21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S1/SLO−1 5.

Complex integration

Contour: A contour is a piecewise smooth path consisting of finite number of smooth arcs joined
end to end. An arc is given by an equation z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b, where x(t) and y(t) are
continuous functions of t.

Note: The notions of curves in the complex plane that are smooth, piecewise smooth, simple, closed
and simple closed are easily formulated in terms of vector function z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) − − − (1),
a≤t≤b

Suppose the derivative of (1) is continuous and never zero in the interval a ≤ t ≤ b then we call the
curve C as smooth.

A piecewise smooth curve C has a continuously turning tangent, except possibly at the points where
the component smooth curves C1 , C2 , · · · , Cn are joined together.

A curve C in the complex plane is said to be a simple if z(t1 ) ̸= z(t2 ) for t1 ̸= t2 except possibly for
t = a and t = b. C is a closed curve if z(a) = z(b).

C is a simple closed curve if z(t1 ) ̸= z(t2 ) for t1 ̸= t2 and z(a) = z(b). In complex analysis, a
piecewise smooth curve C is called a contour or path.

We define the positive direction on a contour C to be the direction on the curve corresponding to
increasing values of the parameter t.

It is also said that the curve C has positive orientation. In the case of a simple closed curve C, the
positive direction roughly corresponds to the counterclockwise direction or the direction that a
person must walk on C in order to keep the interior of C to the left. If C has an orientation, the
opposite curve, that is, a curve with opposite orientation, is denoted by −C. On a simple closed
curve, the negative direction corresponds to the clockwise direction.

Contour Integral: If f (z) is a function of a complex variable z which is defined on a given arc or
R
curve C in the complex plane, then the complex line integral is written as f (z)dz.
C
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S1/SLO−1 5.2

Contour Integral

If the equation of C is z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b and C is the contour from z1 = z(a) to
Rz2
z2 = z(b), then we write f (z)dz.
z1

If f (z) is piecewise continuous on C then f (z(t)) is piecewise continuous on [a, b] . We define the
Rb
contour integral of f along C as f (z)dz = f [z(t)] z ′ (t)dt
R
C a
R R
If f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), then f (z)dz = (u + iv)(dx + idy)
C C

Evaluating a contour integral

R
1. Evaluate zdz, where C is given by x = 3t, y = t2 , −1 ≤ t ≤ 4
C

Solution:

By the parametrization of the contour C is

z = z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) = 3t + it2

∴ z = 3t − it2

Also z ′ (t) = 3 + 2it

Rb
f (z(t))z ′ (t)dt
R
∴ f (z)dz =
C a

R4
= (3t − it2 )(3 + 2it)dt
−1

R4
= (2t3 + 9t + 3t2 i)dt
−1

4
t4 t2 t3

= 2 +9 +3 i
4 2 3 −1
 4
42 4 2 3
  
4 (−1) (−1) (−1)
= 2 + 9 + 43 i − 2 +9 +3 i
4 2 4 2 3
  
1 9
= (128 + 72 + 64i) − + −i
2 2

= 128 + 72 + 64i − 5 + i

= 195 + 65i
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S1/SLO−1 5.3

Cauchy’s integral theorem (without proof)

Simply Connected and Multiply Connected Domains

A domain D in the complex plane is called simply connected if every simple closed curve which lies
in D can be shrunk to a point without leaving D.
Example: Interior of a circle and ellipse are simply connected domains.

Note:A simply connected domain has no “holes” in it.

A domain D which is not simply connected is called multiply connected.

Cauchy’s integral theorem or Cauchy’s fundamental theorem

If f (z) is analytic and f ′ (z) is continuous on and inside a simple closed curve C, then
I
f (z)dz = 0.
C

Note:The proof of this theorem is an immediate consequence of Green’s theorem and C-R equations.

The French Mathematician E. Goursat proved the above theorem without the condition of continuity
of f ′ (z).

Cauchy-Goursat integral theorem

H
If f (z) is analytic at all points inside and on a simple closed curve C, then f (z)dz = 0.
C
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S1/SLO−1 5.4

Cauchy’s integral theorem (without proof)

H
1. Evaluate ez dz, where C is the simple closed contour.
C

Solution:

The function f (z) = ez is entire and C is a simple closed contour.

It follows from the form of Cauchy-Goursat integral theorem.

H
∴ By Cauchy-Goursat integral theorem, ez dz = 0.
C

H dz (y−5)2
2. Evaluate z2
, where C is the ellipse (x − 2)2 + 4
= 1.
C

Solution:

1
Given function f (z) = z2
is analytic everywhere except at z = 0.

But z = 0 is not a point interior to or on the given contour C(ellipse).

dz
H
Thus, by Cauchy-Goursat integral theorem, z2
= 0.
C
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S1/SLO−2 5.5

Cauchy–Goursat Theorem for Multiply Connected Domains (without proof)

H
If f is analytic in a multiply connected domain D, then we cannot conclude that f (z)dz = 0
C
for every simple closed contour C in D. To begin, suppose D is a doubly connected domain. C
and C1 are simple closed contours such that C1 surrounds the ”hole” in the domain and is interior
to C. Suppose that f is analytic on each contour and at each point interior to C but exterior to C1 .
When we introduce the cut AB shown in the figure. The region bounded by the curves is simply
connected. Now the integral from A to B has the opposite value of the integral from B to A, and so
H H H H
from Cauchy–Goursat Theorem, we have f (z)dz + f (z)dz = 0 or f (z)dz = f (z)dz
C C1 C C1

Note:

This result is also called the principle of deformation of contours. Since we can think of the contour
C1 as a continuous deformation of the contour C. Under this deformation of contours, the value of the
integral does not change. It helps us to evaluate an integral over a complicated simple closed contour
by replacing that contour with one that is more convenient.

Note:

We can showthat if z0 is any constant complex number interior to any simple closed contour C, then
H dz  2πi n = 1
(z−z0 )n
= − − − (1)
C  0 n an integer ̸= 1
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S1/SLO−2 5.6

Cauchy–Goursat Theorem for Multiply Connected Domains (without proof)

5z+7
H
1. Evaluate z 2 +2z−3
dz, where C is the circle |z − 2| = 2.
C

Solution:

Since the denominator factor as z 2 + 2z − 3 = (z − 1)(z + 3), the integrand fails to be analytic at
z = 1 and z = −3. Of these two points, only z = 1 lies within the contour C, which is a circle
centred at z = 2 of radius 2.

Now split it into partial fraction

5z+7 A B
z 2 +2z−3
= z−1
+ z+3

=⇒ A(z + 3) + B(z − 1) = 5z + 7

Put z = −3 Put z = 1
B(−4) = −8 A(4) = 12
B=2 A=3
5z+7 3 2
∴ z 2 +2z−3
= z−1
+ z+3

5z+7 3 2
H H H
∴ z 2 +2z−3
dz = z−1
dz + z+3
dz
C C C

= 3(2πi) + 2(0) ∵ (1) and Cauchy–Goursat Theorem

= 6πi

Cauchy–Goursat Theorem for Multiply Connected Domains

Suppose C, C1 , C2 , · · · , Cn are simple closed curves with a positive orientation such that
C1 , C2 , · · · , Cn are interior to C but the regions interior to each Ci , i = 1, 2, · · · , n, have no points
in common. If f is analytic on each contour and at each point interior to C but exterior to all the
Ci , i = 1, 2, · · · , n, then

I n I
X
f (z)dz = f (z)dz.
C i=1 C
i
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S1/SLO−2 5.7

Independence of the Path

Recall in the vector calculus, there exists line integrals whose value depends only on the initial point
A and terminal point B of the curve C, and not on C itself. In this case, we say that the line integral
is independent of the path.

It seems natural to ask:

Can a contour integral be independent of the path?

Answer is yes.

Definition
R
Let z0 and z1 be points in a domain D. A contour integral f (z)dz is said to be independent of the
C
path if its value is the same for all contours C in D with an initial point z0 and a terminal point z1 .
Note:Analyticity implies Path independence
R
If f is analytic function in a simply connected domain D, then f (z)dz is independent of the path
C
C.
R
1. Evaluate 2zdz, where C is the contour with initial point z = −1 and the terminal point
C
z = −1 + i. shown in the figure

Solution:
On C1 : z = −1 + iy; dz = idy
y varies from 0 to 1

Z Z
∴ 2zdz = 2zdz
C C1

Z1 Z1
= −2 ydy − 2i dy
0 0
1
y2

= −2 − 2i [y]10
2 0

 
1
= −2 − 2i [1]
2

= −1 − 2i
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S2/SLO−1 5.8

Cauchy’s integral formulae

Singular points:

If a function f fails to be an analytic at a point z0 , but it is analytic at some point in every

neighbourhood of z0 then z0 is a singular point of f.

