POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEAR

PROTECTION OF GENERATORS-I

Dr. BHAVESHKUMAR BHALJA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1
 Introduction

• A generator is the heart of an electrical power system, as it

converts mechanical energy into its electrical equivalent,
which is further distributed at various voltages.

• The capacity of generators has increased in recent times from

50 MW to 500 MW, with the result that the loss of any single
unit may cause system instability.

2
 Introduction
• The generator is the most expensive electrical equipment in a
power plant. Hence, its protection requires more
consideration, to reduce the outage period by rapid clearance
of faults.
• A modern generating unit is a complex system comprising the
generator stator winding, associated transformer, rotor with
its field winding and excitation system, and prime mover with
its associated auxiliaries.

3
 Importance of Generator Protection

 Complex systems

 Subjected to hazardous
operating condition.

 Possibility of different fault

like electrical, mechanical,
grid and excitation system
side.

4
 Consequences of Fault in the Generator
 Insulation, windings and stator core can be damaged.
 Large forces, caused by large fault currents, can give damage to other
components in the plant.
 Risk of explosion and fire.
 Mechanical stress on generator and turbine shafts.
 Huge revenue losses due to outage of generator.
 Damages on the stator iron.
 Increased voltage on “healthy phase”.

5
Faults and Abnormal Conditions in Generator

6
 Use of IEEE Standards
Standard Title Applicability
IEEE Guide for AC Generator Ground For designing ground fault
C37.101 protection scheme.
Protection.
For protection scheme against
C37.102 IEEE Guide for Generator Protection. stator and rotor fault.

IEEE Guide for Abnormal Frequency For protection against off-

C37.106 nominal frequency operation.
Protection for Power Generation.

The above standards are created/maintained by the IEEE PSRC & IAS.
The said standards are updated every 5 years.

7
 Types of Protection in Generator

• Differential protection
• Stator ground fault protection
• Rotor earth fault protection
• Field winding protection
• Stator winding turn-to-turn fault protection,
• out-of-step protection,
• loss-of-excitation protection.

8
 Differential Protection (stator faults)

• The breakdown (BD) of insulation may result in a fault b/w

conductors and b/w conductor and iron core. The BD may be
caused by O/V OR by O/H which in turn can be caused by O/L,
unbalanced currents, ventilation troubles OR failure of the
cooling system. It may also be caused by damage to the
insulation by conductor movement due to forces exerted by
s/ck or out of step conditions.

9
 Differential Protection (stator faults)

• Short-circuit currents cause by these faults can cause

enormous damage to the generator winding and core. Hence,
these faults should be cleared by high-speed differential
relays.
• Faults b/w conductors can be repaired by re-taping or
replacing the conductor. However, faults b/w conductor and
the iron laminations are a serious because the arc may sinter
the laminations, which may necessitate rebuilding of the core.

10
 Differential Protection (stator faults)

• Differential protection covers all types of phase–phase and

phase-to-ground faults.

• Protection against the stator phase faults is normally covered

by a high-speed differential relay covering the three phases
separately.

• Applied to generators with ratings more than 1 MVA.

11
 Why Generator Differential Protection?
• Used for protection against phase faults (not ground faults).

• Phase faults occur due to breakdown of insulation between

conductors (O/V OR O/H due to short-circuits).

• Magnitude of current is very large. Hence, to avoid damage to

winding and core, phase faults are cleared by high speed
differential relays.

12
Requirements Generator Differential Protection
• Polarity of CTs
• Identical CT Saturation
Characteristics.
• Relay coil should be connected at
equipotential point (A and B).
• Equal lead lengths on both sides of
the CTs.

13
Circulating Current/Mertz-Price Differential Protection
CT1 IA1 Generator I CT2
Neutral of the A2 R Terminals of the
Generator
Generator
Y F

Earthing B
Resistances ia1 ia2
Main
Circuit
Breaker
Id =ia1- ia2

Relay coil

14
Circulating Current/Mertz-Price Differential Protection
• If the CTs are identical in nature, then the functioning of the
differential relay is straightforward.
• However, in practice, it is impossible to achieve CTs with
identical saturation characteristic.
• Hence, the secondary currents of the CTs are unequal even
though the primary currents are the same.
• This current is widely known as spill current. This spill current
passes through the relay and may mal-operate the relay if its
value exceeds the setting of the relay.

