2021

TEMARIO OPOSICIONES

THEORIES ON LANGUAGE LEARNING

AND ACQUISITION. ERROR ANALYSIS

TOPIC 2
TOPIC 2: THEORIES ON LANGUAGE LEARNING AND
ACQUISITION. ERROR ANALYSIS.

1. INTRODUCTION
2. LEARNING THEORIES
2.1. BEHAVIOURISM
2.2. MENTALISM
2.3. COGNITIVE CODE
2.4. AFFECTIVE FACTOR
2.5. EMERGENTISM
2.6. RELATIONAL FRAME THEORY
2.7. SOCIAL INTERACTIONISM
2.8. ACCULTURATION MODEL
2.9. DISCOURSE THEORY
2.10. CREATIVE CONSTRUCTION THEORY/MONITOR MODEL
2.11. VARIABLE COMPETENCE MODEL
2.12. UNIVERSAL HYPOTHESIS
3. NEW TRENDS: ACTIVE METHODOLOGIES
3.1. COOPERATIVE LEARNING
3.2. CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING (CLIL)
3.3. TASK AND PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
3.4. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AS A CHAOTIC/COMPLEX
SYSTEM
4. INTERLANGUAGE
5. ERROR ANALYSIS.
5.1. ERROR CORRECTION
5.2. CHANGES ON THE VIEWS OF ERROR
6. CONCLUSION
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. INTRODUCTION

In this topic we will study one of the most outstanding linguistic aspects in a
communicative process: the acquisition of a second language and all the
dimensions in the development of the teaching-learning process.
Many theories about the learning and teaching of languages have been proposed from a
historical perspective, and have been influenced by developments in the fields of linguistics,
psychology, anthropology, and sociology. The study of these theories and how they
influence language teaching today is called applied linguistics.
“Learning” and “Acquisition” were defined by Krashen in 1981. He said that
acquisition was restricted to the subconscious way in which a native speaker
apprehends the mother tongue; and learning refers to the conscious process that
a foreign speaker must follow to be competent in a FL. In other words, the term
“Acquisition” is used for the process of natural contact with language; “Learning”
is used when the contact is structured through language teaching.
We will follow this distinction here, but in fact, both mingle together either in the
case of a native speaker or a foreign student. This theory is now somehow
argued. We can say that acquisition and learning refer to the same process and
that a good ELT course should seek a perfect mixture of them.
No matter how difficult languages are, children at six are quite competent in their
mother tongue. There is a very interesting process which can be summed up in
the following steps:
- Babbling.
- One-word communication ("dad, dog, food, etc.")
- Two-words communication.
- Telegraphic communication, and
- Acquisition of more specific and serious data.
Motivation is essential when learning. It has been studied by Lambert &
Gardner who point out that the treatment of motivation is quite complex and
rather individual. ELT needs to be motivating in terms of enjoyment, creativity,
sense of achievement, etc.

They distinguished two types of motivation:

- Instrumental motivation. The student learns because s/he needs to.

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- Integrative motivation. The student learns because s/he wants to be a
member of the speech community that uses a language.

The above scholars said that both types of motivation are probably present in all
learners but depending on age, experience, needs, etc., each one exercises a
varying influence.

2. LEARNING THEORIES

Until not long ago the main concern of language learning was on the
description/analysis of the language to be learned. It is in the 20th c when
psychology was established as a serious discipline that things began to change.
Before that, we had a series of empirical attempts without any sound theoretical
foundations, for instance Comenius in the 16th c or the 19th-century Direct
Method.

2.1. BEHAVIOURISM

It can be summed up as “learning as a habit formation”. It is perhaps the first

coherent attempt to a theory of language learning. Based on the ideas of Pavlov
and Skinner, it states that learning is due to a mechanical process of habit
formation and proceeds by means of frequent reinforcement of a stimulus-
response sequence. It was widely used in the States around the 1950s and the
1960s by the Audio-lingual Method.

• The most important features are:

• No translation.
• The four skills are arranged in this order of acquisition: L, Sp, R and W.
• Frequent repetition for effective learning.
• Immediate correction of errors.
• Use of language laboratories (headphones, videos, etc.)
2.2. MENTALISM

Chomsky, and in general the generativism said that thinking and learning were
not the result of habit formation but of rule-governing activity (generative
grammar). We have a limited set of rules that enable us to deal with almost all
experiences we may encounter. Thus, “learning is the acquisition of rules and
thinking is rule-governed activity”. Some representative authors are Ausubel and

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Piaget. Since language, as imagined by nativists, is complex, subscribers to this
theory argue that it must be innate.