1
Example:f (z) = , z = 0 is a singular point.
z
Cauchy’s Integral formula:

Let f (z) be an analytic function inside and on a simple closed contour C, taken in the positive sense.
1 H f (z)dz
If a is any point interior to C, then f (a) =
2πi c (z − a)

Note:

1. Cauchy’s integral formula tells us that if a function f (z) is analytic within and on a simple closed
contour C, then the value of f at an interior point of C is completely determined by the values of f
on C. When the sense of a curve is not specified, we take the anticlockwise sense as the positive
sense.

1 H f (z) H f (z)
2. Cauchy’s integral formula is f (a) = dz ⇒ dz = 2πif (a)
2πi c (z − a) c
(z − a)

Cauchy’s integral formula for derivates are follows

1! H f (z) H f (z) 2πi ′

3. f ′ (a) = c 2
dz ⇒ c 2
dz = f (a)
2πi (z − a) (z − a) 1!

2! H f (z) H f (z) 2πi ′′

4. f ′′ (a) = c 3
dz ⇒ c 3
dz = f (a)
2πi (z − a) (z − a) 2!

n! H f (z) H f (z) 2πi n

5. In general, f n (a) = dz ⇒ dz = f (a)
2πi c (z − a)n+1 c
(z − a)n+1 n!

Working procedure for finding the value of integral by Cauchy’s integral formula:

Step1:Write the corresponding Cauchy’s integral formula and write the given integral

Step2:Identify the singular points

Step3:Check the point lies inside the curve

Step4:Modify the form of integral as like in the L.H.S of Cauchy’s integral formula

Step5:Identify the value of a and find the value of f (z) at a

Step6:Substituting the corresponding values in the Cauchy’s integral formula.

21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S2/SLO−1 5.9

Cauchy’s integral formulae - Problems Solving Tip!

R cos πz 3
1. Evaluate dz where C is |z| = .
C (z − 1)(z − 2) 2

Solution:

Cauchy’s integral formula is Step1: write the corresponding

Z
f (z)
dz = 2πi.f (a) − − − −(1)
C z−a Cauchy’s integral formula and

R cos πz 3 Write the given integral

Let I = dz where C is |z| = .
C (z − 1)(z − 2) 2

∴ z = 1, z = 2 are singularities

Step3:Check the point lies inside

3 3
Given C is the circle |z| = with centre (0,0) and radius =
2 2 the curve

If z = 1
3
then |z| = |1| = 1 <
2
∴ z = 1 lies inside C
Step4:Modify the form of integral
If z = 2
3 as like in the L.H.S of Cauchy’s
then |z| = |2| = 2 >
2 integral formula
∴ z = 2 lies outside C

R cos πz
Now I = dz
C (z − 1)(z − 2)
cos πz
R (z − 2)
= dz
C (z − 1)

cos πz Step5:Identify a and find the value

Here f (z) = is analytic inside and on C and a = 1
(z − 2) of f (z) at a

cos π −1
∴ f (a) = = =1
(1 − 2) (−1)

Step6:Substituting these values in

By (1), I = 2πi.f (a) = 2πi the corresponding Cauchy’s
integral formula
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S2/SLO−2 5.10

Cauchy’s integral formulae - Problems Solving Tip!

R sin πz 2 + cos πz 2
2. Evaluate dz where C is |z| = 3.
C (z − 1)(z − 2)

Solution:

Cauchy’s integral formula is Step1:Write the corresponding

Z
f (z)
dz = 2πi.f (a) − − − −(1)
C z−a Cauchy’s integral formula

R sin πz 2 + cos πz 2 and write the given integral

Let I = dz
C (z − 1)(z − 2)

∴ The singular points are z = 1 and z = 2 Step2:Identify the singular points

Given circle |z| = 3 with center (0,0) and radius 3

If z = 1
then |z| = |1| = 1 < 3 Step3:Check the point lies inside
∴ z = 1 lies inside C the curve
If z = 2
then |z| = |2| = 2 < 3
∴ z = 2 lies inside C

Step4:Modify the form of integral

Here f (z) = sin πz 2 + cos πz 2 is analytic on and inside C. as like in the L.H.S of Cauchy’s
integral formula

1 A B
Let = +
(z − 1)(z − 2) (z − 1) (z − 2)

Then 1 = A(z − 2) + B(z − 1)

Put z = 2, Put z = 1
1 = 0 + B(2 − 1) 1 = A(1 − 2) + 0
1 = 0 + B(1) 1 = A(−1) + 0
B=1 A = −1

1 −1 1 1 1
= + =− +
(z − 1)(z − 2) (z − 1) (z − 2) (z − 1) (z − 2)
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S2/SLO−2 5.11

Cauchy’s integral formulae - Problems Solving Tip!

R sin πz 2 + cos πz 2
∴ I= dz
C (z − 1)(z − 2)

R sin πz 2 + cos πz 2 R sin πz 2 + cos πz 2

=− dz + dz
C (z − 1) C (z − 2)

Step5:Identify a and find the value

∴ f (1) = sin π(1)2 + cos π(1)2 = sin π + cos π = 0 + 1 = −1 of f (z) at a∵ if n is a positive
integer,

and f (2) = sin π(2)2 + cos π(2)2 = sin 4π + cos 4π = 0 + 1 = 1 sin nπ = 0& cos nπ = (−1)n

Step6:Substituting these values in

By Cauchy’s integral formula, the corresponding Cauchy’s
integral formula

I = −2πif (1) + 2πif (2)

= −2πi(−1) + 2πi(1) = 4πi

21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S2/SLO−2 5.12

Cauchy’s integral formulae - Problems

R z
3. Evaluate dz, where C is |z| = 2 using Cauchy’s integral formula.
C (z − 1)3

Solution:

Cauchy’s integral formula for derivative is

Z
f (z) 2πi n
n+1
dz = f (a)
(z − a) (n)!
c

R f (z)dz 2πi ′′
∴ 3
dz = f (a) − − − (1)
C (z − a) 2!
R z
Let I = dz
C (z − 1)3

Here we have the singular point z = 1

Given |z| = 2

If z = 1, |z| = |1| = 1 < 2

∴ it lies inside C

Here f (z) = z

∴ f ′ (z) = 1

f ′′ (z) = 0

and a = 1,

∴ f ′′ (a) = f ′′ (1) = 0

2πi ′′
∴ By (1), I = f (1) = 0
2!
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S2/SLO−2 5.13

Cauchy’s integral formulae - Problems

R dz 3
4. Evaluate 2
where |z| =
C (z + 1) (z − 2) 2

Solution

Cauchy’s integral formula for derivative is

Z
f (z) 2πi n
n+1
dz = f (a)
(z − a) (n)!
c

R f (z)dz 2πi ′
∴ 2
dz = f (a) − − − (1)
C (z − a) 1!
R dz
Let I =
C (z + 1)2 (z − 2)

The singular points are z = −1 and z = 2

3 3
Given C is |z| = , If z = −1, then |z| = | − 1| = 1 <
2 2
∴ z = −1 lies inside C

3
If z = 2, then |z| = |2| = 2 >
2
∴ z = 2 lies outside C

1
Now I =
R z − 2 dz
C (z + 1)2

1
Here f (z) = and a = −1
z−2
−1
∴ f ′ (z) =
(z − 2)2
−1
∴ f ′ (a) = f ′ (−1) =
9
 
′ 1 2πi
By (1), I = 2πif (−1) = 2πi − =−
9 9
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S3/SLO−1 5.14

Taylor’s expansion - Problems

Power Series

∞
an (z − a)n = a0 + a1 (z − a) + a2 (z − a)2 + · · · − − − (1)
P
A series of the form
n=0

where z is a complex variable, a0 , a1 , a2 , · · · and a are complex constants is called a power series in
powers of z − a or a power series about point a.

a0 , a1 , a2 , · · · are called coefficients of the series and a is called the centre of the series.

If a = 0, then we get the particular power series in powers of z or power series about the origin

∞
an z n = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + · · ·
P
n=0

Note:

1. The power series converges at all points inside a circle |z − a| = R for some positive number R
and diverges outside the circle. This circle is called the circle of convergence and its radius R is
called the radius of convergence.

an+1 1 ∞
an (z − a)n . This
P
2. If lim = l, then R = is the radius of convergence of the series
n→∞ an l n=0
formula is called Hadmard’s formula.

