NETWORK DESIGN SECURITY AND MANAGEMENT (IF452) OVERVIEW OF NETWORK SECURITY

1.What is Encipherment? The use of mathematical algorithms to transform data into a form that is not readily intelligible. The transformation and subsequent recovery of the data depend on an algorithm and zero or more encryption keys. 2.What are the four basic tasks in designing a particular security service? 1. Design an algorithm for performing the security-related transformation. The algorithm should be such that an opponent cannot defeat its purpose. 2. Generate the secret information to be used with the algorithm. 3. Develop methods for the distribution and sharing of the secret information 4. Specify a protocol to be used by the two principals that makes use of the security algorithm and the secret information to achieve a particular security. 3.Define Threats. Information access threats intercept or modify data on behalf of users who should not have access to that data. Service threats exploit service flaws in computers to inhibit use by legitimate users. 4.What is the use of digital signature? Data appended to, or a data unit that allows a recipient of the data unit to prove the source and integrity if the data unit and protect against forgery. 5.Define security recovery. Security recovery deals with requests from mechanisms, such as event handling and management functions, and takes recovery actions. 6.What are the aspects of information security? There are three aspects of the information security. Security attack Security mechanism Security Service 7.List some common information integrity functions? Identification Authorization Concurrence Liability Endorsement Validation Time of occurrence Registration 8.What is meant by threat?

A potential for violation of security, which exists when there is a circumstances,capability,action or event that could breach security and cause harm. That is, a threat is a possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability. 9.What is meant by attack? An attack on system security that derives from an intelligent threat: that is an intelligent act that is a deliberate attempt(especially in the sense of a method or technique) to evade security services and violate the security policy of a system. 10.State some example of security attacks? 1.Gain unauthorized access to information(ie.violate secrecy or privacy) 2.Disavow responsibility or liability for information the cheater did originate. 3.Enlarge cheaters legitimate license(for access ,origination, distribution etc). 4.Pervert the function of software, typically by adding a covert function. 5.Cause others to violate a protocol by means of introducing incorrect information.

CLASSICAL ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES

1.What are the essential ingredients of a symmetric cipher? A symmetric encryption scheme has five ingredients: Plaintext: This is the original intelligible message or data that is fed into the algorithm as input. Encryption algorithm: The encryption algorithm performs various substitutions and transformations on the plaintext. Secret Key: The secret key is also input to the encryption algorithm. The key is the value independent of the plaintext. The algorithm will produce a different output depending on the specific key being used at the time. The exact substitutions and transformations performed by the algorithm depend on the key. Cipher text: This is the scrambled message produced as output. It depends on the plaintext and the key. Decryption algorithm: This is essentially the encryption algorithm in reverse. It takes the cipher text and the secret key and produces the original plaintext. 2.What are the two basic functions used in the encryption algorithm? All the encryption algorithms are based on two general principles: Substitution: In which each element in the plaintext(bit, letter, group of bits or letters) is mapped into another element. Transposition: In which elements in the plaintext are rearranged. The fundamental requirement is that no information be lost(that is ,that all operations are reversible). Most systems, referred to as product systems, involve multiple stages of substitutions and transpositions.

3.How many keys are required for two people to communicate via a cipher?

If both sender and receiver use the same key, the system is referred as symmetric, single-key, secret-key or conventional encryption. If both sender and receiver uses a different key, the system is referred as asymmetric, two-key or public key encryption. 4.What is the difference between a block cipher and a stream cipher? A block cipher processes the input one block at a time, producing an output block for each input block. A stream cipher processes the input continuously, producing output one element at a time, as it goes alone. 5.What are the two general approaches to attacking a cipher? The general two approaches for attacking a cipher Cryptanalysis: Cryptanalytic attacks rely on the nature of the algorithm plus perhaps some knowledge of the general characteristics of the plaintext or even some samples plaintext-cipher text pairs. This type of attack exploits the characteristics of the algorithm to attempt to deduce a specific plaintext or to deduce the key being used. If the attack succeeds in deducing the key, the effect is catastrophic: All future and past messages encrypted with the key are compromised. Brute-force attack: The attacker tries every possible key on a piece of cipher text until an intelligible translation into plaintext is obtained. On average, half of all possible keys must be tried to achieve success. 6.List and briefly define types of cryptanalytic attacks based on what is known to the attacker? The various types of cryptanalytic attacks, based on the amount of information known to the cryptanalyst

Type of attack

Known to cryptanalyst

Cipher text Known plaintext

Chosen plaintext

Chosen cipher text Chosen text

Encryption algorithm Cipher text to be decoded Encryption algorithm Cipher text to be decoded One or more plaintext-cipher text pairs formed with the secret key Encryption algorithm Cipher text to be decoded Plaintext message chosen by cryptanalyst, together with its corresponding cipher text generated with the secret key. Encryption algorithm Cipher text to be decoded Purported cipher text chosen by cryptanalyst, together with its corresponding decrypted plaintext generated with the secret key. Encryption algorithm Cipher text to be decoded Plaintext message chosen by cryptanalyst, together with its corresponding cipher text generated with the secret key. Purported cipher text chosen by cryptanalyst, together with its corresponding decrypted plaintext generated with the secret key

7. What is the difference between an unconditionally secure cipher and a computationally secure cipher? Unconditionally secure cipher: An encryption scheme is unconditionally secure if the cipher text generated by the scheme does not contain enough information to determine uniquely the corresponding plaintext, no matter how much cipher text is available. Computationally secure cipher: An encryption scheme is said to be computationally secure if: The cost of breaking the cipher exceeds the value of the encrypted information. The time required to break the cipher exceeds the useful lifetime of the information. 8. Briefly define the Caesar cipher? The Caesar cipher involves replacing each letter of the alphabet with the letter standing three places down the alphabet .The alphabet is wrapped around, so that the letter following Z is A. C = E (p) = (p + 3) mod (26) The general Caesar cipher algorithm is C = E (p) = (p + k) mod (26) Where k takes the value in the range 1 to 25 The decryption algorithm is p = D(C) = (C - k) mod (26) 9. Briefly define the monoalphabetic cipher?

A dramatic increase in the key space is achieved by allowing an arbitrary substitution. There are 26! Possible keys. It is referred to as monoalphabetic substitution cipher, because a single cipher alphabet is used per message. 10.Briefly define the Playfair cipher? The Playfair cipher treats the digrams in the plaintext as single units and translates these units into ciphertext digrams. This algorithm is based on the use of a 5 by 5 matrix of letters constructed using keyword. Consider keyword as monarchy. The matrix is constructed by filling in the letters of the keyword from left to right and from top to bottom, and then filling in the remainder of the matrix with the remaining letters. The letters I, J count as one letter M C E L U O H F P V N Y G Q W A B I/J S X R D K T Z

The rules to be followed are: Repeating plaintext letters that come in the same pair are separated with a filer letter, such as x. Plaintext letters that fall in the same row are replaced by the letter to the right, with the first element of the row circularly following the first. Plaintext letters that fall in the same column are replaced by the letter beneath, with the top element circularly following the last. Otherwise each letter is replaced by the letter that lies in its own row and the column occupied by the other plaintext. 11.What is the difference between a monoalphabetic cipher and a polyalphabetic cipher? In monoalphabetic cipher single cipher alphabet is used per message. But in polyalphabetic cipher there are multiple ciphertext letters for each plaintext letter, one for each unique letter of keyword. 12.What are two problems with the one-time pad? The one- time pad has the following two fundamental difficulties: (a) There is the practical problem of making large quantities of random keys. Supplying truly random characters in this volume is a significant task. (b) For every message to be sent, a key of equal length is needed by both sender and receiver. Thus a mammoth key distribution problem exists.

BLOCK CIPHERS AND THE DATA ENCRYPTION STANDARD

1.Why is it important to study the Feistel Cipher?