Many criticisms of the basic assumptions of generative theory have been put forth
by cognitive-functional linguistics, who argue that language structure is created
through language use. These linguists argue that the concept of a Language
Acquisition Device (LAD) is unsupported by evolutionary anthropology. The
input, combined with both general and language-specific learning capacities,
might be sufficient for acquisition.

Since 1980, linguists psychologists following Jean Piaget studying children,

came to suspect that there may indeed be many learning processes involved in
the acquisition process, and that ignoring the role of learning may have been a
mistake.

In recent years, the debate surrounding the nativist position has centered on
whether the inborn capabilities are language-specific or domain-general, such as
those that enable the infant to visually make sense of the world in terms of objects
and actions. The anti-nativist view has many strands, but a frequent theme is that
language emerges from usage in social contexts, using learning mechanisms that
are a part of a general cognitive learning apparatus (which is what is innate).

This position has been championed by several linguists, such as David M. W.

Powers, Elizabeth Bates and Catherine Snow. Philosophers, such as Fiona
Cowie and Barbara Scholz have also argued against certain nativist claims in
support of empiricism.

The new field of Cognitive Linguistics has emerged as a specific counter to

Chomskian Generative Grammar and Nativism.

2.3. COGNITIVE CODE

In this theory the learner is the central element as the active processor of
information. Learning and using a rule require learners to think in order to extract
a generative rule from the mass of data and to analyse the situations where the
application of a rule can be appropriate. The basic technique is problem-solving
tasks.

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Learning will only take place when the matter to be learnt is meaningful. But in
itself, a cognitive view is not enough. To complete the picture, we need an
affective view too.

2.4. AFFECTIVE FACTOR

Now learners are emotional beings. They are not machines to which we introduce
data. The way in which we experience learning may affect what we learn, that is,
can have a positive or negative effect. For example affective factors that influence
in a positive way are: relaxation, self-confidence, extroversion but especially
motivation.

2.5. EMERGENTISM

Emergentist theories, such as MacWhinney's competition model, posit that

language acquisition is a cognitive process that emerges from the interaction of
biological pressures and the environment. According to these theories, neither
nature nor nurture alone is sufficient to trigger language learning; both of these
influences must work together in order to allow children to acquire a language,
suggesting that language acquisition is a more complex process than many
believe.

2.6. RELATIONAL FRAME THEORY

The relational frame theory (RFT) (Hayes, Barnes-Holmes, Roche, 2001),

provides a wholly selectionist/learning account of the origin and development of
language competence and complexity. Based upon the principles
of Skinnerian behaviorism, RFT posits that children acquire language purely
through interacting with the environment.

RFT distinguishes itself from Skinner's work by identifying and defining a

particular type of operant conditioning known as derived relational responding, a
learning process that, to date, appears to occur only in humans possessing a
capacity for language. Empirical studies supporting the predictions of RFT
suggest that children learn language via a system of inherent reinforcements,
challenging the view that language acquisition is based upon innate, language-
specific cognitive capacities.

2.7. SOCIAL INTERACTIONISM

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Social interactionist theory is a claim that language development occurs in the
context of social interaction between the developing child and knowledgeable
adults who model language usage and "scaffold" the child's attempts to master
language. This type of theory is strongly influenced by the socio-cultural theories
of the Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner.

2.8. ACCULTURATION MODEL

It was developed by Brown in 1980. He said that “acculturation” was the process
by means of which we become adapted to a new culture. We must consider the
target culture together with the target language. Acculturation and learning are
determined by the degree of social or psychological distance between the learner
and the TL culture.

Schumman analysed several factors involved in the efficiency of the learning

process from the social & psychological point of view:

• Socially, the first group and the target group must see each other as equal
cultures, must have congruent cultures and share social facilities
• Psychologically, we must consider: language shock, cultural shock and
affective variables.
2.9. DISCOURSE THEORY

Developed by Hymes and Halliday, it draws a parallel between native language

acquisition and foreign/second language acquisition.

