Introduction to computer Network

What is a Computer Network?

Computer Network is a group of computers connected with
each other through wires, optical fibres or optical links so that
various devices can interact with each other through a network.
The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among
various devices.
In the case of computer network technology, there are several types
of networks that vary from simple to complex level.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Uses Of Computer Network
Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as
programs, printers, and data among the users on the network without the
requirement of the physical location of the resource and user.
Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client
model. A server is a central computer used to store the information and
maintained by the system administrator. Clients are the machines used to access
the information stored in the server remotely.
Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication
medium among the users. For example, a company contains more than one
computer has an email system which the employees use for daily
communication.
E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do
the business over the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business
over the internet, i.e., they are doing their business over the internet.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 Switching
When a user accesses the internet or another computer network outside their
immediate location, messages are sent through the network of transmission media. This
technique of transferring the information from one computer network to another
network is known as switching.
Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches. A switch is a small
hardware device which is used to join multiple computers together with one local area
network (LAN).
A Switch is used to transfer the data only to the device that has been addressed. It
verifies the destination address to route the packet appropriately.
It is operated in full duplex mode.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching technique will decide
the best route for data transmission.
Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communication.
Circuit Switching:
Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender and receiver.
In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated path will remain to
exist until the connection is terminated.
Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a request signal is
sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the
dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.

Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is

used for voice transmission.
Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching
technology.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Packet Switching
The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but it
is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique
number to identify their order at the receiving end.
Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination
address and sequence number.
Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.
If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be
sent.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 Features Of Computer
network speed
Communication
Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and
efficient manner. For example, we can do video conferencing, email
messaging, etc. over the internet. Therefore, the computer network
is a great way to share our knowledge and ideas.
File sharing
File sharing is one of the major advantage of the computer network.
Computer network provides us to share the files with each other.

Back up and Roll back is easy

Since the files are stored in the main server which is
centrally located. Therefore, it is easy to take the back up
from the main server.

Software and Hardware sharing

We can install the applications on the main server,
therefore, the user can access the applications centrally.
So, we do not need to install the software on every
machine. Similarly, hardware can also be shared.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Security
Network allows the security by ensuring that the user has the right to
access the certain files and applications.

Scalability
Scalability means that we can add the new components on the
network. Network must be scalable so that we can extend the network
by adding new devices. But, it decreases the speed of the connection
and data of the transmission speed also decreases, this increases the
chances of error occurring. This problem can be overcome by using
the routing or switching devices.

Reliability
Computer network can use the alternative source for the data
communication in case of any hardware failure.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Computer Network Architecture
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical
design of the software, hardware, protocols, and media of the
transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers are
organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.
The two types of network architectures are used:

Peer-To-Peer network
Client/Server network

Peer-To-Peer network
Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the
computers are linked together with equal privilege and
responsibilities for processing the data.
Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments,
usually up to 10 computers.
Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
Special permissions are assigned to each computer for
sharing the resources, but this can lead to a problem if
the computer with the resource is down.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop
working.
It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the
centralized system . Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the
data is different in different locations.
It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Client/Server Network
Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end
users called clients, to access the resources such as songs,
video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
The central controller is known as a server while all other
computers in the network are called clients.
A server performs all the major operations such as security and
network management.
A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as
files, directories, printer, etc.
All the clients communicate with each other through a server.
For example, if client1 wants to send some data to client 2,
then it first sends the request to the server for the permission.
The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its
communication with the client 2.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Advantages Of Client/Server network:
A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the data easily.
A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of the whole
system.
Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared resources.
It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:
Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients, but the
cost of NOS is very high.
It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Network Topology
What is Network Topology?
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each other.
There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.
Types of Network Topology
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There are six types of network
topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid
Topology.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

1) Bus
Topology
The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations
are connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop
cable or directly connected to the backbone cable.
When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a
message over the network. All the stations available in the
network will receive the message whether it has been addressed
or not.
The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4
standard networks.
The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared
to other topologies.
The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through
which the message is broadcast to all the stations.
The most common access method of the bus topologies
is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not
get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling the problems that occur when two nodes send the messages
simultaneously.
CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect the collision. Once the collision is
detected, the sender will stop transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid the collision by checking whether
the transmission media is busy or not. If busy, then the sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique effectively
reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the collision".

