MODULE 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems

Definition of Memory Devices: A Memory device is a piece of hardware used to store data.

Example such as CD, USB, DVD etc.,

Memory devices can be classified into volatile and non-volatile memory,

Volatile memory is a temporary memory and requires power to maintain its data. Volatile memory loose all
its data when power is turned off. Ex: RAM
Non-volatile memory is a permanent memory that retains all its data when power is turned off. Ex: ROM.
Memory devices store digital data using binary code, which is a system of representing information using
only two symbols 0 and 1.
Memory devices are organized into a hierarchy based on speed, capacity, and cost, with the CPU.
Memory technologies are constantly evolving, with new types of memory devices being developed for
faster, more energy-efficient, and more reliable memory.

Basic concepts of electronic memory

Electronic memory is a type of storage technology that uses semiconductor materials to store digital data.
Electronic memory devices are known for their speed and compact size, making them ideal for use in
electronic devices.
Electronic memory devices can be both read from and written to, meaning that data can be stored and
retrieved as needed.
Memory cells are small units of semiconductor material that can store a single bit of information. The most
common types of memory cells are DRAM and SRAM cells.
Multiple memory cells are organized into arrays, which consist of rows and columns of memory cells. The
organization of the memory array determines how data is accessed and how quickly it can be accessed.
Memory devices can be categorized based on whether they allow for both reading and writing of data
(RAM) or are used for storing fixed data that cannot be altered (ROM).
Flash memory is a type of non-volatile memory that can be erased and rewritten multiple times. It is
commonly used in memory cards, USB drives, and solid-state drives.

History of organic/polymer electronic memory devices

In the 1980s, researchers began investigating the use of conductive polymers as memory elements in
electronic devices. Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, researchers continued to make advancements in the
field, including the development of non-volatile organic memory devices that were able to retain data
without power.
Classification of Electrical (electronic) Memory Devices:
According to the device structure, electronic memory devices can be divided into four primary categories:
1. Transistor-Type Electronic Memory
2. Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory
3. Resistor-Type Electronic Memory
4. Charge Transfer Effects

1. Transistor-Type Electronic Memory

 Transistors are made from silicon, acts as semiconductor.
 Transistors are made using p-type and n-type semiconductor. It consists of at least three terminals for
connecting the electronic circuit.
 It Produces output signal, voltage or current proportional to weaker input signal acting as amplifier.
 Transistor is working as a switch, which can be switched ON or OFF.
 It consists of billions of transistors, each transistor represents one bit of information which is ‘0’ or ‘1’.
 When a transistor is turned on, it represents a ‘1’ and is turned off, it represents a ‘0’.
 One popular type of transistor-type Memory is Dynamic Randon Access Memory(DRAM)

2. Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory

 It consists of two metal plates which are capable of storing an electric charge.
 Two metal plates are separated by an insulating material known as dielectric.
 It is used to store data. It is like a battery that holds data based on energy.
 Charging and Discharging are the two main effects of capacitor.
 It consists of billions of capacitor, each capacitor represents one bit of information which is ‘0’ or ‘1’.
 If the capacitor is charged, it represents the binary numeral,”1”.
 If the capacitor is discharged, it represents the binary numeral,”0”.
 If the parallel plates of a capacitor are separated by dielectric layer, charges drive off slowly and
memory would be volatile.
 One popular type of capacitor- type electronic memory is ferroelectric Random Access Memory
(FeRAM) is non-volatile memory.

Resistor-Type Electronic Memory

 Resistor-type memory is based on the change of the electrical conductivity of materials by an applied
voltage (electric field).
 Resistor-type electronic memory usually has a simple structure, having a metal-insulator-metal
structure generally referred to as MIM structure.
 The structure comprises of an insulating layer (I) sandwiched between the two metal (M) electrodes
and supported on a substrate (glass, silicon wafer, plastic or metal foil).
 The process of Charging and Discharging switches the device between high resistance and low
resistance.
 It consists of billions of resistor, each resistor represents one bit of information which is ‘0’ or ‘1’.
 Initially, the device is under high resistance state represents ‘0’ or “OFF” and low resistance state
represents ‘1’ or “ON”.
 One popular type of resistor - type electronic memory is programmable Read-Only Memory(PRAM)