If l = 0, then R = ∞ and so the power series converges for all z in the finite plane.

an+1
If → ∞, then R = 0 and so the series converges only at the centre z = a.
an
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S3/SLO−2 5.15

Taylor’s series - Problems

Taylor’s series

If f (z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at a and radius R, then at each point z inside the
circle, f (z) has the series representation
f ′ (a) f ′′ (a) f (n) (a)
f (z) = f (a) + (z − a) + (z − a)2 + · · · + (z − a)n + · · · ∞
1! 2! n!
Note:

1. This R.H.S. means that the power series converges to f (z) at each point inside C and This is the
expansion of f (z) into a Taylor’s series about the point a.

2. Any function f (z) that is known to be analytic at a point a must have a Taylor’s series about a.

3. If a = 0, we get the Taylor’s series about the origin which is called the Maclaurin’s series.

f ′ (0) f ′′ (0) 2 f (n) (0) n

f (z) = f (0) + (z) + z + ··· + z + ···∞
1! 2! n!

Maclaurin’s series for some elementary functions given below.

z z2 z3
1. ez = 1 + + + + · · · if |z| < ∞.
1! 2! 3!
z z3 z5
2. sin z = − + − · · · if |z| < ∞.
1! 3! 5!
z2 z4 z6
3. cos z = 1 − + − + · · · if |z| < ∞.
2! 4! 6!
4. (1 − z)−1 = 1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + · · · if |z| < 1.

5. (1 − z)−2 = 1 + 2z + 3z 2 + 4z 3 + · · · if |z| < 1.

6. (1 + z)−1 = 1 − z + z 2 − z 3 + · · · if |z| < 1.

7. (1 + z)−2 = 1 − 2z + 3z 2 − 4z 3 + · · · if |z| < 1.

z2 z3 z4
8. log(1 + z) = z − + − + · · · if |z| < 1
2 3 4
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S3/SLO−2 5.16

Taylor’s series Solving Tip!

Taylor’s series

1
1. Expand at z = 1 in Taylor’s series.
z−2
Solution:

1
Let f (z) =
z−2
We want series in terms of z − 1.

Put t = z − 1 ⇒ z = t + 1

1 1
∴ =
z−2 (t + 1) − 2
1
=
t−1
−1
=
1−t
= −(1 − t)−1 Expand by Binomial series

= − [1 + t + t2 + t3 + · · · ] ∵ t=z−1

= − [1 + (z − 1) + (z − 1)2 + (z − 1)3 + · · · ]

2. Find the Taylor’s series to represent the function

z2 − 1
in |z| < 2.
(z + 2)(z + 3)

Solution:

z2 − 1
Let f (z) =
(z + 2)(z + 3)

The singular points z = −2, z = −3 which are lies outside

|z| < 2

So f (z) is analytic in the open disk |z| < 2 about 0.

We shall split f (z) into partial fractions. Since the degrees of the
Nr. and Dr. are same, we have,

z2 − 1 A B
=1+ +
(z + 2)(z + 3) z+2 z+3

⇒ z 2 − 1 = (z + 3)(z + 2) + A(z + 3) + B(z + 2)

21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S3/SLO−2 5.17

Taylor’s series - Problems Solving Tip!

Put z = −2, 4 − 1 = A(−2 + 3) ⇒ A = 3

Put z = −3, 9 − 1 = B(−3 + 2) ⇒ B = −8

z2 − 1 3 8
=1+ −
(z + 2)(z + 3) z+2 z+3
z z
Since |z| < 2 ⇒ < 1 and <1
2 3

3 8
∴ f (z) = 1 +  z −  z
2 1+ 3 1+
2 3
3 z −1 8  z −1
=1+ 1+ − 1+
2 2 3 3
 
3  z   z 2  z 3
=1+ 1− + − + ···
2 2 2 2
 
8  z   z 2  z 3
− 1− + − + ···
3 3 3 3
π
3. Expand f (z) = sin z about z =
4
Solution: Given f (z) = sin z. It is analytic for all z

π
∴ f (z) can be expanded as Taylor’s series about z =
4
π  π 
π  f′  π f ′′  π 2
∴ f (z) = f + 4 z− + 4 z−
4 1! 4 2! 4
π 
f ′′′  π 3
+ 4 z− + ···
3! 4
π  π  1
f (z) = sin z f = sin =√
4 4 2

π  π  1
f ′ (z) = cos z f′ = cos =√
4 4 2

π  π  1
′′ ′′
f (z) = − sin z f = − sin = −√
4 4 2

π  π  1
′′′ ′′′
f (z) = − cos z f = − cos = −√
4 4 2
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S3/SLO−2 5.18

Taylor’s series - Problems Solving Tip!

1 1  π 1  π 2
∴ f (z) = √ + √ z − − √ z−
2 1! 2 4 2! 2 4
1  π 3
− √ z− + ···
3! 2 4
 
1  π 1  π 2 1  π 3
= √ 1+ z− − z− − z− + ···
2 4 2! 4 3! 4
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S5/SLO−1 5.19

Laurent’s series - Problems

Laurent’s series

Let C1 and C2 be concentric circles with centre a and radii r1 , r2 (r1 > r2 ).

Let f (z) be analytic in the annular domain between the circles. Then at each point of the domain
∞ ∞
an (z − a)n + bn (z − a)−n , r2 < |z − a| < r1 .
P P
f (z) has the series representation f (z) =
n=0 n=1

1 H f (w)
where an = dw, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, · · ·
2πi C1 (w − a)n+1

1 H f (w)
bn = dw, n = 1, 2, 3, · · ·
2πi C2 (w − a)1−n

Note: 1. The above series is called Laurent’s series about z = a. Laurent’s series is a series with
positive and negative integral powers of (z − a). The part of the series with positive powers of
(z − a) is called the analytic part or regular part and the part with negative powers of (z − a) is
called the principal part of the Laurent’s series.

2. Taylor’s series of an analytic function is unique and Laurent’s series of an analytic function f (z)
in its annular region is unique.

So, we can find the series by any method. We usually used the binomial series.

3. If f (z) is analytic at a point a we find Taylor’s series expansion about a. If f (z) is not analytic at
a, but is analytic in some neighbourhood of a, then we find Laurent’s series expansion of f (z).
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S5/SLO−2 5.20

Laurent’s series - Problems Solving Tip!

1
1. Expand f (z) = as Laurent’s series valid in
(z − 1)(z − 2)
(i)|z| < 1 ii)1 < |z| < 2, iii)|z| > 2 and iv)0 < |z − 1| < 2

Solution:

1 A B
Let = +
(z − 1)(z − 2) (z − 1) (z − 2)

Then 1 = A(z − 2) + B(z − 1)

Put z = 2, Put z = 1
1 = 0 + B(2 − 1) 1 = A(1 − 2) + 0
1 = 0 + B(1) 1 = A(−1) + 0
B=1 A = −1

1 −1 1 1 1
= + =− +
(z − 1)(z − 2) (z − 1) (z − 2) (z − 1) (z − 2)
1 1 1
Here f (z) = = −
(z − 1)(z − 2) z−2 z−1

i) |z| < 1

z
If |z| < 1, then <1
2
1 1
∴ f (z) = z + 1 − z
−2 1 −
2
1 z −1
=− 1− + (1 − z)−1
2 2
z z2
 
1
=− 1 + + 2 + · · · + (1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + · · · )
2 2 2

ii) 1 < |z| < 2

1 z
If 1 < |z| < 2, then < 1 and <1
z 2
1 1
∴ f (z) =  z −  1

−2 1 − z 1−
2 z
 −1
1 z −1 1 1
=− 1− − 1−
2 2 z z
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S5/SLO−2 5.21

Laurent’s series - Problems Solving Tip!

 
1 z  z 2
=− 1+ + + ···
2 2 2
   2  3 !
1 1 1 1
− 1+ + + + ···
z z z z

iii) |z| > 2

2 1
If |z| > 2, then < 1 and <1
z z
1 1
∴ f (z) =  −  
2 1
z 1− z 1−
z z
 −1  −1
1 2 1 1
=− 1− − 1−
z z z z
 2 !
1 2 2
=− 1+ + + ···
z z z
   2  3 !
1 1 1 1
− 1+ + + + ···
z z z z

iv) 0 < |z − 1| < 2

This region is annular about z = 1. So the expansion of f(z) in

the region is Laurent’s series about z = 1

Put t = z − 1 ⇒ z = t + 1

∴ 0 < |t| < 2

1 1
f (z) = − +
z−1 z−2
1 1
=− +
t+1−1 t+1−2
1 1
=− +
t t−1
1
= − − (1 − t)−1
t
1
= − − [1 + t + t2 + t3 + · · · ] ∵ |t| < 2 ⇒ |t| < 1
t
= −(z − 1)−1 − [1 + (z − 1) + (z − 1)2 + (z − 1)3 + · · · ]
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S5/SLO−2 5.22

Laurent’s series - Problems Solving Tip!

e2z
2. Find the Laurent’s series of the f (z) = about
(z − 1)3
e2z
z = 1. Solution:Given f (z) =
(z − 1)3

Here z = 1 is a singular point.