The main principles are:

- Native speakers modify their speech to negotiate meaning with non-native

speakers.

- This negotiation of meaning affects the rate and route of 2LA.

- 2LA follows a natural route in syntactic development.

- The natural route is the result of learning how to hold conversations.

2.10. CREATIVE CONSTRUCTION THEORY/MONITOR MODEL

It was designed by Krashen on the basis of Chomsky’s ideas on first language.

Learners are thought to “construct” internal representations of the language being

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learnt. Acquisition takes place internally by reading and hearing. Speech and
writing are an outcome of learning rather than a cause.

Krashen’s Monitor Model consists of 5 central hypothesis and several factors.

1. The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis. Krashen distinguished Learning &

Acquisition as 2 different approaches to language, already explained. For
Krashen, acquisition is by far the most important process.

2. The Monitor Hypothesis. The Monitor is a device that learners use to edit
their language performance. It acts upon learnt knowledge by modifying
utterances generated from “acquired” knowledge. To activate this we need
to know the rules to apply them, time to think, and focus on form. Learners
use their explicit knowledge of rules to improve and correct their acquired
language. Learnt knowledge will only be called upon if correction or
modification are needed.

As the L2 learner develops competence, he conforms his productions to the

speech & written language of native speakers of the L2.

The focus of language teaching should be communication and not rules-learning.

3. The Natural Order Hypothesis. We acquire language rules in a predictable

sequence; but the order is independent of the order in which rules have been
taught. Linguistic forms emerge in L2 acquisition in much the same order as
they do in L1. This is what makes language assessment possible. It also
calls into question the "grammar syllabus".

4. The Input Hypothesis. Acquisition takes place only by receiving

comprehensive input.

There are 2 basic aspects:

1. Speaking is a result of acquisition.

2. If input is understood, and there is enough of it, the necessary grammar is

automatically provided.

For Krashen, comprehensible input is the route to acquisition but the affective
filter is also needed.

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5.- The affective Filter Hypothesis influences the rate of development. It controls
how much input the learners come into contact with, and also prevents learners
from using input. The main factors are motivation, attitudes, needs, self-
confidence, and relaxation.

To provoke learning the affective filter should be as low as possible. The filter is
down when the acquirer is not anxious and is motivated.

Finally, within the Monitor Model we must take into account some factors:

- Aptitude, which is related to learning and attitude, which is related to

S. Krashen
acquisition.

- Role of the mother tongue: For Krashen it does not interfere with 2LA. The
learner falls on his L1 whenever he lacks a rule in the TL (target language).

- Routines and patterns: They are restricted to formulaic speech and do not
contribute to acquisition but they help to increase competence.

- Krashen disregards any individual differences.

- Age: The younger you are the more comprehensible is the input and the lower
the affective filter. On the contrary, the older you are the better suited to use
“learnt” knowledge in monitoring.

Krashen has been very influential in communicative language teaching, but his
theory has been criticized for failing to meet minimum scientific standards and for
being too descriptive.

2.11. VARIABLE COMPETENCE MODEL

Ellis designed this model considering Widdowson, Bialystok and Tarone’s

theories. This method is based on the way in which language is learnt as a
reflection of the way in which we use it.

It is based upon a two-fold distinction:

A) The process of language use. It is to be understood in terms of rules and

procedures, that is, linguistic knowledge and the ability to use this knowledge.

B) The product of language use can be:

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- Planned such as discourse thought prior to expression.

- Unplanned. Discourse that is not prepared, eg spontaneous speech.

This method considers the way in which language is learnt as a reflection of the
way in which we use it.

2.12. UNIVERSAL HYPOTHESIS

It is an ambitious project to find linguistic Universals, a Universal Grammar that

underlies all human languages. Linguistic universals seem to modify the 2LA as
follows:

- They impose constraints in the form that interlanguages can take.

- Learners find it easier to acquire patterns that confirm to linguistic universals

rather than those that do not, and

- When the L1 presents linguistic universals it is likely to assist interlanguage

development through positive transfer.