Charge transfer type electronic memory device

 It is based on the Charge Transfer Effects of a charge transfer complex.
 A charge transfer(CT) complex consists of two parts, one electron donor and other an electron
acceptor. It is also called as a donor-acceptor (D-A) complex.
 The conductivity of a CT complex is dependent on the ionic binding between the D-A components.
 In CT complex, a partial transfer of charges occurs from donor part to the acceptor part. This results
in difference in conductivity.
 CT complexes exhibit bistable states due to differences in conductivity.
 This behaviour is used to design molecular electronic devices.
 Many organic CT systems, including organometallic complexes, carbon allotrope (fullerene, carbon
nanotubes and graphene)-based polymer complexes, gold nanoparticle-polymer complexes, have been
used for memory applications.

Classification of electronic memory based on storage type of the device:

Electronic memory can be divided into two primary categories: volatile and non-volatile memory.
 Non-volatile memory: Non-volatile memory (NVM) or non-volatile storage is a type of memory that
can retain stored information even after power is removed.
 Volatile Memory: Volatile memory is a type of memory that maintains its data only while the device
is powered. If the power is interrupted for any reason, the data is lost.

Further it is divided as shown below:

Non volatile memory:

This is furthur divided into:
ROM: Read Only Memory
  ROM is a non-volatile memory.
  Information stored in ROM is permanent.
  Information and programs stored on it, we can only read.
  Information and programs are stored on ROM in binary format.
  It is used in the start-up process of the computer.

ROM is further divided into WORM and EPROM.

WORM (Write Once Read Many times)

 Data storage device in which information once written, cannot be modified. This write protection
affords the assurance that the data cannot be tampered with once it is written to the device, excluding
the possibility of data loss from human error, computer bugs, or malware.

EPROM (Erasable programmable read-only memory)

  EPROM also called EROM, is a type of PROM but it can be reprogrammed.
  The data stored in EPROM can be erased and reprogrammed again by ultraviolet light.
  Reprogrammed of it is limited.
  Before the era of EEPROM and flash memory, EPROM was used in Microcontrollers.

Hybrid memories can be read and written as desired, like RAM, but maintain their contents without
electrical power, just like ROM. It is a Non-Volatile memory.
Flash is an electronic non-volatile computer memory storage medium that can be electrically erased and
reprogrammed. Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip used for storage and for transferring data
between a personal computer (PC) and digital devices.

EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory)

 Electronically erasable programmable read only memory, is a standalone memory storage device such as
a USB drive.
 It is a type of data memory device using an electronic device to erase or write digital data.
Volatile memory:
Volatile memory eventually loses the stored information unless it is provided with a constant power supply
or refreshed periodically with a pulse. The most widely used form of primary storage today is volatile
memory.

RAM: Random Access Memory

 It is a computer's short-term memory. It can be read and changed in any order, typically used to store
working data and machine code.  RAMs consist of ferromagnetic particles embedded in a polymer matrix
having a high dielectric constant. One of the most common RAMs is called iron ball paint, which contains
tiny metal-coated spheres suspended in an epoxy-based paint. The spheres are coated with ferrite or
carbonyl iron.

DRAM (Dynamic random access memory)

 It is a type of semiconductor memory that is typically used for the data or program code needed by
a computer processor to function.
 All DRAM chips manufactured to date use capacitors containing electrodes made of doped silicon
or polysilicon and dielectric films of silicon dioxide and/or silicon nitride.

SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)

It is a type of RAM that holds data in a static form, that is, as long as the memory has power.
It is made up of metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs).

Definition of Organic electronic memory:

It is a device stores data based on different electrical conductivity states (ON and OFF states) in response to
an applied electric field.

Types of Organic Memory Materials

There are three classes of materials can exhibit bistable states and are used in organic memory devices.
They are:
Organic molecules
Polymeric materials
Organic-Inorganic hybrid materials.
Organic Molecules:
Organic memory devices which are fabricated using organic semiconductors(p-type or n-type) and stores
data based on different electrical conductivity states (ON and OFF states) by an applied electric field.
Example for acenes are pentacene, perfluoropentacene, naphthalene, anthracene, tetracene.