15
Circulating Current/Mertz-Price Differential Protection
• Moreover, if the length of the connecting wires (also known as
pilot wires) is unequal, then the value of the spill current
increases.
• In order to avoid mal-operation of the differential relay in these
situations, two solutions are used.
I. A stabilizing resistance is connected in series with the relay.
II. Biased differential protection scheme
• However, incorporation of stabilizing resistance reduces the
sensitivity of the relay during an internal fault.
16
 High Impedance Differential Protection
Neutral of the
Generator Terminal of the
Generator

External fault
A (LLL)
RL= Lead Resistance
RCT= CT Resistance
RST= Stabilizing Resistance
IR
VR

B
17
 High Impedance Differential Protection
Voltage across the relay circuit is given by,
VR = IR × (RR + XR) = if × (RCT + RL)
Normally, LR is small and hence, XR <<< RR

VR = IR × RR =if × (RCT + RL)

IR = If × (RCT + RL)/(RR)

18
 High Impedance Differential Protection
(𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 )
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 = 𝑖𝑖𝑓𝑓 ×
(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 )
The desired values of stabilising
resistance can be calculated using,
(𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 )
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑖𝑖𝑓𝑓 × - 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆
VR
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = - 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆
where 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 is pick-up of the relay.
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
RR is the relay burden =
(𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 )2
19
 High Impedance Differential Protection
The value of RStab can be considered as nearly 1/3 of the
calculated value, in practice.
The knee-point voltage (KPV) of a CT decides the working range
of the CT, and it should be high for higher saturation flux density.

The KPV of the CT is given by

VK ≥ 2VR
Stabilizing resistor RStab limits the spill current below the relay
setting.

20
 Important points about Rstab
 Addition of Rstab avoids unwanted operation of the relay due to unequal
lead lengths and non-identical CT saturation characteristics.

 However, it has following disadvantages.

 Addition of Rstab reduces sensitivity of the relay during internal faults.

 It creates high voltage across CT secondary during heavy through faults.

21
Actual AC and DC Circuit

22
 Biased Differential Protection
• The main drawback of Mertz-Price differential protection is
the reduction in sensitivity of the relay due to the
incorporation of the stabilizing resistance.
• Hence, to minimize this effect and also to increase the
sensitivity of the differential relay, biased/percentage
differential protection scheme is used.
• Figure shows the principle of the biased percentage
differential protection scheme where no additional stabilizing
resistance is connected in series with the relay..

23
 Biased Differential Protection
Neutral of the 𝐼𝐼1 𝐼𝐼2
Generator
Terminals of the
Generator

𝑖𝑖2
𝑖𝑖1

Differential Relay

24
 Biased Differential Protection
• The biased percentage differential relay has two settings,
namely, basic setting and bias setting.
• Basic setting is the difference between two CT secondary
currents 𝑖𝑖1 − 𝑖𝑖2 .
• Bias setting is the ratio of the difference between two
secondary currents to the average values of those two
currents, that is.
𝑖𝑖1 −𝑖𝑖2
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑖𝑖1 +𝑖𝑖2 × 100
2

25
 Biased Differential Protection
The first slop gives
the basic setting of
the relay, and usually,
it is set to 5% of the
rated current.

26
 Biased Differential Protection
Bias setting is shown
in the second slop of
the characteristic,
which is set to 120%
of the rated current
with a slop of about
30%.

27
 Biased Differential Protection
The third slop is
designed considering
the mismatch between
two CTs (non-identical
CT saturation
characteristics of two
CTs), which is set to
about 70%.

28
 Protection against ground faults
• Why we need a separate protection against stator ground
faults?

29
 Protection against ground faults
• 𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 9050 A.
• If e/f occurs at the terminal of the generator,
15.75 × 103
𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
√3 × 𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛
15.75×103 2
𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 × 3 × 10−3 × ( 240 ) =4059 Ω
3
15.75 × 10
𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = = 2.24 𝐴𝐴
√3 × 4059
2.24
= 0.025% 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
9050
𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 will be still less if fault occurs at other locations. Hence,
a separate protection is required.
30
 Protection against ground faults
• Stator e/f protection.

• Fault between stator conductor and core.

• Fault current flows through arc, which is destructive in nature.

31
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
 Causes of stator earth fault
• It occurs due to failure of insulation between the conductor
and core.
• As the conductor is at a high voltage and the core being
earthed, the breakdown of insulation between the conductor
and core will result in an arc between the conductor and
core.
• This ground fault current having high temperature causes
failure of insulation between laminations and even sinter the
laminations.
32
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
 Consequences of stator earth fault
• This will result in increase of eddy current losses and damage
to a large portion of stator core.
• Repair of such a damage will take quite a long time (of the
order of a month) resulting in loss of revenue.
• If the earth-fault occurs near the terminal, the destruction
would be irreparable.
• Hence, stator ground faults are very destructive if the ground
fault current is large.
33
 Protection against ground faults
• The stator ground faults are very destructive if magnitude of
ground fault current is very large.