Feistel cipher using the concept of a product cipher, which is the performing of two or more basic ciphers in sequence in such a way that the final result or product is cryptographically stronger then any of the component ciphers. Feistel proposed the use of a cipher that alternates substitutions and permutations. So Feistel cipher is considered to be an important one. 2.What is the difference between a block cipher and a stream cipher? A block cipher process the input one block of elements at a time producing an output block for each input block. A stream cipher process the input elements continuously , producing output one element at a time, as it goes along. 3.Why is it not practical to use an arbitrary reversible substitution cipher of the kind shown in Table. Encryption and decryptions tables for substitution cipher Plain Text Cipher Text 0000 1110 0001 0100 0010 1101 0011 0001 0100 0010 0101 1111 0110 1011 0111 1000 1000 0011 1001 1010 1010 0110 1011 1100 1100 0101 1101 1001 1110 0000 1111 0111 Cipher Text Plain Text 0000 1110 0001 0011 0010 0100 0011 1000 0100 0001 0101 1100 0110 1010 0111 1111 1000 0111 1001 1101 1010 1001 1011 0110 1100 1011

1101 1110 1111

0010 0000 0101

In this example the key requires 64 bits. In general, for an n-bit general substitution block cipher, the size of the key is n*2n. For a 64-bit block, which is a desirable length to thwart statistical attacks, the key size is 64*264 = 270 ~ 1021 bits. So it is not practical to use an arbitrarily reversible substitution cipher. 4.What is product cipher? Product cipher has the performance of two or more basic ciphers in sequence is such a way that the final result or product is cryptographically stronger than any of the component ciphers. 5.What is the difference between Diffusion and Confusion? In Diffusion the statistical structure of the plaintext is dissipated into long range statistics of the cipher text. This is achieved by having each plaintext digit affect the value of many cipher text digits. Which is equivalent to saying that each cipher text digit is affected by many plaintext digits. Confusion seeks to make a relationship between the statistics of the cipher text and the value of the encryption key as complex as possible. Thus even if the attacker can get some handle on the statistics of the cipher text, the way in which the key was used to produce that cipher text is so complex as to make it difficult to deduce the key. 6 .Which parameters and design choices determine the actual algorithm of a Feistel cipher? Block size: Larger block sizes mean greater security but reduced encryption/decryption speed. A block size of 64 bits is a reasonable tradeoff and has been nearly universal in block cipher design.However, the new AES uses a 128-bit block size. Key size:Larger key size means greater security but may decrease encryption/decryption speed.Key sizes of 64 bits or less are now widely considered to be inadequate, and 128 bits has ecome a common size. Number of rounds: The essence of the Feistel cipher is that a single round offers inadequate security but that multiple rounds offer increasing security.A typical size is 16 rounds. Subkey generation algorithm: Greater complexity in this algorithm should lead to greater difficulty of cryptanalysis. Round function: Again, greater complexity generally means greater resistance to cryptanalysis. 7. What is the purpose of the S-boxes in DES? The role of the S-boxes in the function F is that the substitution consists of a set of eight S-boxes ,each of which accepts 6 bits as input and produces 4 bits as follows: The

first and last bits of the input to box Si form a 2-bit binary number to select one of four substitutions defined by the four rows in the table for Si.The middle four bits select one of the sixteen columns.The decimal value in the cell selected by the row and column is then converted to its 4-bit representation to produce the output. For example, in S1,for input 011001,the row is 01 and the column is 1100.The value in row 1,column 12 is 9,so the output is 1001. 8. Explain the avalanche effect? A desirable property of any encryption algorithm is that a small change in either the plaintext or the key should produce a significant change in the ciphertext.In particular, a change I one of the plaintext or one bit of the key should produce a change in many bits of the ciphertext. 9. What is the difference between differential and linear cyptanalysis? Linear cryptanalysis based on finding linear approximations to describe the transformations performed in DES

KEY MANAGEMENT:OTHER PUBLIC KEY CRYPTOSYSTEMS

1.What are the two different uses of public-key cryptography related to key distribution? There are two aspects to the use of public-key cryptography In this regard: The distribution of public keys The use of public-key encryption to distribution secret keys 2.List four general categories of schemes for the distribution of public keys. Public announcement Publicly available directory Public-key authority Public-key certificates 3.What are the essential ingredients of a public-key directory? The authority maintains a directory with a entry for each participant. Each participant registers a public key with the directory authority. A participant may replace the existing key with a new one at any time. Periodically, the authority publishes the entire directory or updates to the directory. Participants could also access the directory electronically.

4.What is public-key certificate? The public-key authority could be a bottleneck in the system, for a user must appeal to the authority for a public key for every other user that it wishes to contact. As before the directory of names and public keys maintained by the authority is vulnerable to tempering. 5.What are the requirements for the use of a public-key certificate scheme? Any participant can read a certificate to determine the name and public key of the certificates owner. Any participant can verify that the certificate originated from the certificate authority and is not counterfeit. Only the certificate authority can create and update certificates. Any participant can verify the currency of the certificate. 6.Briefly explain Diffie-Hellman key exchange. The purpose for this algorithm is to enable two users to exchange a key securely that can then be used for subsequent encryption of messages. It depends for its effectiveness on the difficulty of computing discrete logarithms.

MESSAGE AUTHENTICATION AND HASH FUNCTIONS

1)What types of attacks are addressed by message authentication? Content modification - Changes to the contents of the message Sequence modification - Any modification to a sequence of messages between parties, including insertion, deletion, and reordering. Timing modification - Delay or replay of messages. 2)What two levels of functionality comprise a message authentication or digital signature mechanism? Low-level authentication Higher-level authentication At the lower level there must be some sort of function that produces an authenticator: a value to be used to authenticate a message. This lower level function is then used as primitive in a higher-level authentication protocol that enables a receiver to verify the authenticity of message. 3) What are some approaches to producing message authentication? Message encryption - The cipher text of the entire image serves as its authenticator. Message authentication code - (MAC) A public function of the message and a secret key that produces a fixed length value that serves as a authenticator.

Hash function

- A public function that maps a message of any length into a fixed length hash value, which serves as the authenticator.

4) When combination of symmetric encryption and an error control code is used for message authentication, in what order must the two functions be performed? The message is encrypted first, and then the MAC is calculated using the resulting cipher text to form the transmitted block. 5) What is a message authentication code? An alternative authentication technique involves the use of a small fixed size block of data, known as a cryptographic checksum or MAC that is appended to the message. 6) What is the difference between a message authentication code and a one-way hash function? The difference between an MAC and a one-way hash function is that unlike an MAC, a hash code does not use a key but is a function only of the input message. 7) In what ways can a hash value be secured so as to provide message authentication? The ways in which a hash code can be used to provide message authentication are: The message plus concatenated hash code is encrypted using symmetric encryption.The hash code provides the structure required for authentication. Only the hash code is encrypted using symmetric encryption. This reduces the processing burden. Only the hash code is encrypted using public key encryption and the senders private key.This provides digital signature. The message plus the public key-encrypted hash code may be encrypted using a symmetric secret key. A hash function may be used without encryption for message authentication.It assumes that two communicating parties (A and B) share a common key (s). A computes the hash value over the concatenation of M and S.B knows S and therefore can re-compute M. The entire message plus the hash code may be encrypted. 8) Is it necessary to recover the secret key in order to attack a MAC algorithm? A number of keys will produce the correct MAC and the opponent has no way of knowing which is the correct key. On an awerage 2(n-k) keys produce a match.Therefore attacks do not require the discovery of the key. 9) What characteristics are needed in a secure hash function?

Requirements of a hash function(H): H can be applied to a block of data of any size. H produces a fixed length output. H(x) is easy to compute for any given x For any given value h it is computationally infeasible to find y/x with H(y)=H(x). It is computationally infeasible to find any pair(x,y) such that H(x)=H(y). 10) What is the difference between a strong and a weak collision resistance? For any given value h it is computationally infeasible to find y/x with H(y)=H(x).This is weak collision resistance.It is a one-way property.It is easy to generate a code given a message, but almost impossible to do the reverse. It is computationally infeasible to find any pair(x,y) such that H(x)=H(y).This is strong collision resistance. This guarantees that an alternative message hashing to the same value as a given message cannot be found.This prevents forgery. 11)What is the function of a compression function in a hash function? The hash function involves repeated use of a compression function. The motivation is that if the compression function is collision resistant, then the hash function is also collision resistant function.So a secure hash function can be produced.