Organic molecules memory p-type semiconductor – ex., Pentacene

An Organic molecule with π conjugated system and possess holes as major charge carrier is called p-type
semiconductor.
Example: Pentacene
pentacene is a relatively stable and inexpensive organic molecule, it is a popular choice for use in memory
devices.

Pentacene is a linearly fused aromatic compound with five benzene rings. It can be obtained in crystal and
thin film form. It exhibits a very good hole mobility and hence it behaves as a p-type semiconductor. The
pentacene molecule acts as the active layer in the memory device. When a positive voltage was applied
between electrodes, it was found no flow of electrons to drain. On the other hand, when a negative voltage
is applied between the electrodes, holes are induced at electrodes. Therefore it called as P-type
semiconductor.

Organic molecules memory n-type semiconductor –ex., Perfluoropentacene

An Organic molecule with π conjugated system with electron withdrawing substituent groups and possess
electrons as major charge carrier is called n-type semiconductor.

Perfluoropentacene is an organic molecule that consists of five linearly fused benzene rings, like pentacene.
When all the hydrogen atoms of pentacene are replaced by fluorine atoms the resulting molecule is
perfluoropentane. Strong electron withdrawing nature of fluorine atoms converts this molecule into n-type
semiconductor. When a positive voltage is applied between electrodes, electrons are induced in the
electrode. Therefore, it is n-type semiconductor.
Both the molecules exhibit same structure as well as crystal packing but former behaves as p-type
semiconductor and latter has an n-type semiconductor. Therefore, these molecules together exhibit charge-
transfer processes that are useful for memory applications.

Polymeric materials
Polymeric material for Organic memory device
Polymer molecules are used in memory devices to exhibit bistable states and also unique properties such as
flexibility, low cost and compatibility.
Functional polyimides are a type of polymer that are used in organic memory device.

Polymer used for organic memory device is Polyaimide with Donor- Triphenylamine and Acceptor-
phthalimide.

Donor: Triphenylamine group(TPA) Acceptor: Phthalimide group

hexafluoroisopropylidene (6F) increase the solubility of polyimide.

Polyaimides are one of the most commonly used polymeric materials for organic electrical memory
applications.
They have high thermal stability and mechanical strength and can be easily processed from solution.
Polyaimides are incorporated organic molecules such as phthalimide and triphenylamine in their polymer
back bone.
In functional PIs, phthalimide acts as the electron acceptor, and triphenylamine acts as an electron donor to
form a Donor-Acceptor structure. The polymer consists of repeating units of both donor and acceptor,
which can form a charge-transfer complex that facilitates charge trapping and release.

The polymer is initially in a neutral state, with no net charge on the donor or acceptor.
When a voltage is applied to the device, electrons are injected from the electrode into the polymer, causing
the donor to become negatively charged and the acceptor to become positively charged.
The negatively charged donor can now interact with the positively charged acceptor, forming a charge-
transfer complex. This complex acts as a trap for the injected electrons, which are effectively stored within
the polymer matrix.
For example, a "1" bit could be stored by injecting electrons into the polymer, while a "0" bit could be
stored by not injecting any electrons.

Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Materials

Generally, organic-inorganic hybrid materials are composed of organic layers containing inorganic
materials. Inorganic materials used are allotropes of carbon like fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, graphene
and metal nanoparticles, semiconductor nanoparticles and inorganic quantum dots (QDs).

Define display:
A display is a device that shows visual information, such as text, images, or videos, to a user.
Define display system.
A display system is a collection of hardware and software components that work together to generate and
present visual information to a user.

Photoactive materials

Photoactive organic materials are organic polymers that can absorb light and convert it into electrical
energy.
Photoactive materials are organic polymers that can absorb light in the ultraviolet to infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum
These materials are used in photo sensors and photovoltaic cells.
When light falls on a photoactive material, it releases electrons, which generate an electric current.
photoactive materials are used in LCD panels for controlling the pixels in the display.
In an OLED display system, a layer of photoactive material is sandwiched between two electrodes, with
one electrode being transparent to allow for light extraction.
When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, the material absorbs photons and generates electron-hole
pairs, which can be transported through the material by a built-in potential or external electric field.