So in the region |z − 1| > 0, f (z) is analytic and so f (z) can be

expanded as Laurent’s series in the annular region about z = 1

put t = z − 1 ∴ z = t + 1

e2z e2(t+1) e2 2t
∴ f (z) = = = e
(z − 1)3 t3 t3

e2 2t (2t)2 (2t)3
 
= 3 1+ + + + ···
t 1! 2! 3!
 
1 2 2 4 2
= e2 3 + 2 + + + t + · · · ∵ t=z−1
t t t 3 3
 
2 1 2 2 4 2
=e + + + + (z − 1) + · · ·
(z − 1)3 (z − 1)2 (z − 1) 3 3
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S6/SLO−1 5.23

Singularities

Classification of Singularities

A point at which a complex function f (z) is analytic is called a regular point or ordinary point of
f (z).

A point z = a is a singular point of f (z) if f (z) is not analytic (or not even defined), but is analytic
at some point in the neighbourhood of a.

Example:

1
1. f (z) = has z = 0 as singular point, since f (z) is not analytic at z = 0 but analytic at other
z
points.

1
2. f (z) = has z = 0, z = 1 as singular points, because f (z) is not analytic at these points,
z(z − 1)
but there are neighbourhoods where f (z) is analytic.

3. But f (z) = |z|2 has no singular points since it is analytic everywhere.

Isolated singularity

A singular point z = a is called an isolated singularity of the function f (z) if there exists a
neighbourhood of a in which there is no other singularity.

We can find a circular disk with center z = 1 and radius r < 1 in which there is no other singularity.

A singular point which is not isolated is called a non-isolated singularity.

1 1
For example, f (z) =   has z = , n ∈ Z as singular points, while 0 is a non-isolated
1 nπ
sin
z
1
singular point because every deleted neighbourhood of 0 contains a singularity for large n.
nπ
Note: If a function has only finite number of singularities in a region, then they are isolated
singularities. Isolated singularities are further classified as (i) poles, ii)essential singularities.

These classifications are made on the basis of the principal part of Laurent’s series.

Pole

An isolated singular point a of f (z) is said to be a pole of order m if the principal part of the
Laurent’s series of f (z) about a contains m terms, where m is finite.

That is, there exists a positive integer m such that bm ̸= 0 and bm+1 = bm+2 = · · · = 0
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S6/SLO−1 5.24

Singularities

If m = 1, then a is called a simple pole.

1
For example, f (z) = has z = 0 as a simple pole and z = 1 as a pole of order 2.
z(z − 1)2

Essential singularity

An isolated singular point a is said to be an essential singularity of f (z) if the principal part of
Laurent’s series of f (z) about a contains infinitely many terms.

For example, f (z) = e1/z has z = 0 as essential singularity because

1 1 1
e1/z = 1 + + 2
+ + · · · if 0 < |z| < ∞
z 2!z 3!z 3
z −2 z −3
= 1 + z −1 + + + ···
2! 3!
has infinitely many terms in the principal part. We also say z = 0 is an isolated essential singularity.

Removable singularity

An isolated singular point z = a of f (z) is called a removable singularity of f (z) if in some

neighbourhood of a the Laurent’s series expansion of f (z) has no principal part.

sin z
For example, f (z) = , z ̸= 0
z
z3 z5
 
1
= z− + − ···
z 3! 5!

z2 z4
=1− + − ···
3! 5!
sin z
It has no principal part So z = 0 is a removable singularity if is not defined at z = 0.
z
Note:

1. A singularity z = a is an essential singularity if there is no integer n such that

lim (z − a)n f (z) = A ̸= 0
z→a

2. A singularity z = a is a pole of order m if lim (z − a)m f (z) = A ̸= 0

z→a

3. A singularity z = a is a removable singulaity of f (z) if lim f (z) =a finite number A

z→a
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S6/SLO−1 5.25

Singularities

Zero of order m:

Let f (z) be analytic at z = z0 . If f (z0 ) = 0 then z0 is called a zero of f (z). If there is a positive
integer m such that f (m) (z0 ) ̸= 0 and f ′ (z0 ) = 0 = f ′′ (z0 ) = f ′′′ (z0 ) = · · · = f (m−1) (z0 ) then f (z)
is said to have a zero of order m at z0 . Thus f (z0 ) = (z − z0 )m g(z), g(z0 ) ̸= 0.

Note

p(z)
f (z) = where p(z), q(z) are analytic at z = a and p(a) ̸= 0 and if a is a zero of order m for
q(z)
q(z), then a is a pole of order m for f (z).

Residue

Let z = a be an isolated singular point of f (z). The coefficient b1 of (z − a)−1 in the Laurent’s series
expansion of f (z) about a is called the residue of f (z) at z = a. We denote
b1 = R(a) = [Resf (z)]z=a

Methods of finding residue

1. If z = a is a simple pole then R(a) = lim (z − a)f (z).

z→a
 m−1 
1 d m
2. If z = a is a pole of order m, then R(a) = lim ((z − a) f (z))
(m − 1)! z→a dz m−1

g(z)
3. Let f (z) = , where g(z) and h(z) are analytic functions at z = a. If h(a) = 0, h′ (a) ̸= 0 and
h(z)
g(z)
g(a) ̸= 0 and finite, then z = a is a simple pole of f (z) and R(a) = lim ′
z→a h (z)

Note:

1. Residue is not defined for non-isolated singularity of f (z).

2. The residue at an essential singularity of f (z) is found out using Laurent’s series expansion of
f (z) directly.

3. Residue at a removable singularity of f (z) is equal to zero.

4. The number of isolated singular points inside a simple closed curve is finite. This fact is used in
Cauchy’s residue theorem.
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S6/SLO−2 5.26

Singularities Solving Tip!

1. Discuss the nature of singularities of the following

functions.
 
sin z − z z−2 1
i) ii) 2 sin
z3 z z−1

e1/z ez
iii) iv)
(z − a)2 z2 + 4
cot πz
v)
(z − a)3

Solution:

sin z − z
i) Given f (z) =
z3
z3 z5
 
1
= 3 z− + + ··· − z
z 3! 5!

1 z2
=− + + ···
3! 5!
Another way, since there is no
1 1
lim f (z) = − = − =finite
z→0 3! 6 negative powers of z,

∴ z = 0 is a removable singularity z = 0 is a removable singularity.

1
(z − 2) sin
ii) Given f (z) = z−1
z2
Poles of f(z) are given by denominator of f(z)=0

⇒ z 2 = 0 ⇒ z = 0, 0

∴ z = 0 is a pole of order 2 of f (z)

z = 1 is a singular point, as f(z) is not defined when z=1.

Zeros of f (z) are given by Numerator of f (z) = 0

 
1
i.e.,(z − 2) sin z =0
z−1
1
i.e., z = 2 and sin = sin nπ
z−1
1
⇒ = nπ
z−1
1
=⇒ z − 1 = nπ

1
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S7/SLO−1 5.27

Singularities Solving Tip!

1
⇒ z−1=
nπ

1
⇒ z =1+ , n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · ·
nπ
1
The limit of the zeros 1 + is 1
nπ
lim f (z) does not exist, then z = a
∴ z = 1 is an isolated essential singularity. z→a
is an essential singularity.

e1/z
iii) Given f (z) =
(z − a)2

Poles of f (z) are given by (z − a)2 = 0 ⇒ z = a, a

∴ z = a is a pole of order 2 of f (z).

Now zeros of f (z) are given by e1/z = 0

(1/z) (1/z)2 (1/z)3

⇒ 1+ + + + ··· = 0
1! 2! 3!
z −1 z −2 z −3
⇒ 1+ + + + ··· = 0
1! 2! 3!
There is no z in the complex number system which satisfies this.
So, f (z) has no zeros.