In any case this research is too weak to have sound foundations

3. NEW TRENDS: ACTIVE METHODOLOGIES

3.1. COOPERATIVE LEARNING

According to Deci and Ryan, all human beings have three basic needs:
relatedness, competence, and autonomy. Cooperative learning principles stem
from this primarily psychological standpoint: Because all students are humans,
teachers can use cooperative learning teaching methodologies to help students
satisfy the three needs of relatedness, competence, and autonomy in the
classroom. Teachers who do so will be able to create a more effective
environment for learning and thus can help students reach their learning potential.
The eight basic principles of cooperative learning in the classroom (Jacobs,
Power, & Loh, 2002) are:

1 Cooperation as a value

2 Heterogeneous grouping

3 Positive interdependence

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4 Individual accountability

5 Simultaneous interaction

6 Equal participation

7 Collaborative skills

8 Group autonomy

3.2. CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING (CLIL)

It is a term created in 1994 by David Marsh and Anne Maljer. It involves teaching
a curricular subject through the medium of a language other than that normally
used. The subject can be entirely unrelated to language learning, such as history
lessons being taught in English in a school in Spain. CLIL is taking place and has
been found to be effective in all sectors of education from primary through to adult
and higher education. Its success has been growing over the past 10 years and
continues to do so.

Owing to its effectiveness and ability to motivate learners, CLIL is identified as a

priority area in the Action plan for Language Learning and Linguistic Diversity by
the European Comission.

Teachers working with CLIL are specialists in their own discipline rather than
traditional language teachers. They are usually fluent speakers of the target
language, bilingual or native speakers. In many institutions language teachers
work in partnership with other departments to offer CLIL in various subjects. The
key issue is that the learner is gaining new knowledge about the 'non-language'
subject while encountering, using and learning the foreign language. The
methodologies and approaches used are often linked to the subject area with the
content leading the activities.

3.3. TASK AND PROJECT-BASED LEARNING

In task-based learning, the central focus of the lesson is the task itself, not a
grammar point or a lexical area, and the objective is not to ‘learn the structure’
but to ‘complete the task’. Of course, to complete the task successfully students
have to use the right language and communicate their ideas. The language,
therefore becomes an instrument of communication, whose purpose is to help

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complete the task successfully. The students can use any language they need to
reach their objective. Usually there is no ‘correct answer’ for a task outcome.
Students decide on their own way of completing it, using the language they see
fit.

Tasks can be as simple as putting a list of animals in order from fastest to slowest
and then trying to agree with a partner on the correct order. Or it could be
something more complicated like a survey to find out which parts of town your
classmates live in and how they get to school, ending in visual information
presented in the form of pie charts and maps. Or it could be something really
complicated like a role-play involving a meeting in the Town Hall of the different
people affected by a new shopping centre development and the consequent
demolition of a youth centre and old people’s home. Whatever the task, it should
always have some kind of completion; and this completion should be central to
the class - the language resulting naturally from the task and not the other way
round.

The advantage of TBL is that it allows students to focus on real communication

before doing any serious language analysis. It focuses on students’ needs by
putting them into authentic communicative situations and allowing them to use all
their language resources to deal with them. This draws the learners’ attention to
what they know how to do, what they don’t know how to do, and what they only
half know. It makes learners aware of their needs and encourages them to take
(some of the) responsibility for their own learning. TBL is good for mixed ability
classes; a task can be completed successfully by a weaker or stronger student
with more or less accuracy in language production. The important thing is that
both learners have had the same communicative experience and are now aware
of their own individual learning needs.

Another advantage of this approach is that learners are exposed to a wide variety
of language and not just grammar. Collocations, lexical phrases and expressions,
chunks of language, things that often escape the constraints of the traditional
syllabus come up naturally in task-based lessons. But this can also be a
disadvantage. One of the criticisms of TBL is this randomness. It doesn’t often fit
in with the course book/syllabus, which tends to present language in neat
packages. Some teachers (and learners) also find the move away from an explicit

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language focus difficult and anarchistic. Many teachers also agree that it is not
the best method to use with beginners, since they have very few language
resources to draw on to be able to complete meaningful tasks successfully.

The PBL approach takes learner-centredness to a higher level. Whereas TBL

makes a task the central focus of a lesson, PBL often makes a task the focus of
a whole unit, term or academic year.
There are generally considered to be four elements which are common to all
project-based activities/classes/courses:

1. A central topic from which all the activities derive and which drives the project
towards a final objective.
2. Access to means of investigation (the Internet has made this part of project
work much easier) to collect, analyse and use information.
3. Plenty of opportunities for sharing ideas, collaborating and communicating.
Interaction with other learners is fundamental to PBL.
4. A final product (often produced using new technologies available to us) in the
form of posters, presentations, reports, videos, websites, blogs...