Electroactive Materials

Electroactive materials are organic polymers that can emit light and convert it into electrical energy.
Electroactive Material are those that can change their physical properties such as shape, size, when
exposed to an electric field.
Electroactive materials are organic polymers that can emit light in the ultraviolet to infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
These materials that can undergo reversible electrochemical reactions and store or release electrical energy.
These materials are used in electroluminescent displays which are commonly used in watches, calculators
and other portable electronic devices.
Organic semiconductors used in electronic and optoelectronic devices are called as electro active and
Photoactive materials.
In an OLED display system, a layer of electroactive material is sandwiched between two electrodes, with
one electrode being transparent to allow for light extraction. When an electric field is applied to an
electroactive material, it emits light, which is used to create the image on the display.

Optoelectronics:

Optoelectronics is a branch of electronics that deals with the interaction between light (optical) and electric
fields (electronic).

Optoelectronics Devices:

Optoelectronics devices are electronic devices that are capable of emitting, detecting, or manipulating light.
Examples of such devices include LEDs, photodiodes, solar cells, and optical fibres.

optoelectronic devices are special types of semiconductor that can convert light energy into electrical energy
or electrical energy into light energy.

In optoelectronic devices such as photodiodes, when a photon with energy greater than the bandgap energy
of the semiconductor material is incident on the device, it is absorbed by the semiconductor material,
creating an electron-hole pair. The electron is excited from the valence band to the conduction band, where
it is free to move and can be collected as an electrical current.

Nanomaterials (Silicon Nanocrystals) for Optoelectronic devices

Any substance in which at least one dimension is less than 100nm is called nanomaterials.

Silicon Nanocrystals is the example of ptoelectronic device

Properties of Silicon Nano crystals for optoelectronics

SiNCs exhibit strong quantum confinement effect due to their small size.
SiNCs exhibit high photoluminescence quantum yield, which makes them attractive for applications in
light-emitting devices.
SiNCs are biocompatible and can be easily integrated into biological systems for bioimaging and
biosensing applications.
SiNCs are non-toxic and biocompatible, making them safe for use in medical applications.

Applications:

 Silicon nanocrystals are being explored for energy storage applications such as lithium-ion
batteries and supercapacitors.
 Silicon nanocrystals are being explored for various catalytic applications such as water splitting
and CO2 reduction.
 Used for sensing applications such as gas sensing, biosensing, and environmental sensing.
 SiNCs are used in neuromorphic computing and down-shifting in photovoltaics.

Organic materials for Optoelectronic devices [Light absorbing materials – Polythiophenes] (P3HT)

Properties:

Poly(3-hexylthiophene) or P3HT is a semiconducting polymer. It is used widely, due to its desirable

properties, such as high charge carrier mobility, high absorption coefficient in the visible region, and good
solubility in organic solvents.
P3HT has a short alkyl group, specifically a hexyl group, attached to each thiophene ring, which enhances
the solubility of the polymer in organic solvents.
It Exhibits conductivity due to holes, hence it is considered as p-type semiconductor.
P3HT has great capability as a light-absorbing material in organic electronic devices.
P3HT has a crystalline structure and good charge-transport properties required for optoelectronics.
P3HT has a direct-allowed optical transition with a fundamental energy gap of 2.14 eV.
The fundamental bandgap of P3HT is in the visible region at 490 nm, corresponding to a π → π* transition,
giving electron-hole pairs.
P3HT indicates that an increase in the conductivity is associated with an increase in the degree of
crystallinity.
Organic materials like P3HT have good charge carrier mobility, which means that they can transport
charges (electrons or holes) effectively through the material.

Applications:

 used to fabricate organic field-effect transistors (OFETs)

 used as a hole-transporting layer in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) to improve their
efficiency and stability.
  P3HTcomposite applications in energy storage, sensing, and catalysis.
 P3HT can also be used in the fabrication of biosensors
 P3HT can also be used in the construction of solar cells.
 Manufacture of smart windows
Liquid Crystals:
Liquid crystal is a unique state of matter between solid (crystalline) and liquid.
or
Liquid crystal is a state of matter between highly ordered crystalline and disordered liquid states.
Their properties are between those of conventional liquids and solid crystals. That is, a liquid
crystal may flow like a liquid, but its molecules may be oriented in a crystal-like way.

