MODULE 3

HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO DESIGNS

2.1 BRAIN AS A CPU SYSTEM

 The human brain can be thought of as a highly sophisticated and complex information processing
system, similar to a computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU).
 Both the brain and CPU receive and process inputs, store information, and perform calculations to
produce outputs.
 However, there are significant differences between the two, such as the way they store and process
information and the fact that the human brain has the ability to learn and adapt, while a computer's
CPU does not.
 Additionally, the human brain is capable of performing tasks such as perception, thought, and
emotion, which are beyond the scope of a computer's CPU.
Table: Comparison Chart

Basis for Comparison Brain Computer

ICs, transistors, diodes, capacitors,
Computer Neurons and synapses
transistors, etc
Increases each time by connecting Increases by adding more memory
Memory growth
synaptic links chips
Backup system is constructed
Backup systems Built-in backup system
manually
100 teraflops (100 trillion
Memory power 100 million megabytes
calculations/seconds)

Memory density 107 circuits/cm3 1014 bits/cm3

Energy consumption 12 watts of power Gigawatts of power

Stored in electrochemical and Stored in numeric and symbolic

Information storage
electric impulses. form (i.e. in binary bits).

The brain's volume is 1500 cm3 Variable weight and size form
Size and weight
and weight is around 3.3 pounds. few grams to tons.

Transmission of Uses chemicals to fire the Communication is achieved

information action potential in the neurons. through electrical coded signals.
Information processing
Low High
power
Keyboards, mouse, web
Input/output equipment Sensory organs
cameras, etc.
Structural organization Self-organized Pre-programmed structure
 Parallelism Massive Limited

Reliability and Brain is self-organizing, self- Computers perform a monotonous

damageability properties maintaining and reliable. job and can'tcorrect itself

2.1.1 Architecture
The architecture of the human brain as a CPU system can be compared to that of a parallel
distributed processing system, as opposed to the Von Neumann architecture of traditional computers.

Figure: Comparison between Brains Computing System with Conventional Von NeumannComputing
System
In the human brain, information is processed in a distributed manner across multiple regions, each
with specialized functions, rather than being processed sequentially in a single centralized location. Just
like how a computer's CPU has an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) to perform mathematical calculations, the
human brain has specialized regions for processing mathematical and logical operations. The prefrontal
cortex, for example, is responsible for higher-level cognitive functions such as decision making and
problem solving.

Figure: Schematic representation of the frontal lobes of brain

 Similarly, a computer's CPU also has memory units for storing information, and the human brain
has several regions dedicated to memory storage, including the hippocampus and amygdala.

Figure: Limbic system. Cross section of the human brain. Mammillary body, basal ganglia, pituitary
gland, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus - Illustration Credit: Designua /Shutterstock

While the comparison between the human brain and a computer's CPU can provide useful insights,
it is important to note that the human brain is a vastly more complex and capable system, with many
functions that are still not fully understood.

2.1.2 Human Nervous System

In the human body, the neural system integrates the activities of organs based on the stimuli, which
the neurons detect and transmit. They transmit messages in the form of electrical impulses and convey
messages to and from the sense organs. Thus, the nervous coordination involves the participation of the
sense organs, nerves, spinal cord, and brain.

CNS and PNS

One of the most complex organ system to ever evolve, the human nervous system consists of two
parts, namely:

1. Central Nervous System (consists of the brain and spinal cord)

2. Peripheral Nervous System (includes all the nerves of the body)
 Figure: Representation of CNS and PNS

Central Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS) is often called the central processing unit of the body. It consists of
the brain and the spinal cord.

Brain
The brain is one of the important, largest and central organ of the human nervous system. It is the
control unit of the nervous system, which helps us in discovering new things, remembering and
understanding, making decisions, and a lot more. It is enclosed within the skull, which provides frontal,
lateral and dorsal protection. The human brain is composed of three major parts:

 Forebrain: The anterior part of the brain, consists of Cerebrum, Hypothalamus and Thalamus.
 Midbrain: The smaller and central part of the brainstem, consists of Tectum and Tegmentum.
 Hindbrain: The central region of the brain, composed of Cerebellum, Medulla and Pons.

Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a cylindrical bundle of nerve fibers and associated tissues enclosed within the
spine and connect all parts of the body to the brain. It begins in continuation with the medulla and extends
downwards. It is enclosed in a bony cage called vertebral column and surrounded by membranes called
meninges. The spinal cord is concerned with spinal reflex actions and the conduction of nerve impulses to
and from the brain.

Peripheral Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is the lateral part of the nervous system that develops from the
central nervous system which connects different parts of the body with the CNS. We carry out both
voluntary and involuntary actions with the help of peripheral nerves.
Classification of the peripheral nervous system:
1. Somatic neural system (SNS): It is the neural system that controls the voluntary actions in the body
by transmitting impulses from CNS to skeletal muscle cells. It consists of the somatic nerves.
2. Autonomic neural system (ANS): The autonomic neural system is involved in involuntary actions
like regulation of physiological functions (digestion, respiration, salivation, etc.). It is a self-
regulating system which conveys the impulses from the CNS to the smooth muscles and involuntary
organs (heart, bladder and pupil). The autonomic neural system can be further divided into:
 Sympathetic nervous system
 Parasympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic system controls “fight-or-flight” responses. In other words, this system prepares
the body for strenuous physical activity. The events that we would expect to occur within the body to allow
this to happen do, in fact, occur. The parasympathetic system regulates “rest and digest” functions. In other
words, this system controls basic bodily functions while one is sitting quietly reading a book.

2.1.3 Signal Transmission

Signal transmission in the brain occurs through the firing of nerve cells, or neurons. A neuron
receives inputs from other neurons at its dendrites, integrates the information, and then generates an
electrical impulse, or action potential, that travels down its axon to the synaptic terminals. At the synaptic
terminals, the neuron releases chemical neurotransmitters, which cross the synaptic gap and bind to
receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, leading to the initiation of another action potential in the postsynaptic
neuron.

This process of transmitting information from one neuron to another is known as synaptic
transmission and forms the basis of communication within the brain. Different types of neurotransmitters
have different effects on postsynaptic neurons, and the balance of neurotransmitter levels can influence
brain function, including mood, learning, and memory. Signal transmission in the brain is also influenced
by various forms of synaptic plasticity, including long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression
(LTD), which can modify the strength of synaptic connections and contribute to learning and memory
processes.