The advantages and disadvantages of PBL are similar to those of TBL, but the
obvious attraction of project-based learning is the motivating element, especially
for younger learners. Projects bring real life into the classroom; instead of
learning about how plants grow (and all the language that goes with it), you
actually grow the plant and see for yourself. It brings facts to life. The American
educational theorist John Dewey wrote “education is not a preparation for life;
education is life itself”. Project work allows ‘life itself’ to form part of the
classroom and provides hundreds of opportunities for learning. Apart from the
fun element, project work involves real life communicative situations, (analyzing,
deciding, editing, rejecting, organizing, delegating …) and often involves multi-
disciplinary skills which can be brought from other subjects. All in all, it
promotes a higher level of thinking than just learning vocabulary and structures.

3.4. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AS A CHAOTIC/COMPLEX

SYSTEM

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Despite all the research, we still do not know how languages are learned. It is
difficult to reject any of the aforementioned theories as all of them seem
reasonable. They also seem incomplete though, as they do not describe the
whole SLA phenomenon, only parts of it.

The previous attempts to explain SLA should not be disregarded because when
they are put together they provide a broader view of the phenomenon.

In this new perspective, an SLA model should be regarded as a set of

connections within a dynamic system that moves in the direction of the “edge of
chaos” , which is understood as a zone of creativity with the maximum potential
for learning.

Chaos theory and the studies on complexity have been influencing many different
research fields, including Applied Linguistics. Larsen-Freeman (1997), sees
“many striking similarities between the science of chaos/complexity and language
and SLA”

Thornbury (2001) also argues that language and language learning share some
features with other complex systems. It is dynamic and nonlinear; adaptive and
feedback sensitive; self-organizing; and emergent. There seems to be periods of
little change alternating with periods of a great deal of flux and variability, and
even some backsliding. In this way, process grammars are not unlike other
complex systems which fluctuate between chaotic states and states of relative
stability.

4. INTERLANGUAGE

This label was first used by Larry Selinker in 1972. Interlanguage is a system
that has an intermediate status between the L1 and the L2, it contains elements
from both. It might be understood as a continuum along which all learners
traverse. At any point, the learner’s language is systematic, i.e. rule-governed,
and common to all learners. Any difference is due to their learning experience.

Interlanguage presents three principal features:

- It is permeable: the rules that constitute the learner´s knowledge are open
to evolution at any given time.

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 - It is dynamic: it is changing constantly, but rather slowly, thus the idea of a
continuum.

- It is systematic: it is based on coherent rules which learners construct and

select in a predictable way.

Selinker suggested five main processes that operate in interlanguage:

1.- Language transfer – items and rules which are transferred from the L1 to the
L2. For example: 'This books likes me'.

2.- Transfer of training – items resulting from particular approaches used in

training, as when they a rule enters the learner´s system as a result of the overuse
of a word or expression by the teacher.

3.- Strategies of L2 learning – approaches to the material being learnt, eg

simplification: student´s use all verbs in the present continuous tense.

4.- Strategies of L2 communication. They are:

-Avoidance: when certain structures are very different from L1, students simply
avoid using them.

-Overuse: students use the forms that they know rather than those that they are
not sure of.

5.- Overgeneralization of L2 linguistic material. The learner uses a L2 rule in

situations in which a native speaker would not, s/he uses rules in situations that
are not permitted: 'what do he want?'.

They are all devices to internalize the L2 system.

Interference of L1 on L2 can be positive, neutral or negative. In the case of

Spanish and English we have to pay attention to the interference in Phonology,
Grammar, Spelling, False Friends …

Around 95% of L2 learners fail to reach an adequate TL competence. They stop

learning and become fossilized (not reaching the end of the interlanguage
continuum). Fossilisation occurs in most language learners and cannot be solved
by further instruction. It can be:

- Internal, due to no further brain development, or

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- External, due to reaching a sufficient level of understanding (pidginisation).

Fossilization can be prevented by correcting repeated errors or by practicing

problematic language.

The main principles underlying interlanguage are formulated by Ellis (1990) as

follows:

- The learner constructs a system of abstract linguistic rules.