AUTHENTICATION APPLICATIONS
1.What problem was Kerberos designed to address? The problem that Kerberos addresses is this: Assume an open distributed environment in which users at workstations wish to access services on servers distributed throughout the network. We would like for servers to be able to restrict access to authorized users and to be able to authenticate requests for service. In this environment a workstation cannot be trusted to identify its users correctly to network services. 2.What are the three threats associated with user authentication over a network or Internet? The three threats are: A user may gain access to a particular workstation and pretend to another user operating from that workstation. A user may alter the network address of a workstation so that the requests sent from the altered workstation appear to come from the impersonated workstation. A user may eavesdrop on exchanges and use a replay attack to gain entrance to a server or to disrupt operations. 3.List three approaches to secure user authentication in a distributed environment?

Three approaches to secure user authentication in a distributed environment are: Rely on each individual client workstation to assure the identity of its user or users and rely on each server to enforce a security policy based on user identification (ID). Require that client systems authenticate themselves to servers, but trust the client system concerning the identity of its user. Require the user to prove identity for each service invoked. Also require that servers prove their identity to clients. 4.What four requirements were defined for Kerberos? The four requirements defined for Kerberos are: Secure: A network eavesdropper should not be able to obtain the necessary information to impersonate a user. More generally Kerberos should be strong enough that a potential opponent does not find it to be the weak link. Reliable: For all services that relay on Kerberos for access control, lack of availability of the supported services. Hence, Kerberos should be highly reliable and should employ a distributed server architecture, with one system able to back up another. Transparent: Ideally, the user should not be aware that authentication is taking place, beyond the requirement to enter a password. Scalable: The system should be capable of supporting large numbers of clients and servers. This suggests a modular, distributed architecture. 5.What entities constitute a full-service Kerberos environment? A full service environment consists of a Kerberos server, a number of clients and a number of application servers. 6.In the context of Kerberos, what is a realm? The Kerberos server must have the user ID (UID) and hashed password of all participating users in its database. All users are registered with the Kerberos server. The Kerberos server must share a secret with each server. All servers are registered with the Kerberos server. Such an environment is referred to as realm. 7.What are the principle differences between version 4 and version 5 of Kerberos? The principle differences between version 4 and version 5 of Kerberos are: 1.Encryption system dependence 2.Internet Protocol Dependence 3.Message byte ordering 4.Ticket Life Time 5.Authentication Forwarding

6.Interrealm Authentication

ELECTRONIC MAIL SECURITY

1. What are the five principle services provided by the PGP? Function Algorithm used Description The hash code of a message is created using SHA1.This message digest is encrypted using DSS or RSA with the senders private key and included with the message A message is encrypted using CAST-128 or IDEA or 3DES with a one-time session key generated by the sender. The session key is encrypted using Diffie-Hellman or RSA with the recipients public key and included with the message A message may be compressed, for storage or transmission using ZIP To provide transparency for email applications, an encrypted message may be converted to an ASCII string using radix 64 conversion To accommodate maximum message size limitations, PGP performs segmentation and reassembly

Digital Signature

DSS\SHA or RSA\SHA

Message Encryption

CAST or IDEA or Threekey Triple DES with Diffie-Hellman or RSA

Compression

ZIP

Email compatibility

Radix 64 conversion

Segmentation

------

2.What is the utility of a detached signature? A detached signature may be stored and transmitted separately from the message it signs. This is useful in several contexts. A user may wish to maintain a separate signature log of all messages sent or received. A detached signature of an executable program can detect subsequent virus infection. Finally detached signature can be used when more than one party must sign a document, such as legal contract. 3. Why does PGP generate a signature before applying compression? The signature is generated before compression due to 2 reasons: 1. It is preferable to sign an uncompressed message so that one can store only the uncompressed message together with the signature for future verification 2. Even if one were willing to generate dynamically a recompressed message for verification, PGPs compression algorithm presents a difficulty 4.What is Radix 64 conversion? Radix 64 converts the input stream into radix 64 format. It expands a message by 33% 5.Why is R 64 conversion useful for email generation? The Radix 64 conversion is performed before the segmentation of the messages take place The use of radix 64 is that it converts he input stream to 33%. The radix 64 converts the input stream to a radix 64 format 6.What is MIME? Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) is an extension to the RFC 822 framework that is intended to address some of the problems and limitations of these use of SMTP. Some of limitations: 1. It cannot transmit executable files or folders. 2. SMTP servers may reject, mail message over a certain size. 7.Why is the segmentation and reassembly function in PGP is needed? E-mail facilities often are restricted to a maximum message length. To accommodate this restriction, PGP automatically subdivides a message that is too large into segments that are small enough to send via e-mail. The segmentation is done after all of the other processing, including the radix-64 conversion. Thus, the session key component and signature component appear only once, at the beginning of the first segment.
8.What is S/MIME?

Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension is a security enhancement to the MIME Internet e-mail format standard, based on technology from RSA Data Security. It is ability to sign and/or encrypt messages.

9.What is RFC 822? RFC 822 defines a format for text messages that are sent using electronic mail. It has been the standard for Internet-based text message and remains in common use. In the RFC822 context, messages are viewed as having an envelope and contents. The envelope contains whatever information needed to accomplish transmission and delivery. The contents compose the object to be delivered to the recipient.
10.How does PGP use the concept of trust?

PGP provide a convenient means of using trust, associating trust with public keys, and exploiting trust information. Each entry in the public-key ring is a public key certificate. Associated with each such entry is a key legitimacy field that indicates the extent to which PGP will trust that this is a valid public key for this user; the higher the level of trust, the stronger is the binding of this user ID to this key.

IPSEC
1.Give examples of applications of IPSec? Secure branch office connectivity over the Internet. Secure remote access over the Internet. Establishing extranet and intranet connectivity with partners. Enhancing electronic commerce security. 2.What services are provided by IPSec? Access control Connectionless integrity Data origin authentication Rejection of replayed packets 3.What parameters identify an SA and What parameter Characterize the nature of a particular SA? A security association(SA) is uniquely identified by three parameters, Security Parameter Index(SPI) IP Destination Address Security Protocol Identifier The parameters that characterize the particular SA is Sequence number counter Sequence counter overflow Anti-Replay window AH Information ESP Information Lifetime of this SA IPSec Protocol Mode Path MTU 4.What is the difference between Transport mode and Tunnel mode?

Transport mode 1.It provides protection for upper layer protocols. 2.Used for end-to-end communication between two host 3.AH:Authenticates IP payload and selected portions of IP header and IPv6 extension header 5.What is replay attack?

Tunnel mode 1. It provides protection to the entire IP packet. 3.It is used when one or both ends of an SA is a security gateway , such as firewall or router that implement IPSec. 3.Authenticates entir inner IP packet plus selected portions of outer IP header and outer IPv6 extension headers.

A replay attack is one which an attacker obtains a copy of an authenticated packet and later transmit it to the intended destination. 6.Why does ESP include a padding field? Padding field is added to the ESP to provide partial traffic flow confidentiality by concealing the actual length of the payload. 7.What are the basic approaches to bundling SAs? 1.Transport adjacency Refers to applying more than one security protocol to the same packet, without invoking tunneling. 2.Iterated tunneling Refers to the application of multiple layers of security protocol affected through IP tunneling. FIREWALL 1.List the three design goals for a firewall. 1.All traffic from inside to outside, and vice versa, must pass through the firewall. This is achieved by physically blocking all access to the local network except via the firewall. 2.Only authorized traffic, as defined by the local security policy, will be allowed to pass. Various types of firewalls are used, which implement various types of security policies. 3. The firewall itself is immune to penetration. this implies that use of a trusted system with a secure operating system. 2.List four techniques used by firewalls to control access and enforce a security policy. Service control Direction control User control Behavior control

3.What information does a typical packet-filtering router use? Packet filtering router uses the following information: Source IP address: The IP address of the system that originated the IP packet Destination IP address: The IP address of the system the IP packet is trying to reach Source and destination transport-level address: The transport level port number,which defines applications such as SNMP or TELNET IP protocol field: Defines the transport protocol Interface: For a router with three or more ports,which interface of the router the packet came from or which interface of the router the packet is destined for. 4.what are some weaknesses of a packet-filtering router? They cannot prevents attacks that employ application-specific functions. Logging functionality is limited Do not support advanced user authentication schemes. It cannot detect a network packet in which the OSI layer 3 addressing information has been alerted. They are susceptible to security breaches caused by improper configuration.