• Hence, for large generators, the ground fault current is limited

to a very low value such that the resultant arc is not intense.

• This is achieved by inserting a resistor/reactor (𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 ) in the

neutral circuit of the generator.

34
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
 Neutral grounding of generator
• Earth-fault current in the generator can be limited by an
impedance placed in the neutral circuit.
• It is found that to avoid the possibility of transient over-voltages
due to ferro-resonance, its value should not be higher than:
106
𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 = = 4246Ω
6𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

C = Capacitance of the generator stator circuit to

earth/phase=0.25 μF and f = System frequency (50 Hz).
15.75 × 103
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 = = 2.14 𝐴𝐴
√3 × 4246

35
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
 Neutral grounding of generator
• The neutral of the generator is normally at zero potential
which may rise to very high voltage (12.85 kV peak for 15.75
kV rated generator) during an earth-fault.

• Hence a high Ohmic resistor (4246 Ω) with high voltage

rating (9086.44 V) is required which will be very costly.

36
 Protection against ground faults
Neutral potential increases from zero to
4246×2.14 =9086.44 V
(peak value 12.85 kV).

Hence, high ohmic resistor with high

voltage rating is required.

Now a days, utility uses resistance loaded

distribution transformers (NGT).

37
 Protection against ground faults
• The value of 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 will be
2402
𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 = 4246 × = 0.985 Ω
157502

The voltage rating of 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 is 240 V.

38
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
 Neutral grounding transformer (NGT)
• To avoid large magnetizing current
flow to NGT, the primary winding
voltage rating should be at least
1.5 times of generator rated phase
voltage (15.75 kV).
• The secondary voltage is kept low
(240 V). It reduces the value of
neutral grounding resistor by
4246×(2402/157502)=0.985 Ω
39
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
 Neutral grounding transformer (NGT)
• The kVA rating of the NGT should be at least:
103VGVT
kVA =
3N 2 R
VG = Phase-phase voltage rating of the generator in kV
VT = High voltage rating of the NGT in kV
N = Turns ratio
R = Resistor value connected across the LV side of NGT
• Similarly, the continuous rating of the resistor should be at
least: 103VG2
kW =
3N 2 R
40
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
• This protection scheme is If
employed in alternator with
small impedance grounding.
• The fault current If, for the
earth-fault will be
1000 × VG × P
I f=
3 × Z n ×100
VG = phase-phase voltage of alternator in kV
P = fault location in % from neutral end
Zn = Ohmic rating of neutral impedance

41
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
• The fault current If, will be negligibly small for the fault near neutral.
The percentage of winding unprotected can be found as:
• Let Q be the relay pick-up expressed as a percentage of the CT rating
and PCT be the CT primary rating. The relay pick up will be:
QPCT
I pu= ( primary ) A
100
• Relation between pick-up and percentage winding will be as follows:
10 PVG QPCT QPCT × 3 × Z n
= P=
3Z n 100 1000 × VG

42
 Disadvantages of High Impedance Grounding (non-effective grounding)

 In case of e/f. on one of the phases,

potential of healthy phases will rise to
Vph-n + 𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 Rn.

 Hence, the insulation between stator

core and conductor must withstand
this value.

43
 Protective Scheme for Stator Ground Faults
Neutral End Terminals
 For an e/f. on any phase, the fault current (𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 ) is
given by,
10 × 𝑉𝑉𝐺𝐺 × 𝑃𝑃
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 = 1
√3 × 𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛
The relay pick-up current (𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ) is given by,
Z
𝑄𝑄×𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
A
n
𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 2 Fault location (P)
100

𝑄𝑄 × 𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 × √3 × 𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛
𝑃𝑃 = 3
1000 × 𝑉𝑉𝐺𝐺
For example, if relay pick-up is 5% of CT rating (Q), with CT ratio = 50/5 A and if the
machine is rated at 11 kV (VG) having 𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛 = 200 Ω then P =7.87%

44
 Protective Scheme for Stator Ground Faults
Neutral End Terminals
 Equation (1) suggests that higher the value of 𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛 ,
less will be the value of 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 and hence, less threat of
the damage of the generator core.

 However, as observed from equation (3), higher

value of 𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛 leads to a greater portion of the winding
unprotected. Z
n
Fault location (P)
 This is the limitation of current based e/f protection
scheme.