In other way: Since the series

∴ lim f (z) = ∞ having infinite negative power
z→0
terms about 0,

i.e., the limit does not exist. Hence z = 0 is an essential

z = 0 is an essential sigularity.
sigularity.

ez
iv) Given f (z) =
z2 + 4
Poles of f (z) are given by z 2 + 4 = 0

⇒ z = ±2i, which are simple pole.

cot πz cos πz
v) Given f (z) = =
(z − a)3 sin πz(z − a)3

Poles of f (z) are given by sin πz(z − a)3 = 0

21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S7/SLO−1 5.28

Singularities Solving Tip!

⇒ sin πz = 0, (z − a)3 = 0

⇒ sin πz = sin nπ, z = a, a, a

⇒ πz = nπ, z = a, a, a

⇒ z = n, n ∈ Z, z = a, a, a

∴ z = a is a pole of order 3 and z = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · are all

simple poles.

2. Find the singularities of the following functions:

1 1
i) sin ii)
z+1 z(ez − 1)
1 − ez 1 − ez
iii) iv)
z4 1 + ez
Solution:

1
i) Given f (z) = sin
z+1
z = −1 is a singular point.

In the neighbourhood of z = −1 is a singular point.

the expansion of f(z) is z z3 z5

sin z = − + − ···
1! 3! 5!

1/(z + 1) 1/(z + 1)3 1/(z + 1)5

= − + + ···
1! 3! 5!
(z + 1)−1 (z + 1)−3 (z + 1)−5
= − + + ···
1! 3! 5!
Since f (z) contains infinite number of negative powers of z + 1,
z = −1 is an essential sigularity.

1
ii) Given f (z) =
z(ez − 1)

Poles of f(z) are given by z(ez − 1) = 0

⇒ z = 0, ez − 1 = 0

⇒ z = 0, ez = 1

⇒ z = 0, ez = ei2nπ

⇒ z = 0, z = i2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · ·

21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S7/SLO−1 5.29

Singularities Solving Tip!

Here, for n = 0, we have a z = 0 again.

∴ z = 0 is a pole of order 2 and z = i2nπ, n = ±1, ±2, · · · are

simple poles.

1 − ez
Given f (z) =
z4
z2 z3
 
z
1− 1+ + + + ···
1! 2! 3!
=
z4
z z2 z3
− − − − ···
= 1! 2! 3!
z4
z z2
−1 − − − ···
= 2! 3!
z3
Poles are given by z 3 = 0 ⇒ z = 0, 0, 0

∴ z = 0 is a pole of order 3.

1 − ez
iv) Given f (z) =
1 + ez
The poles of f(z) are given by
1 + ez = 0 ⇒ ez = −1 ⇒ ez = ei(2n+1)π , n ∈ Z

∴ z = i(2n + 1)π, n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · which are simple poles.

21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S7/SLO−2 5.30

Poles and their residues Solving Tip!

z+2
3. Determine pole for the function . Find the
(z + 1)2 (z − 2)
residue at the poles.

z+2
Solution: Given f (z) =
(z + 1)2 (z − 2)

The poles are given by (z + 1)2 (z − 2) = 0 ⇒ z = −1, −1, 2.

∴ z = −1 is a pole of order 2 and z = 2 is a simple pole.

∴ R(2) = lim(z − 2)f (z) For a simple pole,

z→2

z+2 R(a) = lim (z − a)f (z)

= lim(z − 2) z→a
z→2 (z + 1)2 (z − 2)
z+2
= lim
z→2 (z + 1)2

2+2 4
= 2
=
(2 + 1) 9

Since z = −1 is a pole of order 2. For a pole of order m,

 2−1  
1 d z+2 1
"
dm−1
#

R(−1) = lim (z + 1)2 R(a) =

(m − 1)!
lim
z→a dz m−1
((z − a)m f (z))
(2 − 1)! z→−1 dz 2−1 (z + 1)2 (z − 2)
  
1 d z+2
= lim
1 z→−1 dz (z − 2)

 
(z − 2).1 − (z + 2).1
= lim
z→−1 (z − 2)2
 
z−2−z−2
= lim
z→−1 (z − 2)2
 
−4
= lim
z→−1 (z − 2)2

 
−4 −4
= 2
=
(−1 − 2) 9
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S9/SLO−1 5.31

Cauchy’s residue theorem Solving Tip!

1
4. Find the residue at z = 0 for
z 2 ez
1 e−z z z2 z3
Solution:Given f (z) = 2 z = 2 e−z = 1 − + − + ···
z e z 1! 2! 3!

z z2 z3
1− + − + ···
= 1! 2! 3!
z2
z2 z3
 
1 z
= 2 1− + − + ···
z 1! 2! 3!
 
1 1 1 z
= 2 − + − + ···
z z 2! 3!

As there are 2 terms with negative powers in the series about 0,

z = 0 is a pole of order 2.

∴ R(0) = coefficient of z −1 = −1

Cauchy’s residue theorem:

If f (z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C, except

at a finite number of singular points z1 , z2 , · · · , zn lying inside C,
then

Z
f (z)dz = 2πi [R(z1 ) + R(z2 ) + · · · + R(zn )]
C

where the integral over C is taken in the anti clockwise sense.

R
1. Evaluate z 2 e1/z dz where C is the unit circle.
C

Solution:Let f (z) = z 2 e1/z z z2 z3

ez = 1 + + + + ···
1! 2! 3!

(1/z) (1/z)2 (1/z)3

 
2
=z 1+ + + + ···
1! 2! 3!
 
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
=z 1+ . + . 2 + + ···
1! z 2 z 6 z3
1 1 1
= z2 + z + + . + ···
2 6 z
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S9/SLO−1 5.32

Cauchy’s residue theorem Solving Tip!

Since the principal part contains infinite number of terms, z = 0

is an essential singularity.

1
∴ R(0) = Coefficient of z −1 =
6
By Cauchy’s residue theorem,
 
R 2 1/z 1 πi
z e dz = 2πi [R(0)] = 2πi =
C 6 3

Working procedure for finding the value of integral by

Given f (z) in the rational form
Cauchy’s residue theorem:

Step1:Write I =the given integral

Step2:Find the poles by equating the denominator of f (z) to 0

and solving it.

Step3:Check the pole lies inside or outside the given curve C

Step4:Find the residue of the pole, which lies inside C by the

residue formula given below.

1. If z = a is a simple pole then R(a) = lim (z − a)f (z).

z→a

Note:In the formula

2. If z = a is a pole oforder m, then
dm−1 substitution,Write the f (z) as in

1 m
R(a) = lim ((z − a) f (z))
(m − 1)! z→a dz m−1 the factorized form.

Step5:Write “By Cauchy’s residue theorem,

R
f (z)dz = 2πi [Sum of the residues]”
C

Step6:Substituting the corresponding values in the above

formula and the simplification gives the desired result.
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S9/SLO−2 5.33

Cauchy’s residue theorem Solving Tip!

1. Use Cauchy’s residue theorem, to evaluate

R sin πz 2 + cos πz 2
dz where C is |z| = 3.
C (z − 1)(z − 2)

Solution:

R sin πz 2 + cos πz 2 Step1: Write I =the given integral

Let I = dz
C (z − 1)(z − 2)

The poles are given by (z − 1)(z − 2) = 0 ⇒ z = 1, 2 which are

Step2:Find the poles
simple pole

Given circle |z| = 3 with center (0,0) and radius 3

If z = 1
then |z| = |1| = 1 < 3 Step3:Check the point lies inside
∴ z = 1 lies inside C the curve C
If z = 2
then |z| = |2| = 2 < 3
∴ z = 2 lies inside C

Step4:Find the residue of the pole,

R(1) = lim(z − 1)f (z)
z→1 which lies inside C

For a simple pole then

sin πz 2 + cos πz 2
= lim(z − 1).
z→1 (z − 1)(z − 2) R(a) = lim (z − a)f (z)
z→a

sin πz 2 + cos πz 2
= lim
z→1 (z − 2)

sin π(1) + cos π(1)

=
(1 − 2)
0 + −1
= =1
(−1)

Again do the step4 for the next

R(2) = lim(z − 2)f (z)
z→2 pole which lies inside C

For a simple pole then

sin πz 2 + cos πz 2
= lim(z − 2).
z→2 (z − 1)(z − 2) R(a) = lim (z − a)f (z)
z→a

sin πz 2 + cos πz 2
= lim
z→2 (z − 1)
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S9/SLO−2 5.34

Cauchy’s residue theorem Solving Tip!

sin π(4) + cos π(4) For a positive integer n,

=
(2 − 1)
0+1 cos nπ = (−1)n
= =1
(1)
sin nπ = 0

Step5: Write “By Cauchy’s

residue theorem,
By Cauchy’s residue theorem, Z
f (z)dz = 2πi [Sum of the residues]
R
I = f (z)dz = 2πi [Sum of the residues]
C C

Step6: Substitution and

∴ I = 2πi [R(1) + R(2)]
simplification

= 2πi [1 + 1] = 4πi

2. Use Cauchy’s residue theorem, to evaluate

R 3z 2 + z − 1
2
dz where C is the circle |z| = 2.
C (z − 1)(z − 3)

Solution: Here, z = 1 is a pole of order 2.

z = 3 simple pole but lies outside

C

We find only the residue R(1) by

formula 2.
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S10/SLO−1 5.35

Application of residue theorem to evaluate real integrals

Application of residue theorem The application of residue theorem include the evaluation of
certain types of definite integrals, improper integrals and complicated real integrals occurring in real
analysis and applied mathematics. Method of residues is used in inverse Laplace transforms. These
real integrals are evaluated by expressing them in terms of integrals of complex functions over a
suitable contour and evaluated using residue theorem. This process of evaluation of real integrals is
called contour integration.