2.1.4 EEG
EEG stands for electroencephalography, which is a non-invasive method for measuring the
electrical activity of the brain. An EEG records the electrical signals generated by the brain's neurons as
they communicate with each other. The signals are recorded through electrodes placed on the scalp and the
resulting EEG pattern provides information about the synchronized electrical activity of large populations
of neurons.

Applications of EEG
Some of the most common applications of EEG are:
 Diagnosis of Epilepsy: EEG is a widely used tool to diagnose epilepsy and other seizure disorders.
It can detect abnormal electrical activity in the brain, which can help to confirm the diagnosis and
determine the location of the seizure focus.
 Sleep Studies: EEG is often used in sleep studies to evaluate sleep patterns an diagnose sleep
disorders.
 Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI): EEG can be used to control external devices such as prosthetic
limbs or computer software. This is done by detecting specific brain waves associated with a
particular mental state, such as concentration or relaxation.
 Research on Brain Function: EEG is used in research to study brain function during various
activities such as reading, problem-solving, and decision- making. EEG can also be used to
investigate how the brain responds to stimuli such as light, sound, and touch.
 Diagnosis of Brain Disorders: EEG can be used to diagnose a wide range of brain disorders
including dementia, Parkinson's disease, and traumatic brain injury.
 Anesthesia Monitoring: EEG can be used to monitor the depth of anesthesia during surgery to ensure
that the patient remains in a safe and comfortable state.
 Monitoring Brain Activity during Coma: EEG is also used to monitor brain activity in patients
who are in a coma to determine the level of brain function and assess the likelihood of recovery.
EEG Signals and Types of Brain Activity
EEG signals have unique features that correspond to different types of brain activity. Here are some
of the main types of brain activity that can be detected with EEG:

 Delta waves (0.5-4 Hz): Delta waves are low-frequency waves associated with deep sleep, infancy,
and brain disorders such as brain damage or dementia.
 Theta waves (4-8 Hz): Theta waves are also associated with sleep and relaxation, as well as
meditation and hypnosis. They are also present during memory encoding and retrieval processes.
 Alpha waves (8-12 Hz): Alpha waves are present when the brain is relaxed and not focused on any
particular task. They are also associated with meditation and creativity.
 Beta waves (12-30 Hz): Beta waves are present when the brain is focused on a task, such as problem-
solving or decision-making. They are also associated with anxiety and stress.
 Gamma waves (30-100 Hz): Gamma waves are associated with high-level cognitive processing,
such as attention, perception, and memory. They are also involved in sensory processing and motor
control.
The analysis of EEG signals can provide valuable information about brain function and activity, as
well as offer insights into the workings of the human mind.

Figure: Representing EEG signal and the mental state of brain

2.1.5 Robotic Arms for Prosthetics

Robotic arms for prosthetics are advanced prosthetic devices that use robotics technology to restore
functionality to individuals with upper limb amputations. These devices typically use motors, actuators,
and sensors to mimic the movements of a human arm and hand, allowing the wearer to perform tasks such
as reaching, grasping, and manipulating objects Robotic arms for prosthetics can be controlled in a variety
of ways, including direct control through muscle signals (myoelectric control) or brain-machine interfaces,
which use electrodes implanted in the brain or placed on the scalp to detect and interpret brain activity.
 Some prosthetic arms also incorporate machine learning algorithms to improve their performance
and adapt to the user's needs over time.

Robotic Arm Prosthetic Direct Control through Muscle Signals (myoelectric control)
Myoelectric control of a robotic arm prosthetic involves using the electrical signals generated by
the wearer's remaining muscles to control the movement of the prosthetic. The system typically involves
electrodes placed on the skin over the remaining muscle that are used to detect and interpret the electrical
signals generated by the muscle contractions.

Figure: Representation of myoelectric control of an ankle exoskeleton

When the wearer contracts their muscles, the electrodes detect the electrical signals and send them
to a control unit, which interprets the signals and uses them to control the movement of the robotic arm.
Depending on the specific design, the control unit may use pattern recognition algorithms to determine
which movement the wearer is intending to perform, or the wearer may use a combination of muscle signals
to control specific degrees of freedom in the prosthetic arm.
Myoelectric control has the advantage of being directly controlled by the user, allowing for a more
intuitive and natural interaction with the prosthetic. It can also provide a high level of control and precision,
as the electrical signals generated by the muscles are unique to each individual and can be used to perform
a wide range of movements.

However, myoelectric control systems can be complex and may require extensive rehabilitation and
training to use effectively, as well as ongoing maintenance to ensure proper function. Additionally, the
system may not be suitable for individuals with muscle weakness or other conditions that affect the ability
to generate strong electrical signals.
Robotic Arm Prosthetic by Brain-Machine Interfaces
Brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) are a type of technology that allows a user to control a robotic arm
prosthetic directly with their brain activity. The system typically involves electrodes placed on the scalp or
implanted directly into the brain to detect and interpret the user's brain signals.

Figure: Representing brain-machine interfaces

When the user thinks about moving the prosthetic arm, the electrodes detect the corresponding brain
activity and send the signals to a control unit, which uses algorithms to interpret the signals and control the
movement of the prosthetic. The user can then control the movement of the prosthetic in real-time by
thinking about the desired movement.
BMIs have the advantage of providing a direct and intuitive connection between the user's brain and
the prosthetic, allowing for a high level of control and precision. Additionally, BMIs can be used to provide
sensory feedback to the user, allowing them to experience the sensation of touch through the prosthetic.
However, BMIs can be complex and invasive systems, requiring surgical implantation and ongoing
maintenance to ensure proper function. Additionally, they may not be suitable for individuals with
conditions that affect brain activity or who are unable to generate strong enough brain signals to control the
prosthetic effectively. Ongoing research and development is aimed at improving the performance and
accessibility of BMIs, as well as increasing their ease of use and reliability.

2.1.6 Parkinson’s Disease

It is a progressive disorder that affects the nervous system and the parts of the body controlled by
the nerves. Symptoms start slowly. The first symptom may be a barely noticeable tremor in just one hand.
Tremors are common, but the disorder may also cause stiffness or slowing of movement.
 In Parkinson's disease, certain nerve cells (neurons) in the brain gradually break down or die. Many
of the symptoms are due to a loss of neurons that produce a chemical messenger in your brain called
dopamine. When dopamine levels decrease, it causes atypical brain activity, leading to impaired movement
and other symptoms of Parkinson's disease.
Parkinson's disease can't be cured, but medications can help control the symptoms, often
dramatically. In some more advanced cases, surgery may be advised. Your health care provider may also
recommend lifestyle changes, especially ongoing aerobic exercise.