Advantages of Bus topology:

Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing through a hub. Therefore, the
initial cost of installation is low.
Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support upto 10
Mbps.
Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and troubleshooting techniques are well
known, and hardware components are easily available.
Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the
cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the nodes collide with
each other.
Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
2) Ring
Topology
Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and
having no termination point.
The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
The most common access method of the ring topology is token
passing.
A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to
computer until it reaches the destination.
The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination
address matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then
it sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Advantages of Ring topology:
Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without
bringing the network down.
Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.
Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for
all the nodes.
Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down
the network.
Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding
new devices increases the communication delay.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

3) Star
Topology
Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is
connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices
attached to the server are known as clients.
Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical
star topology.
Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Advantages of Star topology

Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus
topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the
centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in
the star topology are automatically accommodated.
Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not
affect the entire network.
Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on the hub.
Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most popular Star
topology networks.
Disadvantages of Star topology
A Central point of failure: If the central hub or
Prof. GIRISH switch goes
G GALGATE down, then all the connected nodes will not be able to
MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
communicate with each other.
4) Mesh
topology
Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are
interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a
central point of communication.
The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication
failures are a critical concern.
Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula: Number of cables =
(n*(n-1))/2; Where n is the number of nodes that
represents the network.
This indicates that each node must have (n-1) I/O ports.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect the communication between
connected computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between other devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and more transmission media than
other topologies.
Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and manage. If the network is not
monitored carefully, then the communication link failure
Prof. GIRISH goes undetected.
G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the network.
5) Hybrid
Topology
The combination of various different topologies is known
as Hybrid topology.
A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links
and nodes to transfer the data.
When two or more different topologies are combined
together is termed as Hybrid topology and if similar
topologies are connected with each other will not result in
Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring
topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in
another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two
topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of the network.
Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting the functionality of the
existing network.
Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the organization.
Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the strength of the network is maximized
and weakness of the network is minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to
design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in
other topologies.
Costly infrastructure: The infrastructureProf. cost is Gvery
GIRISH high asMU/SE/III/CNND/IT
GALGATE a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling, network devices,
etc.
Transmission Technology:-
The transmission technologies are divided into two types −

Broadcast networks and

Point-to-point networks.
Broadcast Networks
Transmitting data from one source host to all other hosts present in the
same or other network is called broadcast. It is called a one to all
transmission.
Broadcasting in computer network is a group communication, where a
sender sends data to receivers simultaneously. This is an all − to − all
communication model where each sending device transmits data to all
other devices in the network domain.
There are two types of broadcast transmission −

Directed Broadcast, and

Limited Broadcast
Directed Broadcast
Directed Broadcast transmits data from one source host to all the other hosts that
exist in some other network. It is used in two scenarios −When the hosts are responsible for
parsing data from broadcast packets.
When all the hosts require the same data.Limited Broadcast
In Limited Broadcast, the data is transmitted from a single source host to all the other
hosts residing in the same network.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 Multicast Transmission (One-to-Many)
When the data is transmitted from a single source host to a specific group
of hosts having the interest to receive the data, it is known as multicast
transmission. Multicast can be more efficient than unicast when different
groups of receivers need to see the same data.
Example − Multicast is the technique used in Internet streaming of video
or audio teleconference, sending an email to a particular group of people,
etc.

Transmission
modes
The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as transmission mode.
The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission media provide the direction.
Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a directional mode.
The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.
The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:
Simplex mode
Half-duplex mode
Full-duplex mode

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Simplex
mode
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e.,
the data flow in one direction.
A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it
can receive the data but cannot send the data.
This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly
communications require the two-way exchange of data. The
simplex mode is used in the business field as in sales that do
not require any corresponding reply.
The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the
signal to the listeners but never allows them to transmit back.
Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode
as a keyboard can only accept the data from the user and
monitor can only be used to display the data on the screen.
The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full
capacity of the communication channel can be utilized during
transmission.

Advantage of Simplex mode:

In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel,
so that more data can be transmitted at a time.
Disadvantage of Simplex mode:
Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between devices.
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
Half-Duplex
mode
In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e.,
the station can transmit and receive the data as well.
Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same
time.
The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is
utilized in one direction at a time.
In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error
detection, and if any error occurs, then the receiver
requests the sender to retransmit the data.
A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode.
In Walkie-talkie, one party speaks, and another party
listens. After a pause, the other speaks and first party
listens. Speaking simultaneously will create the distorted
sound which cannot be understood.
Advantage of Half-duplex mode:
In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and
receive the data and also can utilize the entire bandwidth
of the communication channel during the transmission of
data.
Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:
In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data,
then another has to wait, this causes the delay in sending
the data at the right time.
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
 Full-duplex
mode