5.what is the difference between a packet-filtering router and a stateful inspection firewall? A simple packet-filtering firewall must permit inbound network traffic on all these high-numbered ports for TCP-based traffic to occur. This creates a vulnerability that can be exploited by unauthorized users. A stateful inspection packet filter tightens up the rules for TCP traffic by creating a directory of outbound TCP connection. The packet filters now allow incoming traffic to high-numbered ports only for those packets that fit the profile of one of the entries in the directory. 6. What is an application level gateway? An application level gateway, are also called a proxy server, acts as a relay of application level traffic. The user contacts the gateway using a TCP/IP application, such as telnet or FTP, and the gateway asks the user for the name of the remote host be accessed. 7. What is a circuit level gateway? A circuit-level gateway does not permit an end-to-end TCP connection; rather, the gateway sets up two TCP connections, one between itself and a TCP user on an inner host

and other between itself and a TCP user on an outer host. Once these connections are established, the gateway typically relays TCP segments from one connection to other without examining the contents. 8.what are the differences among the three configuration of firewall? In the screened host firewall, single-homed bastion configuration, the firewall consists of two systems: a packet-filtering router and a bastion host. In the screened host firewall, dual-homed bastion configuration prevents such a security breach. In the screened subnet firewall configuration is the most secure one. Here two packet filters are used, one between the bastion host and the Internet and one between the bastion host and the internal network. 9.In the context access control, what is the difference between a subject and an object? Subject is an entity capable of accessing objects. Any user or application actually gains access to an object by means of a process that represents that user or application. Object is one in which anything is controlled.eg.files, programs and segments of memory. 10. What is the difference between an access control list and a capability ticket? An access control list lists users and their permitted access rights for each object. A capability ticket specifies authorized objects and operations for a user. Each user has a no.of tickets and may be authorized to loan or give them to others. 11.what are the two rules that a reference monitor enforces? No read up A subject can only read an object of less or equal security level. This is referred to as simple security property. No write down A subject can only write into an object of grater or equal security level. This is referred to as * property. 12.what properties are required for a reference monitor? Complete mediation: The security rules are enforced on every access, just, for example, when a file is opened. Isolation: The reference monitor and database are protected from unauthorized modification. Verifiability: The reference monitors correctness must be provable

Web Security 1.What are the advantages of each of the three approaches shown in the figure?

Figure 1 : HTTP FTP SMTP TCP IP/IPSec

Figure 2:

HTTP

FTP SSL or TLS TCP IP

SMTP

Figure 3:

S/MIME Kerberos UDP IP SMTP

PGP

SET HTTP

TCP

Figure 1: The advantage of using IPSec is that it is transparent to end users and applications and provides a general-purpose solution.Further,IPSec includes a filtering capability so that only selected traffic need incur the overhead of IPSec processing. Figure 2: SSL(or TLS) could be provided as part of the underlying protocol suite and therefore be transparent to applications. Figure 3: The advantage of this approach is that the service can be tailored to the specific needs of a given application. 2. What protocols comprise SSL? The protocols that comprise SSL are:SSL Handshake Protocol,SSL Change Cipher Spec Protocol,SSL Alert Protocol,Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP) and SSL Recprd Protocol. 3. What is the difference between an SSL connection and an SSL session ?

A Connection is a transport that provides a suitable type of service.For SSL,such connections are peer-to-peer relationships.The connections are transient. An SSL session is an association between a client and a server.Sessions are created by the Handshake Protocol.Sessions define a set of cryptographic security parameters, which can be shared among multiple connections. 4. List and briefly define the parameters that define an SSL session state. A session state is defined by the following parameters: Session identifier Peer certificate Compression method Cipher spec Master secret Is resumable 5. List and briefly define the parameters that define an SSL session connection. A connection state is defined by the following parameters: Server and client random Server write MACsecret Client write MACsecret Server write key Client write key Initialization vectors Sequence numbers ESSAYS 1.Write notes on security service 1.AUTHENTICATION The assurance that the communicating entity is the one that it claims to be. Peer Entity Authentication: Used in association with a logical connection to provide confidence in the identity of the entities connected. Data Origin Authentication: In a connectionless transfer, provides assurance that the source of received data is as claimed. 2.ACCESS CONTROL The prevention of unauthorized use of a resource (that is this service control who can have access to a resource, under what condition access can occur, and what those accessing the resource are allowed to do). 3.DATA CONFIDENTIALITY

The protection of data from unauthorized disclosure Connection Confidentiality: The protection of all user data on a connection. Connectionless Confidentiality: The protection of all user data in a single data block. Selective Field Confidentiality: The confidentiality of selective field within the user data on a connection or in a single data block. Traffic-Flow Confidentiality: The protection of the information that might be derived from observation of traffic flows. DATA INTEGRITY The assurance that data received are exactly as sent by an authorized entity. Connection Integrity with recovery: Provides for the integrity of all user data on a connection and detect any modification,ionsertion,deletion,or replay of any data within an entire data sequence, with recovery attempted. Connection Integrity without recovery: As above, but provides only detection without recovery. Selective-Field Connection Integrity: Provides for the integrity of selected fields within the user data of the data block transferred over a connection and takes the form of determination of whether the selected fields have been modified,inserted,deleted or replayed. Connectionless Integrity: Provides for the integrity of a single connectionless data block and may take the form of detection of data modifivation.Additionally a limited form of replay detection may be provided. Selective-field Connectionless Integrity: Provides for the integrity of selected fields within a single connectionless data block: takes the form of determination of whether the selected fields have been modified. 5.NONREPUDIATION Provides protection against denial by one of the entities involved in a communication of having participated in all or part of the communication. Nonrepudiation ,Origin: Proof that the message was sent by the specified party. Nonrepudiation,Destination: Proof that the message was received by the specified party.

2.Security Attacks A useful means of classifying security attacks, used both in x.800 and RFC 2828, is in terms of passive attacks and active attacks. A passive attack attempts to learn or make use of information from the system but does not affect system resources. An active attack attempts to alter system resources or affect their operation. Passive attacks Passive attacks are in the nature of eavesdropping on, or monitoring of, transmissions. Two types of passive attacks are release of message contents and traffic analysis. The release of message contents is easily understood. A telephone conversation, an electronic mail message, and a transferred file may contain sensitive or confidential information. A second type of passive attack, traffic analysis, is subtler. Suppose that we had a Way of masking the contents of messages or other information traffic so that opponents, even if they captured the message, could not extract the information from the message. Passive attacks are very difficult to detect because they do not involve any alteration of the data. Active attacks Active attacks involves some modification of the data stream or the creation of a false Stream and can be subdivided into four categories. I. Masquerade II. Replay III. Modification of message IV. Denial of service A masquerade takes place when one entity when one entity pretends to be a different entity. A masquerade attack usually includes one of the other forms of active attack. Replay involves the passive capture of a data unit and its subsequent retransmission to produce an unauthorized effect. Modification of messages simply means that some portion of a legitimate message is altered or that messages are delayed or reordered, to produce an unauthorized effect. The denial of service prevents or inhibits the normal use or management of communication facilities. 1.Explain about transposition techniques? All the substitution techniques involve the substitution of a cipher text symbol for a plaintext symbol. A very different kind of mapping is achieved by performing some sort of permutation on the plaintext letters. This technique is referred to as a transposition cipher. The simplest such cipher is of the rail fence technique, in which the plaintext is written down as a sequence of diagonals and then read off as a sequence of rows. For example, to encipher the message meet me after the toga party with a rail fence of depth 2, we write the following: m e m a t r h t g p r y e t e f e t e o a a t The encrypted message is MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT

This sort of thing would be trivial to cryptanalyze. A more complex scheme is to write the message in a rectangle, row by row, and read off the message off, column by column, but permute the order of the columns. The order of the columns then becomes the key to the algorithm. For example, Key: 4 3 1 2 5 6 7 Plaintext: a t t a c k p o s t p o n e d u n t i l t w o a m x y z Cipher text: TNNAAPTMTSUOAODWCOIXKNLYPETZ A pure transposition cipher is easily recognized because it has the same letter frequencies as the original plaintext. For the type columnar transposition, cryptanalysis is fairly straightforward and involves laying out the cipher text in a matrix and playing around with column positions. Diagram and triagram frequency tables can be useful. The transposition cipher can be made significantly more secure by performing more than one stage of transposition. The result is a more complex permutation that is not easily reconstructed. Thus, if the foregoing message is re-encrypted using the same algorithm, Key: 4 3 1 2 5 6 7 Plaintext: t t n a a p t m t s u o a o d w c o i x k n l y p e t z Cipher text: NSCYAUOPTTWLTMDNAOIEPAXTTOKZ To visualize the result of this double transposition, designate the letters in the original plaintext message by the numbers designating their position. Thus, with 28 letters in the message, the original sequence of letters is 1 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 After the first transposition we have 03 10 17 24 04 11 18 25 02 09 16 23 01 08 15 22 05 12 19 26 06 13 20 27 07 14 21 28 which has somewhat a regular structure. But after the second transposition , we have 17 09 05 27 24 16 12 07 10 02 22 20 03 25 15 13 04 23 19 14 11 01 26 21 18 08 06 28 This is much less structured permutation and is much more difficult to cryptanalyze.