Engineering Solutions for Parkinson’s Disease

Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement and motor function.
There are several engineering solutions aimed at improving the quality of life for individuals with
Parkinson's disease, including:

 Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): DBS involves the implantation of electrodes into specific regions
of the brain to deliver electrical stimulation, which can help to relieve symptoms such as tremors,
stiffness, and difficulty with movement.
 Exoskeletons: Exoskeletons are wearable devices that provide support and assistance for
individuals with mobility issues. Some exoskeletons have been developed specifically for people
with Parkinson's disease, and can help to improve balance, reduce tremors, and increase overall
mobility.
 Telerehabilitation: Telerehabilitation involves the use of telecommunication technology to provide
physical therapy and rehabilitation services to individuals with Parkinson's disease, without the need
for in-person visits to a therapist.
 Smartwatch Applications: Smartwatch applications can be used to monitor symptoms of
Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, and provide reminders and prompts for medication and
exercise.
 Virtual Reality: Virtual reality systems can be used for rehabilitation and therapy for individuals
with Parkinson's disease, providing interactive and engaging environments for patients to practice
movements and improve coordination and balance.
These engineering solutions have the potential to significantly improve the quality of life for
individuals with Parkinson's disease, and ongoing research and development is aimed at improving their
effectiveness and accessibility. However, it is important to note that these technologies are not a cure for
Parkinson's disease and should be used in conjunction with other forms of treatment and care.
 Figure: Representing typical appearance of Parkinson’s disease

2.2 EYE AS A CAMERA SYSTEM:

The human eye can be analogized to a camera system, as both the eye and a camera capture light
and convert it into an image. The main components of the eye that correspond to a camera system include:

 The Cornea: This transparent outer layer of the eye functions like a camera lens, bending light to
focus it onto the retina.
 The Iris: The iris functions like the diaphragm in a camera, controlling the amount of light that
enters the eye.
 The Pupil: The pupil functions like the aperture in a camera, adjusting the size to control the amount
of light entering the eye.
 The Retina: The retina functions like the camera film or sensor, capturing the light and converting
it into electrical signals that are sent to the brain.
 The Optic Nerve: The optic nerve functions like the cable connecting the camera to a computer,
transmitting the electrical signals from the retina to the brain.

Figure: Comparing camera and anatomy of eye

In both the eye and a camera, the captured light is transformed into an image by the lens and the
light-sensitive component. The eye processes the image further, allowing for visual perception, while a
camera stores the image for later use.

It's important to note that the eye is much more complex than a camera and has several additional
functions, such as adjusting for different levels of light and adjusting focus, that are not found in a camera.
The eye also has the ability to perceive depth and colour, as well as adjust to movements and provide a
continuous, real-time image to the brain.

Figure: Representing anatomy of eye

2.2.1 Parts of the Human Eye

 Sclera: The outer covering of the eye is called the sclera. It is a protective tough white layer (white
part of the eye).
 Cornea: The transparent part in front of the sclera is called the cornea. Light enters the eye through
the cornea, it bends(refracts) the light passes through it. It also protects the eye and also doesn't
allow foreign particles to enter the eye.
 Iris: It is a dark, muscular tissue and ring-like structure present behind the cornea. The colour of
the eye is due to the colour of the iris. The iris regulates the amount and intensity of light entering
the eyes by adjusting the size of the iris.
 Pupil: The pupil is a small opening in the iris. The iris controls the size of the pupil. The pupil’s
function is to adjust the amount of light entering the eye.
 Lens: The transparent portion situated behind the pupil is called the lens (convex lens which thicker
at the center than the edges). It focusses all the light at one point. The lens alters the shape to focus
light on the retina, with the help of ciliary muscles. It becomes small to focus on objects at a distance
and becomes big to focus on nearby objects.
 Retina: It’s the inner boundary of the eye. It is the light-sensitive layer that consists of nerve cells.
Its function is to convert the images formed by the lens into electrical impulses. These electrical
impulses are then transmitted through optic nerves to the brain.
 Optic Nerves: Light coming from retina is sensed by the nerve cells. You can find two types of
optic nerves, which are cones and rods.
1. Cones: Cones are the nerve cells that are more sensitive to bright light. Cones help in central
and colour vision.
 2. Rods: Rods are the nerve cells that are more sensitive to dim lights. Rodes help in peripheral
vision.
The message or sensation is then transferred to the brain along the optic nerve.

Figure: Representation of photoreceptor cells

Rod Cells
Rod cells are photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that are responsible for detecting light and
transmitting signals to the brain for the perception of vision, especially in low light conditions. They contain
a protein called rhodopsin that absorbs light and triggers a chain of events leading to the activation of neural
signals. Rods are more sensitive to light than cone cells but do not distinguish color as well.

Cone Cells
Cone cells are photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that are responsible for color vision and
visual acuity (sharpness of vision). There are three types of cone cells, each containing a different photo
pigment sensitive to different wavelengths of light (red, green, and blue), which allow for the perception of
color. Cones are less sensitive to light than rod cells but provide better visual acuity and color
discrimination. They are concentrated in the fovea, the central part of the retina responsible for detailed and
sharp vision.

2.2.2 Architecture
Rod and cone cells have a similar basic structure, but there are some differences that are crucial for
their different functions.

Figure: Representing rod and cone cells

 Both types of cells have a photoreceptor outer segment that contains the photopigment (rhodopsin
in rods and photopigments in cones) that absorbs light and triggers a change in membrane potential. The
inner segment contains the cell's organelles, including the nucleus and mitochondria.
The major difference between rod and cone cells is their shape. Rod cells are elongated and
cylindrical, while cone cells are shorter and more conical in shape. This difference in shape affects the
distribution of photopigments and the number of synaptic contacts with bipolar and ganglion cells, which
transmit the signals to the brain. Rod cells have a single long outer segment, while cone cells have several
shorter segments.
Another difference between the two types of cells is the distribution of their synaptic contacts with
bipolar cells. Rod cells make synapses with one bipolar cell, while cone cells synapse with one of several
bipolar cells. This difference in synapse distribution is critical for the different functions of rod and cone
cells in vision.

