3.3.

1 Data Storage
All computers require some form of memory and storage. Memory is usually referred to as the internal devices used to store data that
the computer can access directly. This is also known as primary memory. This memory can be the user's workspace, temporary data or
data that is key to running the computer.

Storage devices allow users to store applications, data and files. The user's data is stored permanently and they can change it or read
it as they wish. Storage needs to be larger than internal memory since the user may wish to store large files (such as music files or
videos). Storage devices can also be removable to allow data, for example, to be transferred between computers. Removable devices
allow a user to store important data in a different location in case of data loss.

However, all of this removeable storage has become less important with the advent of technology such as 'data drop' (which uses
Bluetooth) and cloud storage.
Types of Memory and Storage

Primary Memory Secondary Storage

Memory that can be accessed directly from the CPU Permanent storage for applications and data

Random Access Memory (RAM) Hard disk drives

Read-Only Memory (ROM) Solid state drives
Optical media
Flash memory

Memory and storage devices can be split up into two distinct groups: primary memory and secondary storage. Figure 3.57 summarises
the types of memory and storage devices covered in this section.
Primary vs Secondary
Storage
Primary Memory Secondary Storage

Directly accessible by CPU Not directly accessible by CPU

Faster access times Slower access times

Temporary storage (RAM) Permanent storage

Limited capacity Larger capacity

Here is a summary of the differences between primary memory and storage

as shown in Figure 3.58.
Primary Memory Structure

CPU
Central Processing Unit

Primary Memory
RAM and ROM

Secondary Storage
Hard drives, SSDs, etc.

Primary memory is the part of the computer memory which can be accessed directly from the CPU; this includes random access
memory (RAM) and readonly memory (ROM) memory chips. Primary memory allows the CPU to access applications and services
temporarily stored in memory locations. The structure of primary memory is shown in Figure 3.59.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Read and Write Capability Current Use Storage
Can be written to or read from, and the data can be Used to store data, files, part of an application or part of
changed by the user or the computer (i.e. it is a temporary the operating system currently in use
memory)

Volatile Memory Performance Impact

It is volatile, which means memory contents are lost when In general, the larger the size of RAM the faster the
powering off the computer computer will operate

All computer systems come with some form of RAM. These memory devices are not really random; this refers to the fact that any
memory location in RAM can be accessed independent of which memory location was last used. When you run an application or
program, data is retrieved from secondary storage and placed temporarily into RAM. Access time to locate data is much faster in RAM
than in secondary or off-line devices.
Types of RAM Technology

Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Static RAM (SRAM)

Consists of transistors and capacitors Uses flip flops to hold each bit of memory
Needs to be constantly refreshed Doesn't need to be constantly refreshed
Less expensive to manufacture than SRAM Faster data access time than DRAM
Consumes less power than SRAM Used in CPU memory cache

Has a higher memory capacity than SRAM More expensive to manufacture

Most common type used in computers Used where absolute speed is essential

There are currently two types of RAM technology: dynamic RAM (DRAM) and static RAM (SRAM). Each DRAM chip consists of
transistors and capacitors. Each of these parts is tiny since a single RAM chip will contain millions of transistors and capacitors.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Capacitor Function
Holds the bits of information (0 or 1)

Transistor Function
Acts like a switch; it allows the chip control circuitry to read the
capacitor or change the capacitor's value

Refresh Requirement
Needs to be constantly refreshed (re-charged every 15
microseconds)

Memory Application
Main memory is constructed from DRAM

This type of RAM needs to be constantly refreshed. If it wasn't refreshed, the

capacitor's charge would leak away very quickly leaving every capacitor with
the value 0. DRAMs have a number of advantages over SRAMs: they are much
less expensive to manufacture than SRAM, they consume less power than
SRAM, and they have a higher memory capacity than SRAM.
Static RAM (SRAM)

Faster Access
Flip Flop Technology Access time for SRAM is 25 nanoseconds
Uses flip flops to hold each bit of memory compared to 60 nanoseconds for DRAM

No Refresh Needed Cache Application

Doesn't need to be constantly refreshed unlike Used in CPU's memory cache where speed is
DRAM essential

A major difference between SRAM and DRAM is that SRAM doesn't need to be constantly refreshed. It makes use of flip flops, which
hold each bit of memory. SRAM is much faster than DRAM when it comes to data access. Memory cache is a high-speed portion of the
memory; it is effective because most programs access the same data or instructions many times. By keeping as much of this
information as possible in SRAM, the computer avoids having to access the slower DRAM.
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Non-volatile Permanent Read-Only Start-up
Memory Storage Access Instructions
Contents are not lost Contents cannot be The contents can only Often used to store
after powering off the changed or written to be read, not written to BIOS data that the
computer by the user, the computer needs to
computer or any access when powering
application/program up

Another form of primary memory is read-only memory (ROM). This is similar to RAM in that it shares some of its properties, but the
main difference is that it cannot be changed or written to. ROM chips are often used to store data that the computer needs to access
when powering up for the first time (the basic input/output system (BIOS)); these are known as the start-up instructions (or bootstrap).
Application Example: Remote-Controlled Toy Car
ROM Functions RAM Functions
Storing the factory settings such as remote control The user may wish to program in their own routines; these
frequencies new instructions would be stored in the RAM chip
Storing the 'start-up' routines when the toy car is first The RAM chip will store the data/instructions received from
switched on the remote control unit
Storing of the set routines; for example, how the buttons on
the hand-held device control turning left, acceleration,
stopping, and so on

A remote-controlled toy car has circuitry which contains both RAM and ROM chips. The remote control is a hand-held device. This
example shows how both types of memory are used in applications beyond computers, with ROM storing permanent factory settings
and RAM handling temporary user instructions.