In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the directions.
Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in one direction, and another
channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network. When two people are
communicating with each other by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
Advantage of Full-duplex mode:
Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.
Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:
If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of the communication channel is
divided into two parts.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Types of
Networks
A computer network is a group of computers linked to
each other that enables the computer to communicate
with another computer and share their resources, data,
and applications.
A computer network can be categorized by their size.
A computer network is mainly of four types:
LAN(Local Area Network)
PAN(Personal Area Network)
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

Local Area Network is a group of computers connected
to each other in a small area such as building, office.
LAN is used for connecting two or more personal
computers through a communication medium such as
twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware
such as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet cables.
The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in
Local Area Network.
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE
Local Area Network provides higher security. MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
PAN(Personal Area Network)
Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an
individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
Personal Area Network is used for connecting the
computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.
Thomas Zimmerman was the first research
scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area
Network.
Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
Personal computer devices that are used to develop
the personal area network are the laptop, mobile
phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area

Network:
Wired Personal Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless
Personal Area Network is developed by simply using
wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low
range network.
Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal
Area Network is created by using the USB.
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting a different
LAN to form a larger network.
Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN,Integrated Services Digital
Network OC-3, ADSL,Asymmetric digital subscriber line etc.
It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
It can be used in a college within a city.
It can also be used for communication in the military.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

WAN(Wide Area Network)
A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or countries.
A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area through a
telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 Internetwork
An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or computer network
segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a local addressing scheme. This
process is known as internetworking.
An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government computer
networks can also be defined as internetworking.
An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection(OSI).

Types Of Internetwork:
1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such
as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information sharing. The
access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login credentials. An extranet is the lowest
level of internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other computer networks. An extranet cannot
have a single LAN, atleast it must have one connection to the external network.
2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such as Transmission
Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an organization which is only
accessible by the organization's employee or members. The main aim of the intranet is to share the
information and resources among the organization employees. An intranet provides the facility to work in
groups and for teleconferences.
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
Computer Network Hardware/Components
Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software. Some
important network components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem.
Depending on the type of network that we need to install, some network components can also be removed. For
example, the wireless network does not require a cable.
Following are the major components required to install a network:
NIC
NIC stands for network interface card.
NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with
another computer onto a network
It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip
which is assigned by the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely.
The MAC address is stored in the PROM (Programmable read-only memory).

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 Hub
A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network
connection among multiple devices. When computer requests
for some information from a network, it first sends the request
to the Hub through cable. Hub will broadcast this request to
the entire network. All the devices will check whether the
request belongs to them or not. If not, the request will be
dropped.
The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and
limits the amount of communication. Nowadays, the use of
hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more advanced
computer network components such as Switches, Routers.
Switch
A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on
a computer network. A Switch contains more advanced features
than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides
where the data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the
message to the correct destination based on the physical
address present in the incoming message. A Switch does not
broadcast the message to the entire network like the Hub. It
determines the device to whom the message is to be
transmitted. Therefore, we can say that switch provides a direct
connection between the source and destination. It increases the
speed of the network.
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
Switch
A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a
computer network. A Switch contains more advanced features than Hub.
The Switch contains the updated table that decides where the data is
transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to the correct destination
based on the physical address present in the incoming message. A Switch
does not broadcast the message to the entire network like the Hub. It
determines the device to whom the message is to be transmitted.
Therefore, we can say that switch provides a direct connection between
the source and destination. It increases the speed of the network.

Bridg
e Bridges convert network data formats and perform basic
data transmission management.
Bridges provide connections between LANs.
They also check data to determine if it should cross the
bridge. This makes each part of the network more efficient

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Router
A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It is used to
receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another network.
A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.
It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.

Advantages Of Router:
Security: The information which is transmitted to the network will
traverse the entire cable, but the only specified device which has been
addressed can read the data.
Reliability: If the server has stopped functioning, the network goes
down, but no other networks are affected that are served by the router.
Performance: Router enhances the overall performance of the
network. Suppose there are 24 workstations in a network generates a
same amount of traffic. This increases the traffic load on the network.
Router splits the single network into two networks of 12 workstations each,
reduces the traffic load by half.
Network range

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Modem
A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the
internet over the existing telephone line.
A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather than it is installed on the
PCI slot found on the motherboard.
It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an analog
signal over the telephone lines.
Based on the differences in speed and transmission rate, a modem can be
classified in the following categories:
Standard PC modem or Dial-up modem
Cellular Modem
Cable modem

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Gateway
A gateway is a piece of
networking hardware used in
telecommunications for
telecommunications networks that
allows data to flow from one
discrete network to another.
Gateways are distinct from routers or
switches in that they communicate
using more than one protocol to
connect a bunch of networks