- The learner’s grammar is permeable. It can be penetrated by new linguistic

rules.

- The learner’s competence is transitional and variable. Each stage constitutes

a restructuring continuum.

- Interlanguage development reflects the operation of cognitive learning

strategies, such as L1 transfer, overgeneralization and simplification.

- Interlanguage use can reflect the operation of communication strategies.

- Interlanguage systems may fossilize.

Interlanguage theory attempted to find explanations for the errors in language

learners´speech. One of the main ways in which the processes involved in
interlanguage were analysed was the Theory of Error Analysis.

5. ERROR ANALYSIS.
5.1. ERROR CORRECTION

For a long time errors have being a sign of breakdown in the teaching-learning
process. Behaviourist psychologists emphasized the importance of massive
manipulative practice of the language. The drills were structured in such a way
that it was difficult for the student to make many mistakes.

The mentalists have put forward a different view of errors, which has gained wide
acceptance. They think that errors are inevitable and necessary.

There has been a change from preventing errors to learning from errors.
Nowadays FL teachers don’t insist on error-free communication but on
communication itself.

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When the student does not know how to express himself he makes a guess on
the basis of his mother tongue and on what he knows of the FL. The process is
about hypothesis formulation and refinement (The learner is no longer a passive
recipient of TL input, but rather an active processor of input, generating
hypotheses, testing and refining them). As the student develops competence, he
moves from ignorance to mastery through interlanguage, and the errors are seen
as a sign that learning is taking place.

There appears to be affective and cognitive justification for tolerating some errors.
Experimental evidence suggests that only a minority of errors are caused by
mother tongue inference.

5.2. CHANGES ON THE VIEWS OF ERROR

Corder (1971) said that learners also progress by actively constructing a series
of hypotheses about the language they are learning from the data they receive.
This suggests that learner´s errors do not have to be considered as signs of
failure. On the contrary, they are a way the learner has of testing his hypotheses
about the nature of the language he is learning. They constitute the clearest
evidence for the learner´s developing system and can also provide information
about how learners process the language data.

The information that EA (error analysis) provides about the learner´s

interlanguage is of two types:

1.- Linguistic type of errors that L2 learners produce, linked to the sequence
of development the learner experiences.

2.- Psycholinguistic type of errors made by learners and is related to the kind
of strategies they apply within their interlanguage.

Corder established a distinction between lapses, mistakes and errors.

Slips, or tongue lapses, that are immediately detected by the speaker him or
herself. They can even occur to L1 speakers.

A mistake refers to a performance error that is either a guess or slip in failing to

use a known system correctly. It is corrected with the help of an external source.

E.g.: I goed there yesterday. (irregular past not explained yet)

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An error is a noticeable deviation from grammar. Thus, errors are the result of a
lack of knowledge and they reflect the learner’s interlanguage. It reflects lack of
competence.

E.g.: I going there tomorrow. (the continuous present has been explained)

To deal with errors we must establish first what the error is.

Secondly, we need to establish the possible sources of the error. This will help
us to work out a more effective teaching strategy.

Thirdly, we have to decide how serious the error is. The more serious it is, the
higher priority it should have in remedial work.

We must distinguish communicative errors from non-communicative errors. We

can classify errors into 2 categories: those that cause a message or sentence to
be incomprehensible (global errors) and those that do not significantly interrupt
communication of a sentence (local errors)

Most errors are caused by inadequate lexical choice, misspelled words, misuse
of prepositions and pronouns, etc.

Errors can also be analyzed according to the skill involved as:

-Mispronunciations ( involving Speaking).

-Misspellings (that involve Writing)

-Misperceptions (when Listening is involved).

-Miscues (that occur in the act of Reading)

The fourth stage is when to correct errors. This is one of the most difficult
challenges of language teaching.

There is no easy way to know how much to correct, when or how often. Perhaps,
we should consider this in relation to sensitivity of the student and the nature of
the task. But apart from this, the teacher must decide first the seriousness of the
errors in relation to the particular aim in view, then whether to deal with the most
important ones immediately or later. Perhaps we should reserve error correction
to manipulative grammar practice, and tolerate more errors during
communicative practice.

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The last step is correction. Explanation of mistakes is more effective when
followed by extra practice.