In crystalline state, not only do the molecules occupy specific positions but also tend to orient in a
preferred direction. Thus the molecules have both positional and orientational order.

In liquid state, the molecules neither occupy specific positions nor are oriented in any particular direction.
The molecules are free to move at random and collide with one another abruptly changing their positions
thus losing both positional and orientational order.

In liquid crystal state, wherein the molecules are free to move but are oriented in a particular
manner. Thus the molecules have no positional order but retain some orientational order.

Liquid crystals exhibit optical anisotropy, i.e. they show different optical properties when light incident in
different directions. This makes the liquid crystals to find applications in the field of electrics and
electronics.
Classification of liquid crystals: Liquid crystals are classified as follows

Classification of liquid crystals :

A. Thermotropic liquid crystals
B. Lyotropic liquid crystals

Thermotropic liquid crystals:

Molecules orientation is dependent on temperature.
At high temperature, it become an isotropic liquid.
At low temperature, it become glassy.
Most of the thermotropic liquid crystals are composed of rod-like molecules

Thermotropic LCs can be further classified into four categories.

Nematic liquid crystals:
Molecular Alignment:
Nematic liquid crystal molecules tend to align their long axes in the same direction, creating a preferred
orientation.
Lack of Positional Order:
Unlike solids, nematic liquid crystals lack positional order, meaning the molecules are free to move around
and their relative positions are not fixed.
Thread-like Appearance:
The alignment of the molecules gives nematic liquid crystals a thread-like appearance when viewed under a
microscope, hence the name "nematic" (from the Greek word "nematon" meaning thread).
Electrical Control:
The alignment of nematic molecules can be altered by applying an electric field, allowing for control over
light polarization and thus creating displays.
Anisotropic Properties:
Nematic liquid crystals exhibit anisotropic properties, meaning their physical properties are direction-
dependent. This includes optical, electric, and magnetic properties.

Orientational Order:
Nematic liquid crystals have a high degree of orientational order, meaning the molecules tend to align in a
preferred direction, even though they are free to move around.
Applications in Displays:
Nematic liquid crystals are the foundation of LCD technology, enabling the creation of various displays
like those in TVs, smartphones, and computer monitors.

Cholesteric liquid crystals:

Chiral and Helical:
ChLCs are chiral, meaning they have a non-superimposable mirror image, and they organize into a helical
or spiral structure. This phase of matter first appeared in cholesterol derivatives.
Layered Structure:
Molecules in ChLCs are arranged in layers, with each layer twisted relative to the next.
Twisted Director:
The "director," which is the average orientation of the liquid crystal molecules, varies with each layer,
creating the helical structure.
Pitch:
The distance it takes for the director to complete one full rotation (360 degrees) is known as the "pitch".
Optical Properties:
The helical structure gives ChLCs unique optical properties, including selective light reflection.
Applications:
ChLCs are used in various applications, including optical filters, displays, and sensors.

3. Smectic liquid crystals:

Layered Structure:
Smectic liquid crystals have molecules arranged in layers, with each layer consisting of molecules oriented
in the same direction.

Fluid-like Behavior:
The layers can slide past each other, allowing for flow and motion within the smectic phase.
More Ordered than Nematic:
Smectic phases have more positional order than nematic phases, but less than solid crystals.
Different Smectic Types:There are various types of smectic phases, such as Smectic A and Smectic C,
with different molecular arrangements within the layers.
Applications:
Smectic liquid crystals are used in applications like LCD screens and optical devices due to their fast

electro-optical response and unique optical properties.