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 Network
software
Network software encompasses a broad range of software used for design, implementation,
and operation and monitoring of computer networks. Traditional networks were hardware
based with software embedded. With the advent of Software – Defined Networking (SDN),
software is separated from the hardware thus making it more adaptable to the ever-changing
nature of the computer network.
Functions of Network Software
Helps to set up and install computer networks
Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless manner
Allows administrations to add or remove users from the network
Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to access that data
Helps administrators and security system to protect the network from data breaches,
unauthorized access and attacks on a network
Enables network virtualizations

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Protocol and Protocol Hierarchies
A protocol is a set of rules and conventions agreed upon and followed by the
communicating entities for data communication. A protocol outlines the what, how
and when of a communication.
The three aspects of a protocol are −
Syntax − It defines the format of data that is to be sent or received.
Semantics − It defines the meaning of each section of bits that are transferred.
Timings − It defines the time at which data is transferred as well as the speed at
which it is transferred.
Most networks are organized as a stack of layers, one on the top of another. The
number of layers and their names vary from network to network. Each layer has a
specified function and adheres to specified protocols. Thus we obtain a stack of
protocols.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

The figure represents communication between Device A and
Device B.
The data stream from one device to the other is not sent directly
but has to pass through a number of layers. The layers in the
same levels are called peers and have a set of protocols for
communication. Between each adjacent layer is an interface that
defines the services that are being offered by a lower layer to the
next higher layer. The dotted arrows depict virtual communication
between peer layers, while the solid arrows represent the
physical communications between the adjacent layers.
Let us consider a situation where Device A wants to send a
message to Device B. Device A passes its information to the
highest layer. As soon as a data stream reaches a layer, it
performs some specified functions on it and passes it to the layer
below. This continues until the data stream reaches the lowest
layer. Layer 1 passes a bit stream of 0s and 1s to the physical
medium that communicates it to the Layer 1 of the receiving end.
Each layer in the receiving end performs certain functions on the
data stream adhering to the protocol with its peer and passes it to
the layer above. This continues until the information reaches the
highest layer. The highest layer then conveys the message to The figure illustrates a four-layer network
Device B in the same format sent by Device A. −

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 Design Issues for the Layers of Computer
A number of design issues Networks
exist for the layer to layer approach of computer networks. Some of the main design issues are as follows −
1. Reliability
Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in loss of bits while data transfer. So, an important design issue is to make
sure
that the information transferred is not distorted.
2. Scalability
Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually increasing leading to congestion. Also, when new technologies are applied to the
added components, it may lead to incompatibility issues. Hence, the design should be done so that the networks are scalable and can
accommodate such additions and alterations.
3. Addressing
At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred between large numbers of computers. So, a naming or addressing system
should exist so that each layer can identify the sender and receivers of each message.
4. Error Control
Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data streams that are communicated. So, the layers need to agree upon common error
detection and error correction methods so as to protect data packets while they are transferred.
5. Flow Control
If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher than the rate at which data is received by the receiver, there are chances of
overflowing the receiver. So, a proper flow control mechanism needs to be implemented.
6.Resource Allocation
Computer networks provide services in the form of network resources to the end users. The main design issue is to allocate and deallocate
resources to processes. The allocation/deallocation should occur so that minimal interference among the hosts occurs and there is optimal usage
of the resources.
7. Statistical Multiplexing
It is not feasible to allocate a dedicated path for each message while it is being transferred from the source to the destination. So, the data
channel needs to be multiplexed, so as to allocate a fraction of the bandwidth or time to each host.
8. Routing
There may be multiple paths from the source to the destination. Routing involves choosing an optimal path among all possible paths, in terms of
cost and time. There are several routing algorithms that are used in network systems.
9. Security
A major factor of data communication is to defend it against threats like eavesdropping and surreptitious alteration of messages. So, there should
be adequate mechanisms to prevent unauthorized access to data
Prof. GIRISH through authentication
G GALGATE and cryptography.
MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
 Connection-Oriented and Connectionless
Service
Connection-Oriented Services
In a connection-oriented service, each packet is related to a source/destination connection.
These packets are routed along a similar path, known as a virtual circuit. Thus, it provides an
end-to-end connection to the client for reliable data transfer.
It delivers information in order without duplication or missing information. It does not
congest the communication channel and the buffer of the receiving device. The host
machine requests a connection to interact and closes the connection after the transmission
of the data.
Mobile communication is an example of a connection-oriented service.
Connectionless-Service
In connectionless service, a router treats each packet individually. The packets are routed
through different paths through the network according to the decisions made by routers. The
network or communication channel does not guarantee data delivery from the host machine
to the destination machine in connectionless service.
The data to be transmitted is broken into packets. The packets contain the address of the
destination machine. In this, each of data packets has source or destination address and is
routed independently from source to destination.
Connectionless service is equivalent to the postal system. In the postal system, a letter is
put in an envelope that contains the address of the destination. It is then placed in a
letterbox. The letter finally delivers to the destination through the postal network. However,
it does not guarantee to appear in the addressee's letterbox.
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
Differences
The major differences between connection oriented services and connectionless services in computer
network are as follows−