2.2.3 Optical Corrections

Optical corrections refer to devices or techniques used to improve or correct vision problems caused
by a refractive error in the eye. Refractive errors occur when light entering the eye is not properly focused
on the retina, leading to blurred vision. There are several types of refractive errors, including:

 Myopia (near sightedness): Light is focused in front of the retina, making distant objects appear
blurry.
 Hyperopia (farsightedness): Light is focused behind the retina, making near objects appear blurry.
 Astigmatism: Light is not focused evenly on the retina, leading to blurred or distorted vision.
 The most common optical corrections include:
1. Eyeglasses: Glasses with corrective lenses can be used to refocus light onto the retina,
improving vision.
2. Contact lenses: Corrective lenses in the form of contacts sit directly on the cornea and work
similarly to eyeglasses.
3. Refractive surgery: Surgical procedures, such as LASIK and PRK, can reshape the cornea to
correct refractive errors.

Optical corrections can greatly improve visual acuity and quality of life for people with refractive
errors. However, it is important to have regular eye exams to determine the appropriate correction and
monitor eye health.
2.2.4 Cataract

Figure: Representing cataract

A cataract is a clouding of the lens of the eye that affects vision. The lens, located behind the iris
and pupil, normally allows light to pass through to the retina and produces clear, sharp images. However,
as we age or due to other factors, the proteins in the lens can clump together and cause the lens to become
opaque, leading to vision problems.
Symptoms of a cataract include blurred or hazy vision, increased sensitivity to glare and bright
lights, faded or yellowed colors, and double vision in one eye. Cataracts can also cause frequent changes in
prescription for eyeglasses or contacts.
Cataract surgery is a common and safe procedure to remove the cloudy lens and replace it with an
artificial lens. The surgery is typically performed on an outpatient basis and most people experience
improved vision within a few days after the procedure.
In conclusion, cataracts can significantly affect vision, but surgical removal and replacement with
an artificial lens can restore clear vision and improve quality of life. Regular eye exams can help detect
cataracts early and prevent vision loss.

2.2.5 Lens Materials

The artificial lenses used in cataract surgery or for vision correction can be made of a variety of
materials, each with its own unique properties and benefits. The most common lens materials include:

 Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA): PMMA is a type of plastic that has been used for many years
in artificial lenses. It is a durable and affordable material, but does not have the ability to flex and
adjust focus like the natural lens.
 Silicone: Silicone is a soft, flexible material that is resistant to cracking and breaking. It is often
used in phakic intraocular lenses (IOLs), which are implanted in front of the natural lens.
 Acrylic: Acrylic is a lightweight, clear material that is similar in properties to PMMA. It is often
used in foldable IOLs, which can be inserted through a smaller incision.
 Hydrophobic acrylic: Hydrophobic acrylic is a type of acrylic material that has a special surface
treatment that helps to reduce glare and halos around lights.
  Hydrophilic acrylic: Hydrophilic acrylic is a type of acrylic material that is designed to be more
compatible with the natural fluid in the eye, reducing the risk of vision-threatening complications.

The choice of lens material will depend on several factors, including the patient's individual needs,
the surgeon's preference, and the potential risks and benefits of each material. Your eye doctor can provide
guidance on which lens material may be best for you.

2.2.6 Bionic Eye or Artificial Eye

A bionic eye, also known as a retinal implant, is a type of prosthetic device that is surgically
implanted into the eye to help restore vision to people who have lost their sight due to certain conditions
such as retinitis pigmentosa or age-related macular degeneration.

Figure: Photo of a bionic eye

The device typically consists of a camera, a processor, and an electrode array that is attached to the
retina. The camera captures images and sends signals to the processor, which the transmits electrical
stimulation to the electrodes in the retina to stimulate the remaining healthy cells and restore vision. The
restored vision is not perfect, but it can help people with vision loss to perform daily tasks more easily and
safely.

Materials Used in Bionic Eye

The materials used in a bionic eye can vary depending on the specific device and manufacturer.
However, some of the common materials used in bionic eye technology include:

 Silicon or other semiconducting materials for the camera and the electrode array.
 Biocompatible materials for the casing of the device and the electrode array, such a titanium or
titanium alloys, to minimize the risk of infection and rejection by the body.
 Conductive materials, such as platinum, iridium, or gold, for the electrodes in the array to provide
efficient electrical stimulation to the retina.
  Polymers, such as silicone or polyimide, for insulation and protection of the electrodes and other
components.
 Optical materials, such as glass or acrylic, for the lens of the camera.
 Biocompatible and flexible materials for the electrical connections between the camera and the
processing unit and between the processing unit and the electrode array.

In addition to these materials, advanced computer algorithms and machine learning techniques are
also used to improve the accuracy and reliability of the bionic eye technology.

Figure: Representing working of a bionic eye

Working of Bionic Eye

A bionic eye typically works by capturing images with a small camera and transmitting the
information to a processing unit that is attached to the eye. The processing unit then converts the visual
information into electrical signals and sends them to an electrode array that is surgically implanted onto the
retina. The electrodes stimulate the remaining healthy cells in the retina, which then sends signals to the
brain to create the perception of vision.

The restored vision is not perfect, but it can help people with vision loss to perform daily tasks more
easily and safely. The amount and quality of vision that can be restored varies depending on the individual
and the type of bionic eye being used. Some bionic eyes only restore basic visual shapes and patterns, while
others can provide more detailed vision.
 The bionic eye is powered by a battery that is typically implanted behind the ear. The battery is
recharged through a device that is held near the eye, which transmits power wirelessly to the battery. The
device is typically rechargeable and can be used for several years before it needs to be replaced.

2.3 HEART AS A PUMP SYSTEM

2.3.1 Architecture:
The heart is a complex pump system that circulates blood throughout the body.

Figure: Representing the chambers of heart

It consists of four chambers: the right atrium, the left atrium, the right ventricle, and the left
ventricle. Blood enters the right atrium from the body and is pumped into the right ventricle, which then
pumps the blood to the lungs for oxygenation. Oxygenated blood returns to the heart and enters the left
atrium, which pumps the blood into the left ventricle. The left ventricle then pumps the oxygenated blood
out to the rest of the body.

Between each chamber, there are one-way valves that ensure the blood flows in the correct direction
and prevent backflow. The heart is also surrounded by the pericardium, a sac that contains a small amount
of fluid and helps to protect and lubricate the heart as it beats.