Discotic LCS:
Discotic LCs have disc-like or plate-like structures.
DLCs can have both orientational and positional order within their columnar structures
In discotic LCs, most molecules tend to position themselves in columns arranged in
hexagonal lattice.
The arrangement resembles stacked coins.
Applications: Optoelectronics, Molecular electronics, Displays

Lyotropic liquid crystal:

Lyotropic liquid crystalline phases are formed by a change of temperature & concentration. It depends on
temperature & concentration..
These molecules are amphiphilic – they have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic end in their molecules.
The hydrophilic end is attracted towards water, whereas the hydrophobic end is water repellent and
attracted towards non-polar solvents.
At low concentrations, these molecules are randomly oriented but as the concentration increases, the
molecules start arranging themselves.
Cell membranes and cell walls are examples of lyotropic liquid crystals.
Soaps and detergents form lyotropic crystals when they combine with water.

They can be prepared by mixing a compound containing both lyophilic and lyophobic ends
in a solvent and increasing the concentration of compound till liquid crystal phase is
observed. Ex. Soap-water mixture, Phospholipid-water mixture, etc.

Properties:
 Liquid crystals can flow like liquids due to the loss of positional order.
 Liquid crystals are optical anisotropic due to their orientational order.
 Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead, use a backlight or reflector to produce
images in colour or monochrome.
 LCDs can easily be made into different shapes, have a lower response time, infinite colour
contrast and viewing angles, lower weight and potentially lower power consumption.

Applications:
 Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs): The liquid crystal layer in LCDs allows for the display of images
and text through the use of electrical currents that control the orientation of the crystals.
 Sensors: Liquid crystal sensors are used in various applications such as temperature sensing,
humidity sensing, and chemical sensing.
 Optical Devices: Liquid crystals are used in various optical devices such as variable optical
attenuators, phase shifters, and tunable filters. These devices are used in optical communication
systems, spectroscopy, and imaging.
 Medicine: Liquid crystals have been used in drug delivery systems, where the drug is encapsulated
in the liquid crystal matrix and delivered to specific target cells.

Organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs):

In recent years, the display industry has progressed rapidly. One of the most important developments is the
ability to build flexible, transparent and very thin displays for electronic gadgets. This led the researchers to
find OLEDs.

“Organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) are monolithic devices consist of a series of organic thin
films sandwiched between two thin-film conductive electrodes that emits light under the influence of
an electrical field”.

Construction:
Multilayer OLEDs usually consist of an indium tin oxide (ITO)-coated glass plate as substrate
Cathode - Negatively charged particles transfers from cathode to EML with the help of ETL.
Electron Injection layer (EIL) - It receives electrons from the cathode and injects them deeper into the
device.
Electron Transport Layer (ETL) – Supports the transport of electrons across it so that they can reach the
emissive layer.
Anode – Positively charged particles transfers from anode to EML with the help of HTL.
Hole Injection Layer (HIL) – It receives holes from the anode and injects them deeper into the device.
Hole Transport Layer (HTL) – This layer supports the transport of holes across it so that they can reach
the emissive layer.
Emissive Layer (EML) – It converts electrical energy into light energy. The device where electron and
hole recombine to form excitons having high energy. These excitons falls to lower energy by emitting light
(electroluminescence).
Working of OLED: OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diodes) is a flat light emitting technology, made by
placing a series of organic thin films between two conductors. When electrical current is applied, a current
flows through the device and into the emissive layer, a bright light is emitted. As the current passes through
the emissive layer, the organic molecules become excited and move to a higher energy state. When they
return to their original energy state, they release energy in the form of photons, which create the visible
light that can be seen. OLEDs are emissive displays that do not require a backlight.

Properties of OLEDs:
Thinness and flexibiltiy: They are very thin and flexible, which makes them suitable foe curved or
flexible displays.
High contrast: They ar having high contrast ratio, that they can produce bright lights, resulting in images
with intense and rich colours.
Fast reponse time: They have a fast response times, that they can switch on and off quickly,
resulting in smooth motion in video content.
Wide viewing angle: they have Wide viewing angle, that the image quality is maintained even when
viewed from different angles.
Energy efficiency: They are energy effiecient, resulting in lower power consumption.
Long lifespan: They have long life span, resulting in a longer lasting display.

Applications of OLEDs:
Displays: OLEDs are used in many handheld electronics, such as cell phones, digital cameras, and portable
media players. They are favored for their high light output and low power drain, which makes them
readable in sunlight.