Connection Oriented Services Connectionless Services−

It can generate an end to end connection between the It can transfer the data packets between senders to the
senders to the receiver before sending the data over the receiver without creating any connection.
same or multiple networks.

It generates a virtual path between the sender and the It does not make any virtual connection or path between
receiver. the sender and the receiver.

It needed a higher bandwidth to transmit the data It requires low bandwidth to share the data packets.
packets.
There is no congestion as it supports an end-to-end There can be congestion due to not providing an end-to-
connection between sender and receiver during data end connection between the source and receiver to
transmission. transmit data packets.

It is a more dependable connection service because it It is not a dependent connection service because it does
assures data packets transfer from one end to the other not ensure the share of data packets from one end to
end with a connection. another for supporting a connection.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 Service
Service generally includes set ofPrimitives
various primitives (operations). A Service is specified by set of
primitives that are available and given to user or other various entities to access the service. All
these primitives simply tell the service to perform some action or to report on action that is taken
by peer entity. Each of the protocol that communicates in layered architecture also
communicates in peer-to-peer manner with some of its remote protocol entity. Primitives are
called calling functions between the layers that are used to manage communication among the
adjacent protocol layers i.e., among the same communication node. The set of primitives that are
available generally depends upon the nature of the service that is being provided.
Primitive Meaning

When server is ready to accept request of incoming connection, it simply put this primitive into action. Listen
Listen
primitive simply waiting for incoming connection request.

Connect This primitive is used to connect the server simply by creating or establishing connection with waiting peer.

Accept This primitive simply accepts incoming connection from the peer.

Receive These primitive afterwards block the server. Receive primitive simply waits for incoming message.

This primitive is put into action by the client to transmit its request that is followed by putting receive primitive
Send
into action to get the reply. Send primitive simply sends or transfer the message to the peer.

Disconne This primitive is simply used to terminate or end the connection after which no one will be able to send any of
ct the message. Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
 OSI REFERENCE MODEL:
If every vendor uses its own stds. to interface to other system,
there requires more interfacing H/W. This is called as closed
system.
To avoid monopoly of single vendor, Open system architecture
was developed, to have communication between computer n/w
equipments.
The reference architectural Model was developed by ISO
(International Organization for Standardization) called as OSI
Model (Open System Interconnection) & also the associated
standard protocols were developed.
The overall communication process is partitioned, by OSI ref.
model, into the functions carried out by various layer.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

OSI 7 layers architecture:-
7. Application Layer All
1. Presentation Layer People
2. Session Layer Seem
3. Transport Layer To
Need
4. Network Layer
Data
5. Data Link Layer
Processing
6. Physical Layer

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Tasks involved in sending letter

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
Application Application
A B
Applicatio Applicatio
n n
Layer Layer
Presentatio Presentatio
n n
Layer Layer
Sessio Sessio
n n
Layer Layer
Transpo Transpo
rt Communication rt
Layer Network Layer
Networ Networ Networ Networ
k k k k
Layer Layer Layer Layer
Data Data Data Data
Link Link Link Link
Layer Layer Layer Layer
Physic Physic Physic Physic
al al al al
Layer Layer Layer Layer

Electrical and/or Optical

Prof. GIRISHSignals
G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
The OSI reference model (proposed by ISO) Figure
2.6
OSI reference model—seven layers
All applications are built on the top of the seven layers, specifically,
on the top of the application layer.
The top 4 layers are end-to-end and involves the interaction of
peer entities across the network, however, the bottom 3 layers
are point-to-point and involve the interaction of peer entities across
a single hop.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 OSI reference model— layer 7 and 6
Application layer: The application layer is responsible
for providing services to the user.
Provides a set of interfaces for sending and receiving
applications ( i. e application programs) to gain
access to and use network services, such as:
networked file transfer, message handling and
database query processing.
i.e. This layer provides services that are frequently
required by applications. e.g. In Browser application,
HTTP is application layer protocol to access WWW
documents.
Application layer protocols are used for file transfer, e-
mail, n/w management & other Applications.
Protocols use at this layers are: FTP (file transfer
protocol), SIP (session initiation protocol), SNMP
(simple n/w management proto) etc….
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
Presentation layer: The presentation layer is
responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.
provides application layer with independence from
difference in the representation of data.
For example, application A uses machine-dependent
data format DFA and application B uses machine-
dependent format DFB, then at end A, the
representation layer will convert the data in DFA to
machine-independent data, then when data arrive at
end B, the representation layer will convert the
machine-independent data into format DFB. DFA 🡪
machine-independent 🡪DFB. (e.g. text A to ASCII &
from ASCII to text B, i.e. system specific format to N/w
format & vice-a -versa conversion).