2.Write short notes on Steganography The methods of stegonagraphy conceal the existence of the message, whereas the methods of cryptography render the message unintelligible to outsiders by various transformations of the text. A simple form of steganography, but one that is time consuming is one in which an arrangement of words or letters within an apparently innocuous text spells out the real message. Some of the other techniques are: Character marking: Selected letters of printed or typewritten text are overwritten in pencil. The marks are ordinarily not visible unless the paper is held at an angle to bright light. Invisible Ink: A number of substances can be used for writing but leave no visible traces until heat or some chemical is applied on the paper. Pin punctures: Small pin punctures on selected letters are ordinarily not visible unless the paper is held up in front of a light. Typewriter correction ribbon: Used between lines typed with a black ribbon, the results of typing with the correction are visible only under a strong light. For example, The Kodak Photo CD formats maximum resolution is 2048 by 3072 pixels with each pixel containing 24 bits of RGB color information. The least significant bit of each 24-bit pixel can be changed without greatly affecting the quality of the image. The result is that we can hide a 2.3-megabyte message in a single digital snapshot. The advantage of steganography is that it can be employed by parties who have something to lose should the fact of their secret communication be discovered. Steganography has a number of drawbacks when compared to encryption. It requires a lot of overhead information to hide relatively few bits of information. 1.Briefly describe about the Strength of DES? With a key length of 56 bits, there are 256 possible Keys, Which is approximately 16 7.2* 10 Keys. Thus, on the face of it, a brute-force attack appears impractical. Assuming that, on average half the key space has to be searched, a single machine performing one DES encryption per microsecond would take more than a thousand years to break the cipher However, the assumption of one encryption per microsecond is overly conservative. As far back as1977, Diffie and hellman postulated that the technology existed to built a parallel machine with 1 million encryption devices, each of which could perform one encryption per microsecond. This would bring the average search time down to about 10 hours. The authors estimated that the cost would be about $20 million in 1977 dollars. DES finally and definitively proved insure in July 1988, when the electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) announced that it had broken a DEF encryption using a special-purpose DES cracker machine that was built for less than $250,000. The attack took less than three days. The EFF has published a detailed description of the machine, enabling others to build their own cracker. And, of course, hard ware prices will continue to drop as speeds increase, making DES virtually Worthless.

It is important to note that there is more to a key-search attack than simply running through all possible keys. Unless known plaintext is provided the analyst must be able to recognize plaintext as plaintext .If the message is just plaintext in English, then the result pops out easily, although the task of recognizing English would have to be automated. If the text message has been compressed before encryption, then recognition is more difficult. And if the message is some more general type of data, such as numerical file, and this has been compressed, the problem becomes more difficult to automate, the supplement the Brute-force approach, some degree of knowledge about the expected plaintext is needed, and the handsome means of automatically distinguishing plaintext from garble is also needed. The EEF approach addresses this issue as well and introduces some automated techniques that would be effective in many context.

The Nature of DES Algorithm

Another concern is the possibility that the cryptanalysis is possible by exploiting the characteristics of the DES algorithm. The focus of concern has been on the eight substitution tables, or S-boxes that are used in each iteration. Because the design criteria for these boxes, and indeed for the entire algorithm, were not made public, there is a suspicion that the boxes were constructed in such a way that cryptanalysis is possible for an opponent who knows the weaknesses in the S-boxes. This assertion is tantalizing, and over the years a number of regularities and unexpected behaviors of the s-boxes have been discovered. Despite this no one has so far succeeded in discovering the supposed fatal weaknesses in the s-boxes.

Timing Attacks
A timing attack is one in which information about the key or plaintext is obtained by observing how long it takes a given implementation to perform decryptions on various cipher texts. A timing attack exploits the facts that the encryption and decryption algorithm often takes slightly different amounts of time on different inputs. report on an approach that yields the Hamming weight of the secret key. This is the long way from knowing the actual key, but it is an intriguing first step. DES appears to be fairly resistant to a successful timing attack but suggest some avenues to explore. 2.Briefly explain about DES design criteria? The criteria used in the design of DES, focused on the design of the S-boxes and on the P function that takes the output of the S boxes .The criteria for the S-boxes are as follows: 1. No output bit of any S-box should be too close a linear function of the input bits. Specifically,if we select any output bit and any subset of the six input bits, the fraction of inputs for which this output bit equals the XOR of these input bits should not be close to 0 or 1, but rather should be near . 2. Each row of an S-box should include all 16 possible output bit combinations. 3. if two inputs to an S-box differ in exactly one bit, the outputs must differ I atleast two bits.

4.If two inputs to an S-box differ in their first two bits and are identical in their last two bits, the two outputs must not be the same.

5.For any non zero 6-bit difference between inputs, no more than8 of the 32 pairs of inputs exhibiting that difference may result in the same output difference. 6.This is a criterion similar to the previous one, but for the case of three S boxes. Coppersmith pointed out that the first criterion in the preceding list was needed because the S-boxes are the only nonlinear part of DES. If the S-boxes were linear ,the entire algorithm would be linear and easily broken. We have seen this phenomenon with the Hill Cipher, which is linear. The remaining criteria were primarily aimed at thwarting differencial cryptanalysis and at providing good confusion properties. The criteria for the permutation P are as follows: 1. The four output bits from each S-box at round I are distributed so that two of them affect middle bits of round(I+1) and the other two affect end bits. The end bits are the two left-hand bits and the two righthand bits, which are shared with adjacent S-boxes. 2. The four output bits from each S-box affect six different S-boxes on the next round, and no two affect the same S-box. 3. For two S-boxes j,k, if an output bit from Sj, affects a middle bit of Sk on the next round,then an output bit from Sk cannot affect a middle bit of Sj. This implies that for j=k, an output bit from Sj must not affect a middle bit of Sj. These criteria are intended to increase the diffusion of the algorithm.

Key management
There are two aspects to the use of public-key cryptography in this regard: The distribution of public keys The use of public-key encryption to distribution secret keys. Distribution of public keys Four general categories of schemes for the distribution of public keys. Public announcement Publicly available directory Public-key authority Public-key certificates

Public announcement of public keys KUa KUb

KUa . A . . . . KUa

KUb . KUb B .

Here the public-key is public one. For example PGP. Although this approach is convenient, it has a weakness that anyone can forge such a public announcement. Publicly available directory It has the following elements: The authority maintains a directory with a entry for each participant. Each participant registers a public key with the directory authority. A participant may replace the existing key with a new one at any time. Periodically, the authority publishes the entire directory or updates to the directory. Participants could also access the directory electronically.

