed(String)))
4.
5. # for tuple
6. Tuple = ('J', 'a', 'v', 'a')
7. print(list(reversed(Tuple)))
8.
9. # for range
10. Range = range(8, 12)
11. print(list(reversed(Range)))
12.
13. # for list
 14. List = [1, 2, 7, 5]
15. print(list(reversed(List)))

Output:

['a', 'v', 'a', 'J']

['a', 'v', 'a', 'J']
[11, 10, 9, 8]
[5, 7, 2, 1]

Python round() Function

The python round() function rounds off the digits of a number and returns the floating point
number.

Python round() Function Example

1. # for integers
2. print(round(10))
3.
4. # for floating point
5. print(round(10.8))
6.
7. # even choice
8. print(round(6.6))

Output:

10
11
7

Python issubclass() Function

The python issubclass() function returns true if object argument(first argument) is a subclass
of second class(second argument).

Python issubclass() Function Example

1. class Rectangle:
2. def __init__(rectangleType):
3. print('Rectangle is a ', rectangleType)
4.
 5. class Square(Rectangle):
6. def __init__(self):
7. Rectangle.__init__('square')
8.
9. print(issubclass(Square, Rectangle))
10. print(issubclass(Square, list))
11. print(issubclass(Square, (list, Rectangle)))
12. print(issubclass(Rectangle, (list, Rectangle)))

Output:

True
False
True
True

Python str
The python str() converts a specified value into a string.

Python str() Function Example

1. str('4')

Output:

'4'

Python tuple() Function

The python tuple() function is used to create a tuple object.

Python tuple() Function Example

1. t1 = tuple()
2. print('t1=', t1)
3.
4. # creating a tuple from a list
5. t2 = tuple([1, 6, 9])
6. print('t2=', t2)
7.
8. # creating a tuple from a string
 9. t1 = tuple('Java')
10. print('t1=',t1)
11.
12. # creating a tuple from a dictionary
13. t1 = tuple({4: 'four', 5: 'five'})
14. print('t1=',t1)

Output:

t1= ()
t2= (1, 6, 9)
t1= ('J', 'a', 'v', 'a')
t1= (4, 5)

Python type()
The python type() returns the type of the specified object if a single argument is passed to the
type() built in function. If three arguments are passed, then it returns a new type object.

Python type() Function Example

1. List = [4, 5]
2. print(type(List))
3.
4. Dict = {4: 'four', 5: 'five'}
5. print(type(Dict))
6.
7. class Python:
8. a=0
9.
10. InstanceOfPython = Python()
11. print(type(InstanceOfPython))

Output:

<class 'list'>
<class 'dict'>
<class '__main__.Python'>

Python vars() function

The python vars() function returns the __dict__ attribute of the given object.
Python vars() Function Example

1. class Python:
2. def __init__(self, x = 7, y = 9):
3. self.x = x
4. self.y = y
5.
6. InstanceOfPython = Python()
7. print(vars(InstanceOfPython))

Output:

{'y': 9, 'x': 7}

Python zip() Function

The python zip() Function returns a zip object, which maps a similar index of multiple
containers. It takes iterables (can be zero or more), makes it an iterator that aggregates the
elements based on iterables passed, and returns an iterator of tuples.

Python zip() Function Example

1. numList = [4,5, 6]
2. strList = ['four', 'five', 'six']
3.
4. # No iterables are passed
5. result = zip()
6.
7. # Converting itertor to list
8. resultList = list(result)
9. print(resultList)
10.
11. # Two iterables are passed
12. result = zip(numList, strList)
13.
14. # Converting itertor to set
15. resultSet = set(result)
16. print(resultSet)

Output:
[]
{(5, 'five'), (4, 'four'), (6, 'six')}

Python Lambda Functions

Python Lambda function is known as the anonymous function that is defined without a name.
Python allows us to not declare the function in the standard manner, i.e., by using
the def keyword. Rather, the anonymous functions are declared by using
the lambda keyword. However, Lambda functions can accept any number of arguments, but
they can return only one value in the form of expression.

The anonymous function contains a small piece of code. It simulates inline functions of C and
C++, but it is not exactly an inline function.

The syntax to define an anonymous function is given below.

Syntax
1. lambda arguments: expression

It can accept any number of arguments and has only one expression. It is useful when the
function objects are required.

Consider the following example of the lambda function.

Example 1
1. # a is an argument and a+10 is an expression which got evaluated and returned.
2. x = lambda a:a+10
3. # Here we are printing the function object
4. print(x)
5. print("sum = ",x(20))

Output:

<function <lambda> at 0x0000019E285D16A8>

sum = 30

In the above example, we have defined the lambda a: a+10 anonymous function where a is
an argument and a+10 is an expression. The given expression gets evaluated and returned the
result. The above lambda function is same as the normal function.

1. def x(a):
2. return a+10
3. print(sum = x(10))