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 Presentation layer contd….
E.g. Different PC uses Different codes for representation of
characters and integers & different conventions, i.e.
whether1st bit or last bit as most significant bit(MSB). & so
on….
It also Provides encryption & compression.
Important Protocols used at this layer are: XDR
(Externet data representation), TLS (Transport
layer security), SSL (Secure Socket layer) etc….

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 OSI reference model— layer 5
Session layer: The session layer is responsible for dialog control and
synchronization.
provides dialog control and enhances the reliable transfer service
provided by transport layer.
Enables two networked resources to hold ongoing
communications (called a session) across a network
Applications on either end of the session are able to ex
hange data for the duration of the session
This layer is:
Responsible for initiating, maintaining and terminating
sessions.
Responsible for security and access control to session
information (via session participant identification)
Responsible for synchronization services, and for
checkpoint services Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
 This layer is used to control the manner of data exchange e.g.
Some application requires half duplex dialog.
it establishes and terminates connections between SS-users and
synchronizes the data exchange between them.
it performs various negotiations for the use of session layer
tokens, which the user must possess to begin communicating.
It introduce synchronization points (a) use for marking the
progress of interaction & (b) from which error recovery can be
initiated.
it enables users to interrupt a session and resume it later at a
specific point.
Protocol mainly used : session Announcement protocol

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 OSI reference model— layer 4
Transport layer: The transport layer is responsible for the
delivery of a message from one process to another. i.e. end-to-end
transfer of message from session entity in the source machine to
session entity in the destination machine.
Transport layer protocol is used to transfer transport layer PDU called
segment & carries to end computer systems.
This layer essentially provides Reliability, flow control, fragmentation
(TCP proto)
At this layer data is broken into segments & send to N/w layer below it.
i.e. massage from session layer is to be handed over in the form of
packets for network layer .

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

OSI reference model— layer 4 (cont.)
Some Functions are Only being executed at end computer
systems.

Certain end-to-end services:

Connection-oriented: Proto at this layer
provides (TCP proto):-
Error-free transfer of sequence of bytes or msges
(i.e. byte stream).
Error detection and recovery
Sequence and flow control.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 OSI reference model— layer 4 (cont.)

Unconfirmed connection-less: Entity

may transmit data to another entity in unplanned
fashion & without proper coordination e.g.
datagram (UDP protocol):-
Transfer of individual messages
Provides appropriate address information to
reach to appropriate destination session layer
entity .(i.e. source & destination port are
specified)
Protocols used at this layer are: TCP
(Transmission control protocol), UDP (User
Datagram protocol), SCTP (Stream control
Transport protocol), DCCP (Datagram
congestion control proto) etc…..
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
OSI reference model— layer 4 (cont.)
Transport layer is responsible for :-
Segmentation/reassembly and blocking/unblocking
Possibly setting up and releasing connections
To optimize n/w service, this layer multiplexes
multiple transport layer connections into single
network connection
Possibly split one transport layer connection into
several network connections
Accessing transport layer by socket interface

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 Connection-oriented VS. Connectionless
Connection-oriented Connectionless

Maintain state information about every No knowledge of the "connection"

connection

Allocate resources to connections at No resource allocation

switches

Admission control No admission control

Per connection routing Per packet routing

Reliable and in-order delivery Robust but out of order, duplicate, delay,
even lost in delivery

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Connection-oriented VS. Connectionless (cont.)
Connection-oriented Connectionless
Route packet based on identifier Route packet based on destination
(connection ID in every packet) address, which is in every packet

Forwarding table specifies Routing table specifies the output port

depending on the destination address
the output port and outgoing
identifier value as function of
the
incoming identifier value
Forwarding table set up by Router executes distributed algorithm to
share network state information and
signaling during connection dynamically calculate the routing table
establishment.
Connection must be re-established in Packets are rerouted around
cases of failure
failures, robust against
failures

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Confirmed & unconfirmed service
Confirmed service: the sender must be informed of the outcome.
Unconfirmed service: the sender need not to be informed of the outcom
Example: connection setup is a confirmed service. The connectionless servi
confirmed or unconfirmed depending whether sender requires acknowledg
QUESTION? Does it make sense for a network to provide a confirmed,
transfer service?