45
 Reverse Power Protection
• Reverser power protection is against failure of prime mover of
an alternator.
• When prime mover fails, alternator will run as synchronous
motor taking power from bus. There is no harm for the
alternator but it can damage the turbine blades as prime
mover act as load on the motor.
• This reversal of power is sensed by a reverse power relay. It is
basically a directional relay with leading maximum torque
angle, as alternator runs as an overexcited synchronous motor.
• It is time delayed and class-A protection scheme.
46
 Reverse Power Protection
• The normal flow of power is
from alternator to the bus.
• If input to the prime mover of
any one of the alternator
stops, the busbar will feed
that alternator and make it
run as a synchronous motor.
The prime-mover will act as a
load on the motor. This means
flow of power is reversed.
47
 Reverse Power Protection
 Effect of reversal of power on different prime movers
• Steam turbines: The turbine acts as a pump and the steam is
trapped. Hence, turbine blades get overheated due to
windage. The heat caused by turbulence of the trapped
steam can de-temper and damage the turbine blades.
• Hydro Turbines: On reversal of power, the water flow
reduces and hence bubbles are formed causing cavitation in
the turbine. The turbine blades can be damaged due to the
forces generated as a result of cavitation.

48
 Reverse Power Protection
• Diesel turbines: Motoring protection for diesel engines is
necessary to prevent the danger of fire or explosion resulting
from unburnt fuel.
• Gas Turbines: A gas turbine, when it runs as a pump, will load
the generator working as a motor.

49
 Why Reverse Power Protection is time delayed?
• As overheating of turbine blades does not occur
instantaneously once the generator starts acting as a
motor.
• In case of an internal fault, differential protection acts
instantaneously. At that time bus feed the internal fault
and if reverse power also trips instantaneously, operators
will be in doubt about the reason of tripping.
• Sufficient time delay should be provided to prevent
undesired tripping during transient power reversals.
50
 Reverse Power Protection
 Protective Scheme
• Low forward-power relays,
32GR, 32GY, and 32GB
remain in operated
condition during normal
operation of alternator.
• These relays are set to drop
off when the forward power
reduces below 0.5-3% of the
rated power of alternator.

51
 Reverse Power Protection
 DC Control circuit
• On reversal of power,
32G(R/Y/B) drop off in
protection circuit which
leads to de-energization of
the auxiliary relay 32GX.
• When 32GX de-energizes,
its contact 32GX-1 starts
the timer 2/32-G. After
pre-set time delay,
alternator trips.
52
 Field Failure Protection (40)
• Causes: Faulty field breaker OR failure of the exciter.

• 1st Impact:
• When generator loses its field, its speed increases and it
will act an IG. Therefore, induced currents will be
generator in the rotor. These rotor currents will overheat
the rotor core. The time to reach high rotor overheating
depends on the rate of slip.

53
 Field Failure Protection (40)
• 2nd Impact:
• When generator speed increases, it takes a higher share
of the load w.r.t. other generators of the system. Hence,
stator current increases which in turn overheat stator and
its windings. The magnitude of stator current depends on
the speed of the generator.

54
 Field Failure Protection (40)
• 3rd Impact:
• When generator loses excitation, it draws reactive power
from the system. Before loss of excitation, the generator
was supplying reactive power to the system. Hence, the
total reactive power load on the system will be nearly
double than the reactive power supplied by the generator
earlier. If the system is unable to feed this large reactive
power requirement, it will be unstable resulting in
collapse of voltage.
55
 Field Failure Protection (40)
• 3rd Impact:
• Quick AVRs can relieve the system to a great extent.
However, this relief depends on the rate and amount of
voltage reduction. Due to this reason, Field Failure relay is
always accompanied by an undervoltage relay.

56
 Why Field Failure Protection (40) is time delayed?
• 3rd Impact:
• If the system is capable of supplying additional reactive
power to the generator (the field of which has failed),
there is no risk of system instability. There is no
immediate danger to the generator operating as an IG. If
steps are taken to shed the load automatically, this
situation can be tolerated for several minutes. Hence,
field failure protection is a time delayed and class B
protection.
57
 Protective Scheme
• When the excitation is lost, the equivalent generator
impedance traverses a path from the 1st quadrant in to 4th
quadrant (generator starts running at a super-
synchronous speed).
• Hence, the MHO relay with its characteristic in the
negative reactance area is best suited.

58
Protective Scheme
• It is usual to offset the
𝑋𝑋𝑑𝑑′
relay characteristic by .
2
Its diameter = 𝑋𝑋𝑆𝑆 .
• Hence, the mal-operation
during power swing and
loss of synchronism is
prevented.

59
 Protective Scheme
• It is not always necessary to isolate the generator from
the system immediately after the operation of loss of field
relay unless there is a danger of system instability.
• Thus the relay should be arranged to operate
instantaneously in case of collapse in system voltage.
• The U/V relay is set to drop-off if the voltage drop below
70% of the normal voltage.

60
Thank You

61