KUa

Public key directory

KUb

Public-key authority
Public key authority (1) Request||timer1 (5) EKRauth [kua||Request||Time2] (4)Request||

(2) EKRauth [Kub||Request ||Time1]

Time2]

Initiator A

(3) EKUa [Ida||N1] (6)EKUa[N1||N2] (7) EKUb [N2] It has the following steps: Time stamp message Authority public key A sends id of A and a nonce it B B receives As public key B sends a message to A A returns N2 encrypted using Bs public key

Responder B

Public-key certificates
Certificate that can be used by participants to exchange keys without contacting a public-key authority. Certificate authority

KUa

KUb CB=EKRauth [Time2,IDB,Kub]

CA=EKRauth [Time1,IDA,KUa] (1) CA A (2) CB

Public key distribution of secret keys

Simple secret key distribution

(1) KUa||IDA
A

(2) EKUa [Ks]

1.A generate KUa, KRa and sends Kua and IDA 2.B generate ks and encrypts it using EKUa 3.A discards KUa and KRa 4.B discards KUa 5.Transaction using conventional methods

Secret key distribution with confidentiality and authentication (2 Initiator A (1)EKUb [N1||Ida] (2)EKUa [N1||N2] (3)EKUb[N2] (4)EKUb [EKRa[ks]]

Responder B

2.Diffie-Helman key exchange

Solution to problem of key agreement or key exchange in 1976 Two parties can agree on a symmetric key Key can be used for encryption or decryption Once parties agree on the key symmetric key encryption algorithm is used for confidential

Algorithm Alice and Bob agree on two larges prime no.s n and g Alice chooses large random no x and calculate A=gx mod n Alice send the no A to Bob Bob independently chooses another large random integer y and calculate

B=gy mod n Bob sends B to Alice Now A computes the secret key k1 k1=Bx mod n B computes the secret key k2 k2=Ax mod n k1=k2=k symmetric key

1.Explain Message Authentication Code This technique assumes that two communicating parties A and B share a common key K.When A sends a message to B it calculates the MAC as a function of the message and the key:MAC=CK{M), Where, M=input message C=MAC function K=shared secret key MAC=message authentication code The message plus the MAC are transmitted to the recipient. The recipient performs the same calculation on the received message to generate a new MAC.The received MAC is compared to the calculated MAC.If only the sender and receiver know the secret key,if the received MAC matches the calculated MAC , then 1.The receiver is assured that the message has not been altered. 2.The receiver is assured that the message is from the alleged sender. 3.If the message includes a sequence number then the receiver is assured of the proper sequence. The MAC function need not be reversible.Usually, it is a many-to-one function. If there are N possible messages then an n bit MAC is used where N>>2n and there are 2k possible keys where the key has k bits. For example, if we are using 100 bit messages then there are 2100 different messages and if a 10 bit MAC is used there are 210 different MACs. On an average each MAC value is generated by a total of (2100/210)=290 different messages. If a 5bit key is used there are 25=32 different mappings from a set of messages to a set of MAC values. Usually two separate keys are used each of which is shared by the sender and receiver.The message is calculated with the message as input and is then concatenated to the message.The entire block is then encrypted.

M k C c SOURCE

| |

C
COMPARE

DESTINATIO N D C M
COMPARE

M C c

The fig shows the basic uses of MAC. MAC is used when: 1.There are a number of applications in which the same message is broadcast to many destinations. 2.When there exchanges where there is heavy load on one side and there is no time to decrypt. 3.For authentication of a computer in plain text. 4.When it is not needed to keep messages secret but it is important to provide authentication. 5.Because separation of authentication and confidentiality provides architectural flexibility. 6.When users wish to prolong the period of protection beyond the time of reception and yet allow processing of message contents. MAC does not provide digital signature because both sender and receiver share the same key. REQUIREMENTS OF MAC: Assume that the opponent knows the MAC function C but does not know the key K.Then the MAC function should have the following properties: 1.If an opponent observes M and CK(M), it should be computationally infeasible for the opponent to construct a message M' such that CK(M')=CK(M). 2.CK(M) should be uniformly distributed in the sense that for randomly chosen messages M and M', the probability that CK(M)=CK(M') IS 2-n, where n is the number of bits in the MAC. 3.Let M' be equal to some known transformation on M.That is, M'=f(M).For example, f

| |

K1

may involve inverting one or more specific bits.In that case,Pr[CK(M)=CK(M')]=2-n.

2.Hash Function
A variation on the message authentication code is the one-way hash function. As with the message authentication code, a hash function accepts a variable size message M as input and produces a fixed-size output , referred to as hash code H(M). A variety of ways in which hash code can be used to provide message authentication, as follows: The message plus concatenated hash code is encrypted using symmetric encryption. Only the hash code is encrypted using symmetric encryption. Only the hash code is encrypted using the public-key encryption and using the senders private key. If confidentiality as well as a digital signature is desired ,then the message plus the public key encrypted hash code can be encrypted using a symmetric secret key. This technique uses a hash function but no encryption for message authentication. Confidentiality can be added to the approach of(e) by encrypting the entire message plus the hash code.
A ---- B: M || Ck(M) Provides authentication ---- Only A and B share K (a)Message authentication

---------------------------------------------------------------A ---- B: Ek2[M || Ck1(M) Provides authentication ----- Only A and B share K1 Provides confidentiality Only A and B share K2 (b)Message authentication and confidentiality: authentication tied to plain text ----------------------------------------------------------------------------A ----- B:EX2[M] CK1(CK2[M2]) Provides authentication ------- Using K1 Provides confidentiality -------Using K2 (c)Message authentication and confidentiality authentication tied to cipher text.

When confidentiality is not required , methods (b) and (c) have an advantage over those that encrypt the message in that less computation is required

1.Write about the AH and ESP associated with IPSec AUTHENTICATION HEADER

The authentication header provides support for data integrity and authentication of IP packets. The data integrity feature ensures that undetected modification to a packets content in transit is not possible. The authentication feature enables an end system or network to authenticate the the user or application and filter traffic accordingly. Authentication is based on the use of a message authentication code(MAC) The authentication header consists of the following fields. Next header(8 bits):Identifies the type of header immediately following this header. Payload length(8 bits):Length of authentication header in 32-bit words,minus 2. Reserved(16 bits):For future use. Security parameters index(32 bits):Identifies a security association. Sequence number(32 bits):A monotonically increasing counter value. Authentication data(variable):A variable-length field that contains the Integrity Check Value.

Anti-replay service A replay attack is one in which an attacker obtains a copy of an authenticated packet and later transmits it to the intended destination. The sequence number field is designed to thwart such attacks. Integrity check value The authentication data field holds a value referred to as the integrity check value. The ICV is a message authentication code or a truncated version of a code produced by a MAC algorithm. Transport and tunnel modes These are the two ways in which the IPSec authentication service can be used.In one case authentication is provided directly between a server and client work stations;the work station can be either on the same network as the server or on an external network.As long as the work station and the server share a protected secret

key, the authentication process is secure.This case uses a transport mode SA. In the other case a remote work station authenticates itself to the corporate firewall, either for access to the entire internal network or because the requested server does not support the authentication feature. This case uses a tunnel mode SA. For transport mode AH using IPv4, the AH is inserted after the original IP header and before the IP payload. In the context of IPv6, the AH is viewed as an end-to-end payload;that is it is not examined or processed by intermediate routers. Therefore the AH appears after the IPv6 base header and the hop-by-hop,routing and fragment extension headers. For tunnel mode AH the original IP packet is authenticated, and the AH is inserted between the original IP header and a new outer IP header IPv4 Orig IP hdr TCP Data

Orig IP hdr IPv6 IPv4 Orig IP hdr AH

Extension hdrs if present

TCP

Data

TCP

Data

IPv6 Orig IP hdr hop-by-hop , dest,routing,fragment AH dest TCP data

IPv4

New IP hdr

AH

Orig IP hdr

TCP

Data

IPv6 New Ext AH Orig IP hdr IP hdrs hdr Ext hdrs TCP data

ENCAPSULATING SECURITY PAYLOAD

The encapsulating security payload provides confidentiality services , including confidentiality of message contents and limited traffic flow confidentiality.As an optional feature , ESP can also provide the same authentication services as AH. ESP Format ESP packet contains the following fields Security parameters index(32 bits):Identifies a security association. Sequence number(32 bits):A monotonically increasing counter value;this provides an anti-replay function,as discussed for AH. Payload data(variable):This is a transport level segment(transport mode)or IP packet(tunnel mode)that is protected by encryption. Padding(0-255 bytes):The padding field serves several purposes: o If an encryption algorithm requires the plain text to be a multiple of some number of bytes the padding field is used to expand the plain text to the required length. o The ESP format requires that the cipher text must be an integer multiple of 32 bits. The padding field is used to assure this alignment. o Additional padding may be added to provide partial traffic flow confidentiality by concealing the actual length of the payload. Pad length(8 bits):Indicates the nuber of pad bytes immediately preceding this field. Next header(8 bits):Identifies the type of data contained in the payload data field. Authentication data(variable):A variable length field that contains the Integrity Check Value computed over the ESP packet minus the authentication data field.