R2π
Working procedure for Type I: F [sin θ, cos θ] dθ
0

Step1: Write I =given integral.

Step2: Write the below statement for the type I problems:

To evaluate this, consider the unit circle |z| = 1 as contour C.

1
Put z = eiθ , then = e−iθ
z
dz z2 − 1 z2 + 1
∴ dθ = , sin θ = , cos θ =
iz 2iz 2
Step3: Substitute the above result in the given integral and simplify it.

Step4: Write the f (z) from the Step3. And find the poles of f (z) by equating the denominator of
f (z) to zero and solving it, we get the z values. Classify the each pole as either simple pole (i.e., the
value of z are only one time occurred) or pole of order m (i.e., m times repeated that z value.)

Step5: Check whether the poles are lies inside C or not.

Step6: First, write the given f (z), like (f (z) = (z − α)(z − β)) as factor form. Find the residue for
the poles (which are lies inside C) by the formula given below.

1. If z = a is a simple pole then R(a) = lim (z − a)f (z).

z→a
 m−1 
1 d m
2. If z = a is a pole of order m, then R(a) = lim ((z − a) f (z))
(m − 1)! z→a dz m−1

Step7: Write the following:

R
By Cauchy’s residue theorem, f (z)dz = 2πi [Sum of the residues]
C

Step8: Substituting the corresponding values in the above formula and the simplification gives the
desired result for the given I.
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S10/SLO−1 5.36

Type I Solving Tip!

R2π dθ
1. Evaluate , using contour integration.
0 13 + 5 sin θ

R2π dθ Step1: Write I =given integral.

Solution: Let I =
0 13 + 5 sin θ

Step2: Write the contour

To evaluate this consider the unit circle |z| = 1 as contour C
declaration.

1 dz z2 − 1
Put z = eiθ , then = e−iθ ∴ dθ = , sin θ =
z iz 2iz
dz Step3:Substitution and
∴ I=
R iz simplification
C z2 − 1
13 + 5
2iz
R dz
=2
C 5z 2 + 26iz − 5

1 Step4: Write the f (z)

Let f (z) =
5z 2 + 26iz − 5
R
∴ I = 2 f (z)dz
C

The Poles of f(z) are given by 5z 2 + 26iz − 5 = 0

√
−26i ± −576 −26i ± 24i i
∴z= = = − , −5i, which are
10 10 5
simple poles.
 
2 i
Now 5z + 26iz − 5 = 5 z + (z + 5i)
5

Step5: Check whether the poles

−i 1 −i
Since = < 1, the pole z = lies inside C.
5 5 5 are lies inside C or not.

and |−5i| = 5 > 1 ∴ the pole z = −5i lies outside C.

     Step6:For a simple pole then

−i i
Now R = lim z+ f (z)
5 −i 5 R(a) = lim (z − a)f (z)
z→a
z→
5
 
 
 i 1 
= lim  z +
   
−i 5 i 
z→ 5 z+ (z + 5i)
5 5
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S10/SLO−2 5.37

Type I Solving Tip!

1 1
=  =
−i 24i
5 + 5i
5

By Cauchy’s residue theorem,

R Step7:Write the statement.
f (z)dz = 2πi [Sum of the residues]
C
 
−i
= 2πiR
5
1
= 2πi ×
24i
π
=
12

R π π Step8:Substitution and
∴ I = 2 f (z)dz = 2 =
C 12 6 simplification.
R 2π dθ
2. Evaluate 0 1−2p sin θ+p2
dθ (0 < p < 1) using contour
integration
Z 2π
dθ
Solution: Let I =
0 1 − 2p sin θ + p2
Step2: Write the contour
To evaluate this consider the unit circle |z| = 1 as contour C
declaration.

1 dz z2 − 1
Put z = eiθ , then = e−iθ ∴ dθ = , sin θ =
z iz 2iz
Z 2π
dθ
I=
0 1 − 2p sin θ + p2
 1  dz
R
= 2 −1 iz
C 1−2p z 2zi +p2

1 dz
R
=
c
(1+p2 )zi − pz2 + p iz
zi

zi dz
R
= −pz 2 +(1+p2 )zi+p iz
c

zi dz
R
= 
−pz 2 +(1+p2 )zi+p zi

c

1 R dz
I= − − − −(1)
(1 + p2 )
 
−p c
z2 − zi − 1
p
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S10/SLO−2 5.38

Type I Solving Tip!

1 + p2
 
2
Consider z − zi − 1 = 0
p
s  2
 2
1+p 1 + p2
p
i± −i +4 i2 = −1
p
z=
2
1  1+p2  q
−1−2p2 +p4 +4p2

= p
i ± p2
2
r !
 2 2 4
−(1−2p +p )
1+p
= 12 p
i± p2

 s 
2 2 2
 
1 1+p (1 − p ) 
= i± i
2 p p2

1 + p2 (1 − p2 )
  
1
= i± i
2 p p

i i
= (1 + p2 + 1 − p2 ) or (1 + p2 − 1 + p2 )
2p 2p
i i
= (2) or (2p2 )
2p 2p
i
= or ip
p
i
Let the roots be α = ip and β = p

1 + p2
 
2
∴z − zi − 1 = (z − α) (z − β)
p

Given |z| = 1

If z = α then |α| = |ip| = p < 1

i 1
and If z = β then |β| = p
= p
> 1 (since 0 < p < 1)

Clearly, z = α = ip lies inside the circle C.

z = α is a simple pole.

R (a) = lim (z − a) f (z)

z→a

R (α) = lim (z − α) f (z)

z→α

1
= lim (z − α) (z−α)(z−β)
z→α
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S10/SLO−2 5.39

Type I Solving Tip!

1 1
(z−α)
= lim  
=
z→α (z−α)


(z − β) α−β
1 p
= = −i
ip− pi (1−p2 )
−p
= i(1−p2 )

By Cauchy’s Residue theorem,

R
f (z) dz = 2πi(sum of residues)
C
 
x −2πp
= 2πi − i =
(1−p2 ) (1−p2 )
 
−1 −2π p 2π
(1) ⇒ I = p


1−p2
= 1−p2

Z2π
dθ 2π
⇒ =
1 − 2p sin θ + p2 1 − p2
0
R2π 1
3. Evaluate 2+cos θ
dθ, using contour integration
0

Solution:

R2π 1
Let I = dθ
0 2 + cos θ

Step2: Write the contour

To evaluate this consider the unit circle |z| = 1 as contour C
declaration.

1 dθ z2 − 1
Put z = eiθ , then = e−iθ ∴ , sin θ =
z iz 2iz
R2π 1
I= , dθ
0 2 + cos θ

1
 dz
R
=  iz
z 2 +1
C 2+ 2z

R 1 dz
=
4z+z 2 +1 iz
C 2z

R 2z dz
=
C z2 + 4z + 1 iz
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S10/SLO−2 5.40

Type I Solving Tip!