The Heart Beat

The heart's pumping action is controlled by a complex network of electrical and chemical signals,
which generate the rhythm of the heartbeat.
 Figure: Representation of electrical system of the heart

An electrical stimulus is generated in a special part of the heart muscle called the sinus node. It's
also called the sinoatrial node (SA node). The sinus node is a small mass of special tissue in the right upper
chamber of the heart (right atrium). In an adult, the sinus node sends out a regular electrical pulse 60 to 100
times per minute. This electrical pulse travels down through the conduction pathways and causes the heart's
lower chambers (ventricles) to contract and pump out blood. The right and left atria are stimulated first and
contract to push blood from the atria into the ventricles. The ventricles then contract to push blood out into
the blood vessels of the body.

2.3.2 Electrical Signalling – ECG Monitoring and Heart Related Issues

Figure: ECG waves and their relation to heart nodes

The heart's pumping action is controlled by electrical signaling, which generates the rhythm of the
heartbeat. This electrical signaling can be monitored using an electrocardiogram (ECG), which records the
electrical activity of the heart and provides important information about the heart's function.
 An ECG measures the electrical signals produced by the heart as it beats and generates a trace or
waveform that reflects the electrical activity of the heart. This trace can be used to diagnose heart conditions
and monitor the heart's function.

Some common heart-related issues that can be diagnosed or monitored using an ECG include:
 Arrhythmias: Abnormalities in the heart's rhythm or rate can be detected using an ECG.
 Heart disease: Changes in the heart's electrical activity can indicate the presence of heart disease,
such as coronary artery disease or heart attacks.
 Heart attack: An ECG can help diagnose a heart attack by detecting changes in the heart's electrical
activity that indicate a lack of blood flow to the heart.
Overall, the ECG is a useful tool for diagnosing and monitoring heart-related issues and helps to
provide important information about the heart's function and health.

2.3.3 Reasons for Blockages of Blood Vessels

Figure: (A) shows damage (dead heart muscle) caused by a heart attack, (B) shows the coronary
artery with plaque build-up and a blood clot

Blockages in blood vessels, also known as arterial blockages or atherosclerosis, can occur for
several reasons:

 High cholesterol levels: Excessive amounts of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in the
blood can lead to the formation of plaque in the blood vessels, which can narrow or block them.
 High blood pressure: Over time, high blood pressure can cause damage to the blood vessels,
leading to the formation of plaque and blockages.
 Smoking: Smoking can damage the inner walls of blood vessels and promote the build-up of plaque,
leading to blockages.
  Diabetes: People with uncontrolled diabetes are at a higher risk of developing blockages in their
blood vessels, due to damage to the blood vessels from high levels of glucose.
 Age: As people age, the blood vessels can become stiff and less flexible, increasing the risk of
blockages.
 Genetics: Some people may be predisposed to developing blockages in their blood vessels due to
genetic factors.
 Poor diet: A diet high in saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol can increase the risk of developing
blockages in the blood vessels.
The blockages in blood vessels can have serious health consequences, such as heart attacks and
stroke. Maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including eating a healthy diet, exercising regularly, and avoiding
smoking, can help reduce the risk of developing blockages in blood vessels.

2.3.4 Design of Stents

Stents are small, metal mesh devices that are used to treat blockages in blood vessels. They are
typically used in procedures such as angioplasty, where a balloon catheter is used to open up a blocked
blood vessel and a stent is placed to keep it open.

Figure: Representing the working of balloon stent and self-expanding stent

The design of stents can vary depending on the type of stent and the specific medical condition it is
used to treat. Some common design features of stents include:

 Shape: Stents can be designed in a variety of shapes, including cylindrical, helical, and spiralled,
to match the shape of the blood vessel and provide adequate support.
 Material: Stents can be made of different materials, including stainless steel, cobalt chromium, and
nitinol (a type of metal that is flexible and can return to its original shape after being expanded).
  Coating: Stents can be coated with different materials to prevent blood clots from forming and
reduce the risk of restenosis (recurrent blockage of the blood vessel).
 Expansion mechanism: Stents can be designed to expand in different ways, such as by balloon
inflation or self-expansion, depending on the type of stent and the specific medical condition it is
used to treat.
Overall, the design of stents plays an important role in their effectiveness and safety. Stents must be
designed to provide adequate support to the blood vessel, prevent restenosis, and minimize the risk of
complications such as blood clots.

2.3.5 Pace Makers

A pacemaker is a small device that is surgically implanted in the chest to regulate the heartbeat. It
is used to treat heart rhythm disorders, such as bradycardia (a slow heartbeat) or arrhythmias (abnormal
heart rhythms), by delivering electrical impulses to the heart to regulate its rhythm.

The basic design of a pacemaker consists of:

 Generator: The generator is the main component of the pacemaker and contains a battery and
electronic circuitry to generate and control the electrical impulses.
 Leads: Leads are thin wires that connect the generator to the heart and carry the electrical impulses
from the generator to the heart.
  Electrodes: The electrodes are located at the end of the leads and are used to deliver the electrical
impulses to the heart.

Pacemakers can be designed to work in different ways, including:

 Single-chamber pacemaker: A single-chamber pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to either
the right atrium or the right ventricle of the heart to regulate its rhythm.
 Dual-chamber pacemaker: A dual-chamber pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to both the
right atrium and the right ventricle of the heart to regulate its rhythm.
 Biventricular pacemaker: A biventricular pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to both
ventricles of the heart to coordinate their contractions and improve heart function in people with
heart failure.

Figure: Representing the different types of pacemakers

Construction of a Pacemaker
The construction of a pacemaker involves the use of high-quality materials and specialized
manufacturing processes to ensure their safety and reliability. Materials used in the construction of
pacemakers include:
 Medical-grade plastics: Medical-grade plastics, such as polycarbonate, are used to construct the
exterior of the device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal components.
 Metals: Metals, such as stainless steel and titanium, are used in the construction of the leads and
electrodes to ensure their durability and long-lasting performance.
 Electronic components: Electronic components, such as microprocessors, batteries, and
capacitors, are used to control the delivery of the electrical impulses and to provide power to the
device.
  Adhesives: Adhesives, such as cyanoacrylate and epoxy, are used to secure the components of the
device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal components.

The manufacturing process for pacemakers includes multiple quality control measures to ensure
their safety and reliability. This includes testing of individual components and final assembly testing to
verify the proper operation of the device before it is released for use.