Lighting: OLEDs are becoming a new lighting source for residential, commercial, and automotive
markets. They are thin, lightweight, and have a uniform surface lighting with high contrast segmentation.

Biomedical devices: OLEDs are used in biomedical devices, such as lab-on-chip devices, surgical lighting,
medical imaging, lateral flow devices, immunosorbent assays, and protein microarrays.

Optical communication: OLEDs are used in optical communication.

Smart lighting: OLEDs can adjust based on the environment and requirements, such as time-varying color
temperature.

Automotive devices: OLEDs can be used in automotive applications, such as dash board interior lighting
and tail lights.
Wearable devices: Wearable devices such as smart watches and fitness trackers.

Quantum dot light emitting diodes (QDLEDs):

QDLEDs are a new form of light emitting technology based on nanoparticles and their structures are
similar to the OLED technology. This technology is a novel innovation to help the display industry. They
are recognized as great alternatives to organic light-emitting diodes due to their enhanced performances.
“Quantum dot light emitting diodes (QDLEDs) are devices consist of a nano-scale crystals
sandwiched between two thin-film conductive electrodes that emits light under the influence of an
electrical field”.
Construction:
Multilayer OLEDs usually consist of an indium tin oxide (ITO)-coated glass plate as substrate
Cathode - Negatively charged particles transfers from cathode to QDL with the help of ETL.
Electron Transport Layer (ETL) – Supports the transport of electrons across it so that they can reach the
quantum dot layer.
Anode – Positively charged particles transfers from anode to quantum dot layer with the help of HTL.
Hole Transport Layer (HTL) – This layer supports the transport of holes across it so that they can reach
the quantum dot layer.
Quantum dot layer (QDL) – It converts electrical energy into light energy. The device where electron and
hole recombine to form excitons having high energy. These excitons falls to lower energy by emitting light
(electroluminescence).

Working principle in QDLEDs: The emission mechanism of QDLED is similar to QLED. In

QLED, the emitter is a semiconductor nanoparticle, while in the OLED, the emitter is an organic material.
In QDLED, a layer of cadmium-selenium quantum dots is sandwiched between inorganic electron-
transporting (ETL) and hole-transporting (HTL) layers. When electric field is applied, electrons are
injected from cathode and move to QDs (EML) through ETL. Holes are injected from anode and move to
QDs (EML) through HTL. Electrons and holes captured in the quantum dots are recombine to form
excitons having high energy. These excitons falls to lower energy by emitting light (electroluminescence).

Properties of QDLEDs:
High contrast: QDLEDs are known for their high luminance, which makes images and videos appear
more realistic and crisp.

Pure color emission: QDLEDs can emit light of different wavelengths, including red and green, by
converting blue light.

High color saturation: QDLEDs have high color saturation and can express a wide range of colors.

Tunable color emission: QDLEDs can emit light of different wavelengths depending on the size of the
quantum dots.

Energy efficiency: QDLEDs are energy efficient.

Self-emissive: QDLEDsare self-emissive, meaning that light is generated by individual subpixels that can
be controlled individually.

Flexible and robust: QDLEDs can be used in flexible and robust applications, which could make
wearable and stretchable displays possible.

Applications of QDLEDs:
Displays: QD-LEDs are promising for displays with a wide color gamut, large screens, and
augmented/virtual reality. They can also be used for wearable, flexible, automotive, and transparent
displays.

Optoelectronics: QD-LEDs can be used in nanophotonics, optical micro/nanoelectromechanical systems

(MEMS/NEMS), and micrototal analysis systems.

Biomedical screening: QD-LEDs can be used in real-time biomedical screening.

Near-field microscopy: QD-LEDs can be used in near-field microscopy beyond the diffraction limit.

Medical endoscopes: QD-LEDs can be used in MEMS-based medical endoscopes for sub-cellular
imaging.

Biosensors and biochips: QD-LEDs can be used in compact light-on-chip biosensors and biochips.