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/VII/EXTC/CCN

Segmentation and blocking
Different networks may have different limitation on the size of a block of i
MTU: Maximum Transfer Unit
Segmentation: if the size of block information is too large, need to break i
segments and transfer them separately.
Blocking: if SDUs are too small as to result in inefficiency, then combine se
single SDU.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/VII/EXTC/CCN

(a Segmentation Reassembly
)
n-SDU n-SDU

n-PDU n-PDU n-PDU n-PDU n-PDU n-PDU

(b Blocking Unblocking
)
n-SDU n-SDU n-SDU n-SDU n-SDU n-SDU

n-PDU n-PDU

Segmentation/reassembly and blocking/unblocking

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/VII/EXTC/CCN
Figure 2.5
OSI reference model— layer 3

Network layer: provides the transfer of data in the form of

packets across the communication networks.
Routing (which makes this layer most complex)
Congestion control
Internet sub-layer: routing between the different networks, hiding the details
of each specific network such as address differences, size and format
differences
Being implemented at each intermediate node

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

OSI reference model— layer 2

Data link layer: provides the transfer of frames across a transmissi

directly connects two nodes
Point-to-point transfer
Framing to indicate the boundaries of frames
Inserting control and physical address information
Inserting check bits for recovering from error
Flow control (in point-to-point basis)
Links: point-to-point, shared media, wireless

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/VII/EXTC/CCN

OSI reference model— layer 1

Physical layer: deals with the transfer of bits over a

communication channel.
Setting up and release of physical connection
Mechanical factors
Systems parameters
Again, each intermediate node in the networks has the network
layer, data link layer and physical layer

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 DATA

DATA

DATA

Segment

PKTS

Frames

Bits Bits
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
 Transfer of what across what in each
layer
Transport layer: transfer messa fro end (source) to end
ges m (destination).
of
Network layer:transfer packet acros multiple
of s s networks.
acros
Data link layer: transfer
of
fram
s
a transmission
es
Physical layer: transfer bi over
link.
a communication
of ts channel.

The intermediate node (or router) low three layers.

has
The end node high four layers + low three
has layers.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 Headers and trailers
added to data
Application Application
A dat B
a
Applicatio Applicatio
n dat a n
Layer a h Layer
Presentatio Presentatio
n dat p n
Layer a h Layer
Sessio Sessio
n dat s n
Layer a h Layer
Transpo Transpo
rt dat t rt
Layer a h Layer
Networ Networ
k dat n k
Layer a h Layer
Data Data
Link d dat d Link
Layer Layer
t a h
Physic Physic
al bit al
Layer s Layer

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

Figure
2.9
Overview of TCP/IP architecture:-
While developing OSI model, it took time to develop it; till then as per
requirements TCP/IP emerges.
After OSI; TCP/IP is well known architecture. It is grandparent of all Wide Area
Computer N/Ws like ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency N/w) & then
worldwide internet.
TCP/IP is a set of Protocols used for the internet & other similar work.
During the development of OSI model, N/W like ARPANET connects hundreds of
govt. offices, Universities etc.. using leased Telephone lines. When Satellite &
Radio N/Ws are added later, the existing protocols had experienced trouble in
interworking with them, so a new reference architecture was needed.
Thus, the ability of connecting multiple n/ws (leased lines, sat. , radio etc..) in
seamless way is achieved by TCP/IP architecture. This is a flexible architecture
ranging from file transferring to real-time speech transmission.
TCP/IP is a set of protocols allowing communication across diverse networks
These requirement led to the choice of Pkt-swng n/ws.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 TCP/IP network
architecture
Applicatio
n Applicatio
Layer n
Transpo Layer
Transpo rt
rt
Layer Layer
Intern
Intern et
et Layer
Layer
Networ Networ
k k
Interfac Interfac
e e
( (
a b
TCP/IP model
) does not require strict layering. i.e. application
) layer has
option to bypass intermediate layer & can run directly over internet layer.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