Transport and tunnel modes Figure shows the two ways in which IPsec ESP services can be used.Hosts on the internal networks use the internet for the transport of data but do not interact with the other internet based hosts. By terminating the tunnels at the security gateway to each internal network the configuration allows the hosts to avoid implementing the security capability . The former technique is supported by a transport mode SA, while the latter technique uses a tunnel mode SA. Transport mode ESP Transport mode ESP is used to encrypt and optionally authenticate the data carried by IP. For this mode using IPv4, the ESP header is inserted into the IP packet immediately prior to the transport layer header and an ESP trailer is placed after the IP packet. In the context of IPv6, ESP is viewed as an end-to-end payload ; that is it is not examined or processed by intermediate routers. Therefore the ESP header appears after the IPv6 base header and the hop-by-hop, routing and fragment extension headers.The destination option extension could appear before or after the ESP header, depending on the semantics required.For IPv6 encryption covers the entire

transport level segment plus the ESP trailer plus the destination options extension header if it occurs after the ESP header. IPv4 Orig ESP TCP data ESP trlr ESP auth IP hdr hdr IPv6 orig IP hdr hop-by-hop , dest,routing,fragment ESP hdr dest TCP data ESP trlr ESP auth

Tunnel mode ESP Tunnel mode ESP is used to encrypt the entire IP packet . For this mode the ESP header is prefixed to the packet and then the packet plus the ESP trailer is encrypted. This method can be used to counter the traffic analysis. IPv4 New ESP Orig IP hdr TCP data ESP ESP IP hdr hdr trlr auth IPv6 new Ext IP hdr hdrs

ESP hdr

Orig Ext IP hdr hdrs

TCP

data

ESP trlr

ESP auth

2.Write about how security associations can be combined. An individual SA can implement either the AH or ESP protocol but not both. Sometimes a particular traffic flow will call for the services provided by both AH and ESP.Multiple SA must be employed for the same traffic flow to achieve the desired IP services. The term security association bundle refers to a sequence of SAs through which traffic must be processed to provide a desired set of IPsec services. The SAs in a bundle may terminate at different endpoints or at the same endpoints. Security associations may be combined into bundle in two types. o Transport adjacency: Refers to applying more than one security protocol to the same IP packet without invoking tunneling. o Iterated tunneling: Refers to the application of multiple layers of security protocols effected through IP tunneling. The two approaches can be combined for example by having a transport SA between hosts travel part of the way through a tunnel SA between security gateways Authentication plus confidentiality

Encryption and authentication can be combined inorder to transmit an IP packet that has both confidentiality and authentication between hosts. ESp with authentication option In this approach the user first applies ESP to the data to be protected and the appends the authentication data field. There are two sub cases. Transport mode ESP:Authentication and encryption apply to the IP payload delivered to the host but the IP header is not protected. Tunnel mode ESP:Authentication applies to the entire IP packet delivered to the outer IP destination address and authentication is performed at that destination. For both the cases authentication applies to cipher text rather than the plain text. Transport adjacency Another way to apply authentication after the encryption is to use two bundle transport SAs with the inner being an ESP SA and the outer being an AH SA . In this case ESP is used without its authentication option. Because the inner SA is a transport SA, encryption is applied to the IP payload. The resulting packet consists of an IP header followe by an ESP. AH is then applied in the transport mode so that authenticayion covers the ESP plus the original IP header except for mutable fields. Transport-Tunnel bundle One approach to applying authentication before encryption between two hosts is to use a bundle consisting of an inner AH transport SA an outer ESP tunnel SA. IN this case authentication is applied to the IP payload plus the IP header except for the mutable fields. The resulting IP packet is then processed in the tunnel mode by the ESP; the result is that the entire authenticated inner packet is encrypted and a new outer IP header is added. Basic combinations of security associations In case1 all security is provided between end systems that implement IPsec. For any two end systems to communicate via an SA they must share the appropriate secret keys. The following are among the possible combinations. AH in transport mode. ESp in transport mode. AH followed by ESP in transport mode. Any one of a,b, or c inside an AH or ESP in tunnel mode. For case2 security is provided only between gateways and no hosts implement IPsec. Case3 builds on case2 by adding end-to-end security. The gateway to-gateway tunnel provides either authentication or confidentiality or both for all traffic between end systems. When the gateway-to-gateway tunnel is ESP it also provides a limited form of traffic confidentiality.

Case4 provides support for a remote host that uses the internet to reach an organizations firewall and then to gain access to some server or workstation behind the firewall. Only tunnel mode is required between the remote host and the firewall .

7
1.Explain S/MIME? S/MIME Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension is a security enhancement to the MIME Internet e-mail format standard, based on technology from RSA Data Security. It is ability to sign and/or encrypt messages. RFC 822 RFC 822 defines a format for text messages that are sent using electronic mail. It has been the standard for Internet-based text message and remains in common use. In the RFC822 context, messages are viewed as having an envelope and contents. The envelope contains whatever information needed to accomplish transmission and delivery. The contents compose the object to be delivered to the recipient. MIME Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) is an extension to the RFC 822 framework that is intended to address some of the problems and limitations of the use of SMTP. Some of limitations: 1.It cannot transmit executable files or folders. 2.SMTP servers may reject, mail message over a certain size.

3. Some SMTP implementations do not adhere completely to the SMTP standards defined in RFC 821. Common problems include Deletion, addition, or reordering of carriage return and linefeed Truncating or wrapping lines longer than 76 characters Removal of trailing white space Padding of lines in a message to the same length Conversion of tab characters into multiple space characters The MIME specification includes the following elements: 1.Five message header fields are defined which may be included in and RFC 822 header. 2.A numbers of content formats are defined, thus standardizing representations that support multimedia electronic mail. 3.Transfer encodings are defined that enable the conversion of any content format into a form that is protected from alteration by the mail system.

S/MIME Functionality It offers ability to sign and/or encrypt messages. Functions Enveloped Data: This consists of encrypted content of any type and encrypted content encryption keys for one or more recipients. Signed Data: A digital signature is formed by taking the message digest of the content to be signed and then encrypting that with the private key of signer. The content plus signature are the encoded using base64 encoding. Clear-signed data: As with assigned data, a digital signature of the content is formed. In this case only the digital signature is encoded using base64. Signed and enveloped date: Signed-only and encrypted-only entities may be nested, so that encrypted data may be signed and signed data or clear-signed data may be signed and signed data or clear-signed data may be encrypted. Cryptographic algorithms Function Create a message digest to be used in Forming a digital signature Encrypt session key for transmission with message Requirement MUST support SHA-1. Receiver SHOULD support md5 for backward compatibility Sending and receiving agents MUST support Diffie-Hellman. Sending agents Should support RSA encryption with key sizes 51 bits to 1024 bits.

MUST: The definition is an absolute requirement of the specification. An implementation must include this feature or function to be in conformance with the specification. SHOULD: There may exist valid reasons in particular circumstances to ignore this feature or function, but it is recommended that an implementation include this feature of function. S/MIME incorporates three public-key algorithms. The Digital Signature Standard (DSS) is the preferred algorithm for digital signature. S/MIME use a variant of Diffie-Hellman that does provide encryption/decryption. The S/MIME specification includes a discussion of the procedure for deciding which content encryption algorithm to use. A sending agent should follow the following rules, in the following order: 1. The sending agent SHOULD choose the first capability on the list that it is capable of using. 2. If the sending agent has no such list of capabilities from an intended recipient but has received one or more messages from the recipient, then the outgoing message SHOULD use the same encryption algorithm as was used on the last signed and encrypted message received from that intended recipient. 3. If the sending agent has no acknowledge about the decryption capabilities of the intended recipient and is willing to risk that the recipient may not be able to decrypt the message, then the sending agent SHOULD use tripleDES. 4. 4. If the sending agent has no knowledge about the decryption capabilities of the intended recipient and is not willing to risk that the recipient may not be able to decrypt the message, then the sending agent MUST use RC2/40. Securing a MIME Entity S/MIME secures a MIME entity with a signature, encryption, or both. A MIME entity may be an entire message, or if the MIME content type is multipart, then a MIME entity is one or more of the subparts of the message. Then the MIME entity plus some security related date, such as algorithm identifies and certificated, are processed by S/MIME to produce what is known as a PKCS object. A PKCS object is then treated as message content and wrapped in MIME. S/MIME Certificate Processing S/MIME uses public-key certificates. The key-management scheme used by S/MIME is in some ways a hybrid between a strict X.509 certification hierarchy and PGPs web of trust. As with the PGP model, S/MIME managers and/or users must configure each client with a list of trusted keys and with certificate revocation lists. That is the responsibility is local for maintaining the certificated needed to verify incoming signatures ad to encrypt outgoing messages. On the other hand, the certificates are signed by certification authorities. An S/MIME user has several key management functions to perform: 1. 1.Key generation: Each key pair MUST be generated from a good source of nondeterministic random input and be protected in a secure fashion.