R 2z
dz
=
c z2 + 4z + 1 iz

2R dz
I= − − − (1)
i C z 2 + 4z + 1

Where C is the unit circle |z| = 1

The poles of f (z) are given by z 2 + 4z + 1 = 0

√
−4± (4)2 −4
z= 2

1
√
1
√

= 2
−4 ± 16 − 4 = 2
−4 ± 12

1
√
1
√

= 2
−4 + 2 3 or 2
−4 + 2 3
√ √
= −2 + 3 or − 2 − 3
√ √
Let the roots be α = −2 + 3 and β = −2 − 3

∴ z 2 + 4z + 1 = (z − α) (z − β)
√
Given |z| = 1 If z = α ⇒ |α| = −2 + 3 = 0.2679 < 1
√
and If z = β ⇒ |β| = −2 − 3 = 3.7320 > 1
√
Clearly, z = α = −2 + 3 lies inside the circle C. z = α is a
simple pole.

[Res f (z)]z=a = lim (z − a) f (z)

z→a

R (α) = lim (z − α) f (z)

z→α

1
= lim (z − α)
z→α (z − α) (z − β)
1 1
(z−α)
= lim 
= α−β
z→α (z−α)


(z − β)
1 √ 1 1
α−β
= √
−2+ 3−(−2− 3)
= √
2 3

1
⇒ R (α) = √
2 3

By Cauchy’s Residue theorem,

R
f (z) dz = 2πi(sum of residues)
C
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S10/SLO−2 5.41

Type I Solving Tip!

 
1 πi
= 2πi √
2 3
= √
3

 
2 π i 2π
(1) ⇒ I = i
√
3
= √
3

Z 2π
1 2π
dθ = √
0 2 + cos θ 3
Z2π
dθ
4. Evaluate , where a > b > 0 by contour
a + b cos θ
0
integration

Solution:

R2π dθ
Let I =
0 a + b cos θ

Step2: Write the contour

To evaluate this consider the unit circle |z| = 1 as contour C
declaration.

1 dθ z2 + 1
Put z = eiθ , then = e−iθ ∴ , cos θ =
z iz 2z
R2π 1
I= dθ
0 a + b cos θ
R 1 dz
=  2 
C z + 1 iz
a+b
2z
R 1 dz
=
2az+bz 2 +b iz
C 2z

R 2z dz
=
C bz 2 + 2az + b iz
R 2z
dz
=
C bz 2 + 2az + b iz

2R dz
I= − − − −(1)
ib c z + 2 ab z + 1


2

Where C is the unit circle |z| = 1

a


Consider z 2 + 2 b
z+1=0
r  
a 2
−2 ab ± 4 −4
b
z=
2
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S10/SLO−2 5.42

Type I Solving Tip!

r !
1 2a a2 − b 2
= − ±2
2 b b2
√
!
1 2 −a ± a2 − b 2
=
2 b
√
!
1 2
−a ± a2 − b 2
=
2
b
√
a± a2 − b 2
=
b
√ √
−a + a2 − b 2 −a − a2 − b2
Let the roots be α = and β =
b b
a


∴ z2 + 2 b
z + 1 = (z − α) (z − β)

Given |z| = 1
√
−a+ a2 −b2
If z = α then |α| = b

Here a > b > 0 So, assume that b = 1 and a = 2

√
−2 + 4−1 √
Then, |α| = = −2 + 3 <1
1
√
−a − a2 − b 2
and If z = β ⇒ |β| =
b
√
−2− 4−1
= 1

√
= −2 − 3 >1
√
a− a2 −b2
Clearly, z = α = b
lies inside the circle C. z = α is a
simple pole. The residue of f (z) at z = a is

R (a) = lim (z − a) f (z)

z→a
R (a) = limz→a (z − a) f (z)

R (a) = limz→α (z − α) f (z)

1
= lim (z − α) (z−α)(z−β)
z→α

1 1
(z−α)
= lim  
(z−α)(z−β)
 = α−β
z→α 
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S10/SLO−2 5.43

Type I Solving Tip!

√  √  √
−a+ a2 −b2 −a− a2 −b2 2 a2 −b2
α−β = b
− b
= b

∴ 1
α−β
= √ b2
2 a −b2

(1) ⇒ R (α) = √ b2
2 a −b2

By Cauchy’s Residue theorem,

b
= 2πi √
2 a2 − b 2

= 2
πi √ b2

2 a −b2

= √ πbi
2 a −b2
 
(1) ⇒ I = 2
bi
√ πbi
a2 −b2

 
I= 2
bi
√ π
bi
 a −b2
2

Z 2π
dθ 2π
∴ =√
0 a + b cos θ a2 − b 2

Z 2π
cos 2θ
5. Evaluate dθ, using contour integration
0 5 + 4 cos θ
Solution:
R 2π cos 2θ
Let I = 0 5+4 cos θ
dθ

Step2: Write the contour

To evaluate this consider the unit circle |z| = 1 as contour C
declaration.

1 iθ−iθ dθ z2 + 1
Put z = e , then = e ∴ , cos θ =
z iz 2z
Now, z = eiθ

2
⇒ z 2 = eiθ = cos 2θ + i sin 2θ

⇒ cos 2θ = Real Part of z 2 = R.P z 2

R2π cos 2θ
R z2 dz
I= 5+4 cos θ
dθ = R.P   iz
z 2 +1
0 C 5+4 2z
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S10/SLO−2 5.44

Type I Solving Tip!

R z2
dz
= R.P
5z+2z 2 +2 iz
C z

z3 dz
R
= R.P 2z 2 +5z+2 iz
c

R z
32 dz
= R.P 2z 2 +5z+2 i

z
c

1 R z 2 dz
I = R.P
2i C z 2 + 52 z + 1

Where C is the unit circle |z| = 1

5


Consider z 2 + 2
z+1=0
q
5 2
− 52


± 2
−4
z=
2
 q 
1
− 52 25−16 1
− 25 ± 3


= 2
± 4
= 2 2

1
− 82 or 1
− 22



= 2 2

1
= −2 or − 2

Let the roots be α = − 12 and β = −2

5


∴ z2 + 2
z + 1 = (z − α) (z − β)

Given |z| = 1

−1 1
If z = α ⇒ |α| = 2
= 2
<1

and If z = β ⇒ |β| = |−2| = 2 > 1

Clearly, z = α = − 12 lies inside the circle C. z = α is a simple

R (a) = lim (z − a) f (z)
z→a
pole.

R (α) = lim (z − α) f (z)

z→α

z2
= lim (z − α)
z→α (z − α) (z − β)
1 2


2 2 −
z α 1
= lim(z−α)

= = 12 =
z→α (z− α) (z − β)


α−β −2 + 2 6
1
(1) ⇒ R (α) = 6
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S10/SLO−2 5.45

Type I Solving Tip!

By Cauchy’s Residue theorem,

R
f (z) dz = 2πi(sum of residues)
C

1 πi


= 2πi 6
= 3

1 πi π


(1) ⇒ I = 2i 3
= 6

Z 2π
cos 2θ π π Real part of (x + iy) = x
∴ dθ = R.P =
0 5 + 4 cos θ 6 6
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S11/SLO−1 5.46

Contour Integration:Type II

Cauchy’s lemma:

If f (z) is a continuous function such that |zf (z)| → 0 as |z| → ∞ on the upper semi-circle
R
S : |z| = R then f (z)dz → 0 as R → ∞.
S

Working procedure for the Type II:

R∞ P (x)
Integrals of the form dx where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomial in x such that the degree of
−∞ Q(x)
Q(x) is atleast more than 2 of the degree of P (x) and Q(x) does not vanish for any real x.

Step1: Write I = the given integral.

Step2: The integrand is a rational function with degree of Denominator(Q(x)) two more than the
R P (z)
degree of numerator (P (x)). We consider dz where C is the simple closed curve consisting
C Q(z)
of the real axis −R to R, and the upper semi-circle S : |z| = R, for large R, taken in the
anticlockwise sense.

P (z)
Let f (z) = . Then
Q(z)

R RR R
f (z)dz = f (x)dx + f (z)dz − − − −(1)
C −R S
R
Step3: Follow the steps of Type I to solve f (z)dz. upto the step for finding the poles.
C

Step4: Since R is large and we have the region in the upper semi circle, Positive value poles only lie
inside C. So, we have find only the residue for that poles.
R
Step5: By Cauchy’s residue theorem, f (z)dz = 2πi [Sum of residues of f(z)]
C
R
Step6: By Cauchy’s lemma, f (z)dz → 0 as R → ∞
S

Step7: Substitution and simplification as follows:

∴ From (1) we get,

RR R R
(1) ⇒ lim f (x)dx + f (z)dz = f (z)dz
R→∞ −R S C

R∞
⇒ lim f (x)dx + 0 = 2πi [Sum of residues of f(z)] ∵ Cauchy’s lemma
R→∞ −∞

= 2πi [Sum of residues of f(z)]

21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S11/SLO−1 5.47

Contour Integration:Type II Solving Tip!