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs):

It is form of visual display used in electronic devices, in which a layer of a liquid crystal
is sandwiched between two transparent electrodes.
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display technology that uses liquid crystals to produce images.
LCDs are commonly used in electronic devices such as televisions, computer monitors, and mobile phones.
Construction: The basic display using liquid crystals is composed of six main components
Liquid crystal layer of about 10µm- 20µm.
Liquid crystal material sandwiched between two transparent electrodes. Two electrodes are used, one is
positive(ANODE) and the other one is negative(CATHODE). External potential is applied to LCD through
this electrodes and it is made up of indium-tin-oxide.
LCDs contain a lighting system, known as a backlight that illuminates their pixels.
Polarizers: Two polarizers are used in LCDs. It is used to produce visible images. A polarizer is a layer of
light-filtering crystalline material, both of which control the type of light that passes through them.
Working:
Light Modulation:
LCDs work by controlling the amount of light that passes through the liquid crystal layer by applying an
electric field.
Polarized Light:
The liquid crystals are sandwiched between two polarizing filters, and the liquid crystal molecules rotate
the polarization of the light passing through them.
Backlight:
LCDs require a backlight source (like LEDs) to illuminate the screen, as they don't emit light themselves.
Light source: A backlight or reflector provides light for the display.

Liquid crystals:

Rod-like or disk-like molecules that can rotate under an electric field, controlling light transmission.

Liquid crystals are sandwiched between two layers of glass, with one layer coated with a polarizing
film. When the external light passes from one polarizer to the next polarizer, external supply is given to the
liquid crystal, the polarized light aligns itself and produces image in the screen.

Electric current: When an electric field is applied to the liquid crystal, it twists the orientation of the
liquid crystal molecules, which changes the polarization of the light passing through the liquid crystal.
Polarized light: Polarizing filter is placed in front of and behind the liquid crystal layer to controls the
amount of light that passes through the polarizing film, creating an image on the screen.
Properties of LCDs :
Image quality: LCDs produce high-quality images with excellent resolution, brightness, and contrast.

Flexibility: LCDs are lightweight, thin, and flexible.

Energy efficiency: LCDs are energy efficient and long-lasting.

Backlight: LCDs require an external light source, such as a lamp, to illuminate the pixels.

Color filters: Color filters between the liquid crystals determine the color of each pixel.

Sandwich structure: LCDs have a sandwich structure with liquid crystals between two clear panels and
polarizing filters.

Viewing angle: LCDs have a small viewing range, and the brightness and color of the image can shift
when viewed from an angle.

Electromagnetic radiation: LCDs do not emit electromagnetic radiation.

Display size: Smaller LCD screens have fewer pixels and transistors, making them less expensive to
produce.

Applications of LCDs:
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) are used in many electronic devices and applications, including:
Electronics : LCDs are used in smartphones, tablets, laptops, digital cameras, portable gaming devices,
and e-readers.
Automotive displays: LCDs are used in center consoles, infotainment systems, instrument clusters,
heads-up displays, and rearview cameras
Industrial equipmentl: LCDs are used in test equipment, medical monitors, and industrial human-
machine interfaces (HMIs).
Digital signage: LCDs are used in advertising displays, billboards, retail information screens, and
product promotions.
Military: LCDs are used in avionics, naval systems, tactical equipment, and armored vehicles.
Wearables:LCDs are used in smartwatches, health/fitness trackers, and head-mounted AR/VR systems.
Smart homes: LCDs are used in interactive touchscreens, smart mirrors, and appliance interfaces.

Light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC or LEEC)

A light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC) is an organic molecule containing electronic device which
emits light when an electric current(electroluminescent)is applied across it.
It is a solid-state device that generates light from an electric current.
LECs are usually composed of two metal electrodes connected by (e.g. sandwiching) an organic
semiconductor containing mobile ions.
LECs involves both ionic and electronic transport, distinguishing it from OLED.
Light emission due to movement of ions as a result of electrochemical redox reactions.

Properties:
LEC is a simple single layer device. It can emit light fro just a single active layer.
Light emission in these device is due to movement of ions as a result of electrochemical redox reaction
under applied external field.
The light emitter in an LEC is immobile and in direct contact with both electrodes.
LEC can be printed as a thin film using graphene and carbon nanotube electrodes.

Applications:
used as a source of lighting in various applications.
used in display devices. Used for signage applications.