2. 2.Registration: A users public key must be registered with a certification authority in order to receive an X.509 public key certificate. 3. 3.Certificate storage and retrieval: A user requires access to local list of certificated in order to verify incoming signatures and to encrypt outgoing messages. 2. PRETTY GOOD PRIVACY PGP provides a confidentiality and authentication service that can be used for electronic mail and file storage applications. Phil Zimmermann has done the following: 1. Selected the best available cryptographic as building blocks 2. Integrated these algorithms into a general purpose application that is independent of operating system and processor and that is based on a small set of easy to use commands 3. Made the package and its documentation including the source code, freely available via internet ,bulletin boards ,and commercial networks such as AOL 4. Entered into an agreement with a company to provide a fully compatible, low cost commercial version of PGP. PGP has grown explosively and now widely used. A number of reasons can be cited for this growth, 1. It is available free worldwide in versions that run on a variety of platforms,including windows ,UNIX,Macintosh,and many more. 2. It is based on algorithms that have survived extensive public review and are considered extremely secure. 3. It has a wide range of applicability from corporations that wish to select and enforce a standardized scheme for encrypting files and messages to individuals who wish to communicate securely with others worldwide over the internet and other networks . 4. It was not developed by ,nor is it controlled by, any governmental or standard organization 5. PGP is now on an internet standards track. Notation Ks =Session key used in symmetric encryption scheme KRa=Private key of user A used in public key encryption scheme. KUa= Public key of user A, used in public key encryption scheme EP = Public key encryption DP = Public key decryption EC = Symmetric encryption DC = Symmetric decryption H = Hash function || = Concatenation Z = compression using ZIP algorithm

R64 = Conversion to radix 64 ASCII format R64 = Conversion to radix 64 ASCII format
DP

D P

KRA
| |

I M
E P

Z-1
1111 -

COMPARE
M
H

E P
D P

E C

| |
D C Z-1

DP

H M E P | | Z E C | | D P D C Z1

D P M

COM[ARE
H

Operational Description PGP provides five services

Authentication DSS/SHA or RSA/SHA Confidentiality CAST or IDEA or 3DES Diffe or RSA Compression ZIP Email Compatibility Radix 64 conversion Segmentation Authentication 1. The sender creates a message 2. SHA-1 is used to generate a 160 bit hash code of the message 3. The hash code is encrypted with RSA using the senders private key,and the result is prepended to the message 4. The receiver uses RSA with the senders public key to decrypt and recover the hash code 5. The receiver generates a new hash code for the message and compares it with the decrypted hash code Confidentiality 1. The sender generates a message and random 128 bit number to be used as a session key for this message only 2. The message is encrypted ,using CAST -128 with the session key 3. The session key is encrypted with RSA with its private key to decrypt and recover the session key 4. The session key is used to decrypt the message 5.The receiver uses RSA with its private key to decrypt and recover the session key Compression 1. The signature is generated before compression for 2 reasons a. It is preferable to sign an uncompreesed message so that one can store only the compressed message together with the signature for future verification b. Even if one were willing to generate dynamically a recompressed message for verification 2.The message encryption is applied after compression to strengthen cryptographic security Email Compatibility When PGP is used , atleast part of the block to be transmitted is encrypted.If only the signature service is used then the message digest is encrypted.If the confidentiality service is used , the message plus signature are encrypted .Thus part or all of the resulting block consist of a stream of arbitrary 8 bit octets.

Segmentation and reassembly

Email facilities often are restricted to a maximum message length.To accommodate this restriction PGP automatically subdivides the message that is too large into segments that are small enough to send via email Cryptographic Keys and Key rings 1. A means of generating unpredictable session keys is needed 2. We would like to allow a user to have multiple public-key/private-key pairs The user may wish to change his or her key pair from time to time.Also the recipient will know only the old private key until an update reaches them 3. Each PGP entity must maintain a file of its own public/private key pairs as well as a file of public keys of correspondence Key Rings Private Key Rings Timestamp: The date/time when this key pair was generated Key ID: The least significant 64 bits of the public key for the entry Public key: The public key portion of the pair Private key: The private key portion of the pair User ID: is the users email address Public key Rings Timestamp:The date/time when the entry was generated Key ID: The least significant 64 bits of the public key for this entry Public key: the public keys for this entry UserID: Identifies the owner of this key PGP MESSAGE GENERATION

Public key ring

||

Passphrase
Encryp ted private key

D C

Private key ring

Key id H
E P | |

Key id
E P | |

M
E C

output

1.Differences between version4 and version5 Version4 had the following environmental shortcomings: 1.Ecryption system dependence: It requires the use of DES 2.Internet protocol dependence: requires the use of internet protocol addresses 3.Message byte ordering: Sender of a message employs a byte ordering of its own choice 4.Ticket lifetime Lifetime values are encrypted in an 8 bit quantity. 5.Authentication forwarding: It does not allow credentials issued to one client to be forwarded to some other host and used by some other client. 6.Interrealm authentication: Interoperability among N realms requires the order of N2 kerberos to kerberos relationships. Apart from these it had the following technical deficiencies: 1.Double encryption The tickets provided to clients are encrypted twice. 2.PCBC encryption Encryption makes use of a nonstandard mode of DES known as Propagating Block Chaining(PCBC) 3.Session keys each ticket includes a session key that is used by the client. 4.Password attacks Both versions are vulnerable to a password attack. These are overcome in version 5.

1.Differences between version4 and version5 Version4 had the following environmental shortcomings: 1.Ecryption system dependence: It requires the use of DES 2.Internet protocol dependence: requires the use of internet protocol addresses 3.Message byte ordering: Sender of a message employs a byte ordering of its own choice 4.Ticket lifetime Lifetime values are encrypted in an 8 bit quantity. 5.Authentication forwarding:

It does not allow credentials issued to one client to be forwarded to some other host and used by some other client. 6.Interrealm authentication: Interoperability among N realms requires the order of N2 kerberos to kerberos relationships. Apart from these it had the following technical deficiencies: 1.Double encryption The tickets provided to clients are encrypted twice. 2.PCBC encryption Encryption makes use of a nonstandard mode of DES known as Propagating Block Chaining(PCBC) 3.Session keys each ticket includes a session key that is used by the client. 4.Password attacks Both versions are vulnerable to a password attack. These are overcome in version 5. 2.Version5 authentication dialogue It consists of 1.user ID and TGS 2.Realm Indicates realm of a user 3.Options Used to request that certain flags be set in the return ticket 4.Times Used by the client to request the time settings. 5.Nonce A random value that is repeated in the message to assure that the response is fresh. The client server authentication exchange includes the features: Subkey:Clients choice of an encryption key for an applications session. Sequence number:An optional field that specifies the starting sequence number to beused by the server for messages to the client. TICKET FLAGS that are used include: INITIAL This ticket was issued by the AS protocol and not based on the ticket granting ticket. PRE-AUTHENT During initial authentication the client was authenticated by the KDC. HW-AUTHENT The protocol employed for initial authentication required the use of hardware. RENEWABLE Tells TGS that this ticket can be used to obtain a replacement ticket MAY-POSTDATE Tells TGS that a postdated ticket may be issued based on this ticket granting ticket.

POSTDATED Indicates that this ticket has been postdated INVALID This ticket is invalid and must be validated by the KDC. PROXIABLE Tells TGS that a new service granting ticket with a new network address may be issued. based on this presented ticket. PROXY Indicates that this ticket is a proxy. FORWARDABLE Tells TGS that a new ticket granting ticket with a new network address may be issued. based on this ticket granting ticket FORWARDED Indicates that this ticket has either been forwarded or was issued based on authentication involving a forwarded ticket granting ticket.