2.3.6 Defibrillators

Figure: Representing defibrillator

A defibrillator is a medical device that delivers an electric shock to the heart to restore its normal
rhythm in cases of cardiac arrest or other life-threatening heart rhythm disorders. Defibrillators can be
external (placed on the chest) or internal (implanted within the body).

The basic design of a defibrillator consists of:

 Power source: The power source, typically a battery, provides energy to deliver the electric shock
to the heart.
 Electrodes: The electrodes are placed on the chest and deliver the electric shock to the heart.
 Circuitry: The circuitry in the defibrillator controls the delivery of the electric shock, including the
timing, strength, and duration of the shock.
 Display: A display on the defibrillator provides information about the heart rhythm, battery life,
and other relevant information.

Automated External Defibrillators

External defibrillators, also known as automated external defibrillators (AEDs), are designed for
use by laypeople and are commonly found in public places such as airports, shopping centers, and schools.
They are relatively simple in design and typically have voice prompts and visual cues to guide the user
through the process of delivering the electric shock.

Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators

Internal defibrillators, also known as implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs), are surgically
implanted within the body and are used to treat people with a high risk of sudden cardiac arrest. They are
typically more complex in design, including features such as continuous monitoring of the heart rhythm,
and automatic delivery of shocks when necessary.

Construction of defibrillators
The construction of defibrillators involves the use of high-quality materials and specialized
manufacturing processes to ensure their safety and reliability.

Materials Used

Materials used in the construction of defibrillators include:

 Medical-grade plastics: Medical-grade plastics, such as polycarbonate, are used to construct the
exterior of the device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal components.
 Metals: Metals, such as stainless steel and titanium, are used in the construction of the leads and
electrodes to ensure their durability and long-lasting performance.
 Electronic components: Electronic components, such as microprocessors, batteries, capacitors,
and high-voltage transformers, are used to control the delivery of the electrical impulses and to
provide power to the device.
 Adhesives: Adhesives, such as cyanoacrylate and epoxy, are used to secure the components of the
device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal components.

The manufacturing process for defibrillators includes multiple quality control measures to ensure
their safety and reliability. This includes testing of individual components and final assembly testing to
verify the proper operation of the device before it is released for use.

Basic Design
The basic design of a defibrillator consists of:
 Power source: The power source, typically a battery, provides energy to deliver the electrical
impulses to the heart.
 Electrodes: The electrodes are placed on the chest and deliver the electrical impulses to the heart
to restore normal rhythm.
 Circuitry: The circuitry in the defibrillator controls the delivery of the electrical impulses, including
the timing, strength, and duration of the impulses.
 Display: A display on the defibrillator provides information about the heart rhythm, battery life,
and other relevant information.
Artificial Heart
An artificial heart is a device that is designed to replace the functions of a damaged or failing heart.
It can be used as a temporary measure to support a patient while they are waiting for a heart transplant, or
as a permanent solution for people who are not eligible for a heart transplant.

Figure: Schematic representation of artificial heart

There are two main types of artificial hearts:

1. Total artificial hearts and

2. Heart assist devices.
 A total artificial heart is a self-contained device that completely replaces the functions of the natural
heart. It is used as a bridge to transplant, meaning it provides temporary support to a patient while
they are waiting for a heart transplant.
 Heart assist devices, on the other hand, are devices that are surgically implanted into the heart and
work alongside the natural heart to support its functions. While these devices are still in the early
stages of development, they have the potential to greatly improve the survival and well-being of
people with heart disease.
2.4 Lungs as Purification System:

Figure: Representing the oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange in the alveoli and capillary

Lungs as Purifier
The lung purifies air by removing harmful substances and adding oxygen to the bloodstream. The
process of purifying air in the lungs can be described as follows:

 Filtration: The nose and mouth serve as a first line of defense against harmful substances in the air,
such as dust, dirt, and bacteria. The tiny hairs in the nose, called cilia, and the mucus produced by
the respiratory system trap these substances and prevent them from entering the lungs.
 Moisturization: The air is also humidified as it passes over the moist lining of the respiratory tract,
which helps to keep the airways moist and prevent them from drying out.
 Gas Exchange: Once the air reaches the alveoli, the gas exchange process occurs, where oxygen
diffuses across the thin alveolar and capillary walls into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide
diffuses in the opposite direction, from the bloodstream into the alveoli to be exhaled. This process
ensures that the bloodstream is supplied with fresh, oxygen-rich air, while waste carbon dioxide is
removed from the body.
 Overall, the lung serves as a vital purification system, filtering out harmful substances, adding
oxygen to the bloodstream, and removing waste carbon dioxide. It plays a critical role in maintaining the
body's homeostasis and supporting life.

2.4.1 Architecture of Lungs as Purification System

Figure: Representing structure of lung

The architecture of the lung is designed to maximize surface area for efficient gas exchange. The
lung is divided into several parts, including the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.

 Trachea: The trachea is the main airway that leads from the larynx (voice box) to the lungs. It is
lined with cilia and mucus-secreting glands that help to filter out harmful substances and trap them
in the mucus.
 Bronchi: The trachea branches into two main bronchi, one for each lung. The bronchi are larger
airways that continue to branch into smaller airways called bronchioles.
 Bronchioles: The bronchioles are smaller airways that eventually lead to the alveoli. They are
surrounded by tiny air sacs called alveoli, which are the sites of gas exchange.
 Alveoli: The alveoli are tiny air sacs that are lined with a network of capillaries. This close proximity
of the alveoli and capillaries allows for efficient diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between
the air in the alveoli and the bloodstream.

Overall, the architecture of the lung is designed to provide a large surface area for gas exchange,
while filtering out harmful substances and humidifying the air. The close proximity of the alveoli and
capillaries, along with the moist lining of the respiratory tract, ensures that the air is properly purified and
the bloodstream is supplied with fresh, oxygen-rich air
2.4.2 Gas Exchange Mechanism of Lung
The gas exchange mechanism in the lung involves the transfer of oxygen from the air in the alveoli
to the bloodstream, and the transfer of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to the air in the alveoli. This
process is known as diffusion and occurs due to differences in partial pressures of oxygen and carbon
dioxide.