R∞ x2
1. Evaluate dx using Contour
−∞ (x2 + 1)(x2 + 4)
integration.

R∞ x2
Given I = dx
−∞ (x2 + 1)(x2 + 4)

The integrand is a rational function with degree of

Denominator(Q(x)) two more than the degree of numerator
R P (z)
(P (x)). We consider dz where C is the simple closed
C Q(z)
curve consisting of the real axis −R to R, and the upper
semi-circle S : |z| = R, for large R, taken in the anticlockwise
sense.

z2
Let f (z) = . Then
(z 2 + 1)(z 2 + 4)

R RR R
f (z)dz = f (x)dx + f (z)dz − − − −(1)
C −R S
R
Now we shall evaluate f (z)dz
C

The poles of f (z) are given by

(z 2 + 1)(z 2 + 4) = 0

⇒ z 2 = −1, z 2 = −4

⇒ z = ±i, z = ±2i, which are simple pole.

But only z = i, 2i are lie inside the simple closed curve C.

z2
Now f (z) =
(z − i)(z + i)(z − 2i)(z + 2i)

R(i) = lim(z − i)f (z)

z→i

z2
= lim(z − i)
z→i (z − i)(z + i)(z − 2i)(z + 2i)

z2
= lim
z→i (z + i)(z − 2i)(z + 2i)

i2
=
(i + i)(i − 2i)(i + 2i)
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S11/SLO−1 5.48

Contour Integration:Type II Solving Tip!

−1
=
(2i)(−i)(3i)
−1 i3 = i2 .i = −1.i = −i
=
−6i3
−1
=
6i
and

R(2i) = lim (z − 2i)f (z)

z→2i

z2
= lim (z − 2i)
z→2i (z − i)(z + i)(z − 2i)(z + 2i)

z2
= lim
z→2i (z − i)(z + i)(z + 2i)

(2i)2
=
(2i + i)(2i − i)(2i + 2i)
−4
=
(3i)(i)(4i)
−4 i3 = i2 .i = −1.i = −i
=
12i3
−4
=
−12i
1
=
3i
∴ By Cauchy’s residue theorem,
 
R −1 1
f (z)dz = 2πi [R(i) + R(2i)] = 2πi +
C 6i 3i
     
−1 1 −1 + 2 1 π
= 2π + = 2π = 2π =
6 3 6 6 3

Substituting in (1), we get

RR R R
(1) ⇒ lim f (x)dx + f (z)dz = f (z)dz
R→∞ −R S C

R∞ π But lim zf (z) = 0

⇒ f (x)dx + 0 = ∵ Cauchy’s lemma z→∞
−∞ 3

R∞ x2 π
∴ 2 2
=
−∞ (x + 1)(x + 4) 3
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S11/SLO−1 5.49

Contour Integration:Type II Solving Tip!

R∞ x2
2. Evaluate dx using Contour
0 (x2 + a2 )(x2 + b2 )
integration.

Solution:

we know that

For an even function,

Ra
f (x)dx
−a

Ra
= 2 f (x)dx
0

Ra 1 Ra
⇒ f (x)dx = f (x)dx
0 2 −a

1 π
Ans.
2a+b
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S11/SLO−1 5.50

Contour Integration:Type III

Jordan’s lemma:
R
If f (z) is a continuous function such that |f (z)| → 0 uniformly as |z| → ∞ then f (z)eimz dz → 0
S
as R → ∞ where S is the upper semi circle |z| = R.

Working procedure for the Type III:

R∞ P (x)
Integrals of the form [cos mxor sin mx] dx, m > 0 where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomial in
−∞ Q(x)
x such that the degree of Q(x) is atleast more than 2 of the degree of P (x) and Q(x) does not vanish
for any real x.

Step1: Write I = the given integral.

Step2: The integrand is a rational function with degree of Denominator(Q(x)) two more than the
R P (z) imz
degree of numerator (P (x)). We consider e dz where C is the simple closed curve
C Q(z)
consisting of the real axis −R to R, and the upper semi-circle S : |z| = R, for large R, taken in the
anticlockwise sense.

P (z) imz R RR R
Let f (z) = e . Then f (z)eimz dz = f (x)eimx dx + f (z)eimz dz
Q(z) C −R S

R RR R
⇒ F (z)dz = F (x)dx + F (z)dz − − − −(1)
C −R S
R
Step3: Follow the steps of Type I to solve F (z)dz. upto the step for finding the poles.
C

Step4: Since R is large and we have the region in the upper semi circle, Positive value poles only lie
inside C. So, we have find only the residue for that poles.
R
Step5: By Cauchy’s residue theorem, F (z)dz = 2πi [Sum of residues of F (z)]
C
R R
Step6: By Jordan’s lemma, F (z)dz = f (z)eimz dz → 0 as R → ∞
S S

Step7: Substitution and simplification as follows:

RR R R
(1) ⇒ lim F (x)dx + F (z)dz = F (z)dz
R→∞ −R S C

R∞
⇒ lim f (x) [cos x + i sin x] dx + 0 = 2πi [Sum of residues of f (z)eimz ] ∵ Jordan’s lemma
R→∞ −∞

Step8: Equating the real and imaginary parts to get the required result.
21MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S11/SLO−2 5.51

Contour Integration:Type III Solving Tip!

R∞ x2
1. Evaluate cos mxdx using Contour
−∞ (x2 + a2 )(x2 + b2 )
integration.

R∞ x2
Given I = cos mxdx
−∞ (x2 + a2 )(x2 + b2 )

R z2
Consider 2 + a2 )(z 2 + b2 )
eimz dz where C is the simple
C (z
closed curve consisting of the real axis −R to R, and the upper
semi-circle S : |z| = R, for large R, taken in the anticlockwise
sense.

z2
Let F (z) = eimz . Then
(z 2 + a2 )(z 2 + b2 )

R RR R
F (z)dz = F (x)dx + F (z)dz − − − −(1)
C −R S
R
Now we shall evaluate F (z)dz
The poles of F (z) areCgiven
by
(z 2 + a2 )(z 2 + b2 ) = 0
⇒ z 2 = −a2 , z 2 = −b2
⇒ z = ±ai, z = ±bi, which
are simple pole.

But only z = ai, bi are lie inside the simple closed curve C.

z 2 eimz
Now F (z) =
(z − ai)(z + ai)(z − bi)(z + bi)

R(ai) = lim (z − ai)F (z)

z→ai

z 2 eimz
= lim (z − ai)
z→ai (z − ai)(z + ai)(z − bi)(z + bi)

z 2 eimz
= lim
z→ai (z + ai)(z − bi)(z + bi)

(ai)2 e−am
=
(ai + ai)(ai − bi)(ai + bi)
18MAB102T − ADVANCED CALCULUS AND COMPLEX ANALYSIS/UNIT V/S11/SLO−2 5.52

Contour Integration:Type III Solving Tip!

−a2 e−am (ai)2 − (bi)2 = −a2 + b2

=
(2ai)(b2 − a2 )

ae−am
=
2i(a2 − b2 )

be−bm
Similarly we get R(bi) =
2i(b2 − a2 )

∴ By Cauchy’s residue theorem,

R
f (z)dz = 2πi [R(ai) + R(bi)]
C

ae−am be−bm
 
= 2πi +
2i(a2 − b2 ) 2i(b2 − a2 )

ae−am be−bm
 
= 2πi −
2i(a2 − b2 ) 2i(a2 − b2 )

2πi (ae−am − be−bm )

 
=
2i (a2 − b2 )

π(ae−am − be−bm )
=
(a2 − b2 )
R
By Jordan’s lemma, F (z)dz → 0 as R → ∞
S

RR R R
∴ (1) ⇒ lim F (x)dx + F (z)dz = F (z)dz
R→∞ −R S C

R∞ π(ae−am − be−bm ) But |f (z)| = 0 as |z| → ∞

⇒ F (x)dx + 0 = ∵ Jordan’s lemma
−∞ (a2 − b2 )

R∞ x2 imx π(ae−am − be−bm )

⇒ e dx =
−∞ (x2 + a2 )(x2 + b2 ) (a2 − b2 )

R∞ x2
⇒ [cos mx + i sin mx] dx
−∞ (x2 + a2 )(x2 + b2 )

π(ae−am − be−bm )
=
(a2 − b2 )

Equating the real parts, we get

R∞ x2 π(ae−am − be−bm )
⇒ cos mxdx =
−∞ (x2 + a2 )(x2 + b2 ) (a2 − b2 )