We provide next some different correction techniques:

1. The teacher gives clues to enable self-correction.

2. The teacher corrects the script.

3. The teacher deals with errors through marginal comments and footnotes.

4. The teacher explains orally to individual students.

5. The teacher uses the error as an illustration for a class explanation.

Immediate feedback is possible as the teacher moves around the class

supervising the pupils’ work. In any case, it is always best to avoid the red ink all
over the writing; an alternative is to put single code letters as: T- tense mistake;
V-vocabulary; W.O.- word order, etc. This procedure forces the student to think
out the error himself and to provide his own corrected version.

The teacher is expected to be a source of information about the target

language and to react to errors. However, he should not dominate the
correction procedures. Students should be responsible of self-correction. And
we must also promote peer-correction. The teacher must handle sensitively the
groups, and the best students can work with the weaker ones in pairs.

6. CONCLUSION

Having a good understanding of learning theories is essential for the FL teacher

on the grounds that the current educative legislation established by the Common
European Framework of Reference and Spanish LOMCE include many of the
theories explained.

Teachers need to be sensitive to all factors involved in the learning process. Yet,
we should combine our theoretical knowledge with our teaching situation,
because none of the theories or factors mentioned before is enough to account
for the complex process of language learning; context is essential.

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Error Analysis is very important. Errors were for a long time forbidden, but they
are now crucial to see the development of the students, the best proof that
learning is taking place.

This topic entails a great importance for FL teachers, since it allows to know the
influence that other disciplines have had in the didactics of foreign languages,
how the process of learning of a language is organized, the treatment to cope
with errors, etc., that is to say, our daily routine in the class.

In reference to all the theories studied, they show the evolution that the didactics
of languages has suffered along the 20th and 21st centuries. And thanks to that
evolution we can justify an entire series of current methodological strategies, as
cooperative learning, CLIL, the acquisition of the key competences, the
measures of attention to diversity, interdisciplinary links, autonomy in the
learning process, gamification, flipped classroom, design thinking or the
implementation of the ICTs, that the educational administration demands us to
put into practice.

L2 learners & teachers need to build up a good atmosphere in the classroom,

and learners need to be relaxed to facilitate the language learning process. The
practice of positive discipline and mindfulness can be good means to reach
this aim.

Errors should be seen as a natural part of the learning process and they don´t
have to be avoided. We must help them extract all the information they can, and
make them reflect and work on the right structure by themselves. Obviously it is
not an easy task for most of them think errors cannot be made and are often
ridiculed by their partners. So, we must develop certain: for instance a possible
procedure for writing can be to establish for the very first day a system of symbols
in order to develop a way to find out errors (Wf=right word, wrong form;
Sp=spelling error; nº= number sing.-pl., /=omit this, etc.)

If the error is aural, we should consider if the error interrupts communication or

not. If it does not affect communication, we should not mention it. But if it does,
we must take into account to ease fluency. So we can write down the mistake in
order to talk about it later in a positive way.

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In any case, we must always be very tactful when dealing with error and must
encourage them not to be afraid of talking or writing. Errors are the proof that
learning is taking place. We can make use of achievement badges, stamps,
etc. to make correction more fun.

Finally, we should consider that the new methodological trends are student-
centred: they have an active role in their learning process by means of
investigating, sharing, participating in projects, discovering....they are the
protagonists of the learning process. So the role of the teacher and the role of the
student have changed drastically in the last decades and there is much more to
come...

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

- Corder, S. (1981) Error Analysis and Interlanguage, Oxford, OUP.

- Krashen, S (1981) 2LA and 2L Learning. London, Pergamon.

- Larsen-Freeman, D. (2011) Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching.

Oxford: OUP.

-Littlewood, W. (1981) Communicative Language Teaching. An Introduction.

Cambridge: CUP.

- Richards & Rogers(2003) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching,

C.U.P.

-Saville-Troike, M. (2012) Introducing Second Language Acquisition, Cambridge,

C.U.P.

- Selinker, L. (1991) Rediscovering Interlanguage (Applied Linguistics &

Language Study), London, Pearson education.
- Stern, H.H. (1991) Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching, Oxford: OUP

- www.cal.org (Centre for applied Linguistics)

- http://ec.europa.eu/languages/language-teaching/content-and-language-
integrated-learning_en.htm (European comission on CLIL)

- homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/ (a very exhaustive Second Language

Acquisition website)

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