 Oxygen Diffusion: The partial pressure of oxygen in the air in the alveoli is higher than the partial
pressure of oxygen in the bloodstream. This difference creates a gradient that causes oxygen to
diffuse from the alveoli into the bloodstream, where it binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells to
form oxyhemoglobin.
 Carbon Dioxide Diffusion: The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream is higher than
the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air in the alveoli. This difference creates a gradient that
causes carbon dioxide to diffuse from the bloodstream into the alveoli, where it is exhaled.

2.4.3 Spirometry
Spirometry is a diagnostic test that measures the function of the lungs by measuring the amount and
flow rate of air that can be exhaled. The test is commonly used to diagnose lung conditions such as asthma,
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and interstitial lung disease.

Principle: The principle behind spirometry is to measure the volume of air that can be exhaled from
the lungs in a given time period. By measuring the volume of air exhaled, spirometry can provide
information about the functioning of the lungs and the ability of the lungs to move air in and out.

Working: Spirometry is performed using a spirometer, a device that consists of a mouthpiece, a

flow sensor, and a volume sensor. The patient is asked to exhale as much air as possible into the spirometer,
and the spirometer measures the volume and flow rate of the exhaled air. The volume of air exhaled is
displayed on a graph called a flow-volume loop, which provides information about the lung function.
 Figure: Image of a spirometer

Interpretation of Results
The results of spirometry can be used to determine if the lungs are functioning normally and to
diagnose lung conditions. For example, a decrease in the volume of air exhaled or a decrease in the flow
rate of the exhaled air can indicate a restriction in the airways, which can be a sign of a lung condition such
as asthma or COPD.

2.4.4 Abnormal Lung Physiology - COPD

Figure: Representing the causes of COPD

Abnormal lung physiology refers to any deviation from the normal functioning of the respiratory
system. This can be caused by a variety of factors, including diseases, injuries, or genetic conditions. Some
common examples of abnormal lung physiology include:

 Asthma: A chronic inflammatory disease that causes the airways to narrow, making it difficult to
breathe.
 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): A progressive lung disease that makes it hard
to breathe and can include conditions such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
 Pulmonary fibrosis: A disease in which scar tissue builds up in the lungs, making it difficult to
breathe and reducing lung function.
 Pneumonia: An infection in the lungs that can cause inflammation and fluid buildup in the air sacs.
 Pulmonary embolism: A blockage in one of the pulmonary arteries, usually by a blood clot, which
can cause lung damage and reduce oxygen flow to the body.
 Lung cancer: A type of cancer that originates in the lung and can impair lung function by interfering
with normal air flow and oxygen exchange.
 Treatment for abnormal lung physiology depends on the underlying cause and may include
medications, lifestyle changes, or surgery.

It's important to seek prompt medical attention if you experience symptoms such as shortness of
breath, wheezing, or chest pain, as these can be indicative of a serious lung problem.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a group of progressive lung diseases that cause
breathing difficulties. It's characterized by persistent airflow limitation that is not fully reversible. The two
main forms of COPD are chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
In COPD, the airways and small air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs become damaged or blocked, leading
to difficulty in exhaling air. This results in a decrease in lung function, leading to shortness of breath,
wheezing, and coughing. Over time, these symptoms can get worse and limit a person's ability to perform
everyday activities.
The primary cause of COPD is long-term exposure to irritants such as tobacco smoke, air pollution,
and dust. Other risk factors include a history of frequent lung infections, a family history of lung disease,
and exposure to second-hand smoke.
There is no cure for COPD, but treatment can help manage the symptoms and slow the progression
of the disease. Treatment options include medication, such as bronchodilators and steroids, oxygen therapy,
and lung rehabilitation. In severe cases, surgery may also be an option. In addition, quitting smoking and
avoiding exposure to irritants is crucial in managing COPD.

2.4.5 Ventilators
Ventilators are medical devices used to assist or control breathing in individuals who are unable to
breathe adequately on their own. They are commonly used in the treatment of acute respiratory failure,
which can occur as a result of a variety of conditions such as pneumonia, severe asthma, and chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Figure: Representing a ventilator machine

 There are several different types of ventilators, including volume-controlled ventilators, pressure-
controlled ventilators, and bilevel positive airway pressure (BiPAP) devices. The type of ventilator used
depends on the patient's individual needs and the type of respiratory failure being treated.

Ventilators work by delivering pressurized air or oxygen into the lungs through a breathing tube or
mask. The pressure can be adjusted to match the patient's needs and to help maintain adequate oxygen
levels in the blood.

While ventilators can be lifesaving for individuals with acute respiratory failure, they also come
with potential risks and complications. For example, prolonged use of a ventilator can increase the risk of
ventilator-associated pneumonia, and patients may experience discomfort or pain from the breathing tube.

The use of ventilators is carefully monitored and managed by healthcare professionals to ensure that
the patient receives the appropriate level of support while minimizing potential risks and complications.

2.4.6 Heart-Lung Machine

A heart-lung machine, also known as a cardiopulmonary bypass machine, is a device used in
cardiovascular surgery to temporarily take over the functions of the heart and lungs. The heart-lung machine
is used during open-heart surgery, such as coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery and valve
replacement surgery, to support the patient's circulatory and respiratory functions while the heart is stopped.

The heart-lung machine works by circulating blood outside of the body through a series of tubes
and pumps. Blood is taken from the body, oxygenated, and then returned to the body. This allows the heart
to be stopped during the surgery without causing any harm to the patient.

Figure: Representing a heart-lung machine

 The use of a heart-lung machine during surgery carries some risks, including the potential for blood
clots, bleeding, and infections. Additionally, there may be some long-term effects on the body, such as
cognitive decline, that are not yet fully understood. However, the use of a heart-lung machine has
revolutionized the field of cardiovascular surgery, allowing for more complex procedures to be performed
and greatly improving patient outcomes.

2.4.7 Artificial Lungs

Artificial lungs are devices designed to mimic the function of the natural respiratory system. They
are used to support patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or acute lung injury (ALI)
and to help the patient's own lungs recover and heal.

Types
There are two main types of artificial lungs: membrane oxygenators and extracorporeal lung assist
devices.

Membrane Oxygenators: These are devices that use a semipermeable membrane to transfer
oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the air. The blood is pumped through the membrane,
where it comes into contact with air, allowing for the exchange of gases.

Figure: Representing a membrane oxygenator

Extracorporeal Lung Assist Devices: These devices work by removing carbon dioxide from the
blood and adding oxygen, allowing the patient's natural lungs to rest and heal. One example of an
extracorporeal lung assist device is the extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) machine, which is
used to treat patients with severe respiratory failure. ECMO works by removing carbon dioxide from the
blood and adding oxygen, and it can be used as a bridge to recovery or as a bridge to lung transplantation.