TCP/IP architecture—application layer
The application layer provide services that can be
used by other applications
As session & presentation layer in OSI Model are of
little use to most application. so they are not
included in TCP/IP model.
Application layer Incorporate the functions of top 3
OSI layers.
It contains all the higher-level protocols e.g. HTTP,
FTP (file transfer), SMTP (simple mail transfer),
DNS (Domain name system), RTP (Real-time
transport) etc…. i.e. It provides services that can
be used by other applications e.g. Protocols has
been developed for remote login, for mail, for file
transfer & for N/W management (SNMP=Simple
N/w mngmt. proto.)
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
Transport layer: in TCP/IP architecture

Just like OSI transport layer, it is design to allow peer entities on

source & destination hosts to carryout conversation.
Two basic services are offered in transport layer:-
1. Reliable connection oriented transfer of data stream by TCP (i.e. Transmission
control protocol): i.e.
a. It fragments byte stream into discrete msges & pass each one to internet layer & vice-a-
versa at destination.
b. TCP handles flow control to make it sure that a fast sender cannot overwhelmed slow
receiver with more msges that it can handle.
2. Best-effort connectionless Transfer of individual msges by UDP (User
Datagram protocol). It is used for quick & necessary services & for the
application where that do not want sequencing or flow control.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

TCP/IP architecture--
Machine
Internet layer
Machine
B
A Applicatio
Applicatio
n Router/ nTranspor
Transpor Gateway t
t Inter Inter
Inter
netInterface net
Network
net
Network
Network Interface
Interface

Network Network
1 2
I. Its job is to permit hosts to inject Pkts into any n/w & have them travel independently
to the destination.
II. It handles the transfer of info across multiple n/w through Gateway or Router.
III. It is corresponds to n/w layer of OSI model i.e. (a) transfer of Pkt between machine,
connected to different n/w. (b) routing and congestion control
IV. It deals with routing & congestion control.
V. “Global Unique Address” (IP address) for machines, attached to internet, is key aspect
of internet layer.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

 TCP/IP architecture-- Network
interface
Machine layer Machine
A B
Applicatio Applicatio
n n
Router/ Transpor
Transpor Gateway t
t Interne IP IP Interne IP
IP pac Interne pac
t t pac t
pac ket Network ket
Network ket
ket Network
InterfaceS
Interface
Interface
Packet Packet
Packet of of Packet
of network network of
network 1 2 network
1 Network 1 Network 2
2
1. Concerned with network-specific aspects of the transfer of packets
2. Corresponding to part of OSI network layer and data link layer
3. Different network interfaces: X.25, ATM, frame relay, Ethernet, etc

Two internet hosts connected via two routers & corresponding

layers used at each hop
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
Figure
2.11
 The procedure executed at routers
1. Router receives a frame from one network (e.g., N1) through
its physical layer
2. The data link entity for N1 extracts the IP packet from the
frame and passes the IP packet up to its network entity.
3. The network entity checks destination IP address (finds the
packet is not for itself) and determines the next hop based on
destination IP address (i.e., routing) , this next hop router will
be in another network (e.g. N2)
4. Network entity passes the IP packet down to the data link
entity for N2
5. Data link entity for N2 encapsulates the IP packet in a frame
of N2 and passes the frame down to physical layer for
transmission to the next router through network N2.

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT

App. HTTP SMTP DNS RTP

Transpo TC UD TCP/UDP
rt P P Provides
a network
independent
platform

IP provides
Intern I independence
et P from
underlying
networks

Network Network Network

Interface 1 Interface 2 Interface 3

(e.g., Ethernet (e.g., PPP

driver) driver)
TCP/IP protocol
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
SUIT/graph
 HTTP & SMTP operates over TCP & DNS, RTP over
UDP.
TCP & UDP operates over IP
Many N/W interfaces are defined to support IP
All Higher-layer protocol access the N/w interfaces
through IP; this feature provides capacity to operate
over multiple N/W working on different technology.
Encapsulation of application data descending
through the TCP/IP layer🡺 DATA
UDP /TCP UDP/TCP
HEADER DATA

IP IP DATA
Header

Frame Frame data Frame

Header Footer
Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT
Network Devices:- Hub, Switch, Repeater, Bridge,
router & Gateway
All devices are of common use but differ in subtle ways.
These devices operates in different layers.
As they are at different layer, different devices use different pieces of
information to decide, How to switch.

Application Layer🡺 APPLICATION

GATEWAY
TRANSPORT
GATEWAY
ROUTER
BRIDGE,SWITCH
Transport Layer REPEATER,
🡺 HUB

Network Layer 🡺

Data-Link Layer 🡺

Physical layer 🡺
End of Module 1

Prof. GIRISH G GALGATE MU/SE/III/CNND/IT