Figure: Representing veno-venous and veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation

Figure: Anatomy of kidney

 2.5. Kidney as a Filtration System:
The kidney is a complex organ that acts as a filtration system for the body. It removes waste and
excess fluid from the bloodstream and maintains a delicate balance of electrolytes, hormones, and other
substances that are critical for the body's normal functioning.
The kidney also plays an important role in regulating blood pressure by secreting the hormone renin,
which helps control the balance of fluid and electrolytes in the body. It also regulates red blood cell
production and the levels of various minerals in the blood, such as calcium and phosphorus.
Without the kidney, waste and excess fluid would accumulate in the body, leading to serious health
problems.

2.5.1 Architecture of Kidney

The kidney is composed of functional units called nephrons, which are the basic structural and
functional units of the kidney. Each kidney contains approximately one million nephrons, and each nephron
performs the functions of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.

Figure: Representing kidney and nephron

 Figure: Representing the parts of nephron
The nephron is comprised of several key structures:
 Bowman's capsule: This is a cup-shaped structure that surrounds the glomerulus and filters waste
and excess fluid from the bloodstream into the renal tubule.
 Glomerulus: A network of tiny blood vessels within the Bowman's capsule that filters waste and
excess fluid from the bloodstream.
 Proximal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that reabsorbs important substances,
such as glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes, back into the bloodstream.
 Loop of Henle: A U-shaped segment of the renal tubule that is critical for the reabsorption of ions
and water.
 Distal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that regulates the levels of electrolytes
and other important substances in the bloodstream.
 A series of ducts that collect the filtrate from the renal tubules and transport it to the renal pelvis,
where it drains into the ureter and eventually into the bladder.

The nephrons are surrounded by a network of blood vessels, including the afferent arteriole and the
efferent arteriole, which bring blood into and out of the glomerulus, respectively. The filtrate produced by
the nephron passes through the renal tubules, where it is modified by reabsorption and secretion, before
being eliminated from the body as urine.
 2.5.2 Mechanism of Filtration – Urine Formation

Figure: Schematic of mechanism of filtration in human kidney

The mechanism of filtration in the kidneys is a complex process that involves multiple steps to
remove waste and excess fluids from the bloodstream. The following is a summary of the steps involved in
the filtration process:

 Blood enters the kidney through the renal arteries and flows into tiny filtering units called glomeruli.
 At the glomerulus, the pressure in the blood vessels causes a portion of the plasma and dissolved
substances to filter out and enter a structure called Bowman's capsule.
 In Bowman's capsule, the filtrate is then transferred into the renal tubules, which are the main
filtering units of the kidneys.
 In the renal tubules, the filtrate passes through a series of specialized cells, such as proximal tubular
cells and distal tubular cells, which reabsorb important substances such as glucose, amino acids,
and electrolytes back into the bloodstream.
 At the same time, the renal tubules secrete waste products, such as urea and creatinine, back into
the filtrate.
 Finally, the filtered fluid, now known as urine, is transported through the renal pelvis and ureters to
the bladder, where it is eventually eliminated from the body.

This process of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion helps to maintain the proper balance of fluids
and electrolytes in the body, as well as to remove waste and excess substances.
 2.5.3 Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
CKD stands for Chronic Kidney Disease. It is a long-term condition in which the kidneys gradually
become less able to function properly. It can be caused by a variety of factors, including diabetes, high
blood pressure, and other health problems that damage the kidneys.

Symptoms of CKD include fatigue, swelling in the legs and feet, trouble sleeping, and difficulty
concentrating. As the disease progresses, it can lead to more serious complications, such as anemia, nerve
damage, and an increased risk of heart disease and stroke.

Treatment for CKD may include lifestyle changes, such as eating a healthy diet and exercising
regularly, as well as medications to manage symptoms and underlying health conditions. In severe cases,
kidney transplant or dialysis may be necessary.

It is important for individuals with risk factors for CKD to get regular check-ups and to talk to their
doctor about how to best manage their condition.

2.5.4 Dialysis Systems

Dialysis is a medical treatment that helps to filter waste and excess fluids from the blood when the
kidneys are unable to function properly. There are two main types of dialysis systems: hemodialysis and
peritoneal dialysis.

Hemodialysis is a procedure that uses a machine to clean the blood. During hemodialysis, blood is
removed from the body, passed through a dialysis machine that filters out waste and excess fluids, and then
returned to the body. Hemodialysis typically takes place in a hospital or dialysis center, and is typically
performed three times a week for three to four hours at a time.

Figure: Representing a Hemodialysis

 Peritoneal dialysis is a type of dialysis that uses the lining of the abdomen, called the peritoneum,
to filter waste and excess fluids from the blood. A sterile solution is introduced into the abdomen, where it
absorbs waste and excess fluids, and is then drained and replaced with fresh solution. Peritoneal dialysis
can be performed at home and allows for more flexibility in scheduling.

Figure: Representing a Peritoneal dialysis

Both hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis can effectively treat the symptoms of kidney failure, but
each has its own advantages and disadvantages. The choice of dialysis system depends on various factors
such as the individual's overall health, lifestyle, and personal preferences.

2.5.5 Artificial Kidney

While much progress has been made in developing an artificial kidney, it is still in the experimental
stage and is not yet widely available. Further research and development is needed to improve the efficiency
and safety of artificial kidney devices, and to ensure that they can be widely adopted as a treatment for
chronic kidney disease.

a)
 b)
Figure: a) Schematic representation b) a prototype of artificial kidney

An artificial kidney is a device that is being developed to mimic the functions of the human kidney.
The goal of an artificial kidney is to provide a more effective and efficient means of treating patients with
chronic kidney disease, who currently rely on dialysis or kidney transplantation.

There are currently two main approaches to developing an artificial kidney: a biological approach
and a technological approach.

The biological approach involves using living cells, such as kidney cells or stem cells, to create a
functional, implantable artificial kidney.

The technological approach involves using synthetic materials, such as silicon or polymer, to create
a dialysis device that can filter the blood and remove waste and excess fluids.

It's important to note that while the development of an artificial kidney holds great promise, it is not
a cure for chronic kidney disease and patients with kidney failure will still need dialysis or kidney
transplantation in the meantime.