One Dimensional Problem with Schrödinger equation

Free particle in quantum mechanics:

In quantum mechanics, a free particle is one that is not subject to any external potential,
meaning 𝑉(𝑥) = 0 (in one dimension). The behavior of such a particle is governed by the time-
independent Schrödinger equation (TISE) and the time-dependent Schrödinger equation
(TDSE).
1. Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation (TISE)
For a free particle (𝑉(𝑥) = 0), the TISE in one dimension is:
ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜓(𝑥)
− = 𝐸𝜓(𝑥)
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
This can be rewritten as:
𝑑 2 𝜓(𝑥)
+ 𝑘 2 𝜓(𝑥) = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
√2𝑚𝐸
where 𝑘 = is the wavenumber.
ℏ

General Solution
The general solution is a superposition of plane waves:
𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥
• 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 represents a wave moving to the right (positive 𝑥-direction).
• 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 represents a wave moving to the left (negative 𝑥-direction).
Energy Eigenvalues
The energy 𝐸 is continuous and given by:
ℏ2 𝑘 2
𝐸=
2𝑚
Since there is no potential, the energy spectrum is continuous (unbound states).
2. Time-Dependent Solution
The full wavefunction 𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡) is obtained by multiplying 𝜓(𝑥) by the time evolution factor
𝑒 −𝑖𝐸𝑡/ℏ :

𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) + 𝐵𝑒 𝑖(−𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡)

 𝐸 ℏ𝑘 2
where 𝜔 = = .
ℏ 2𝑚

This represents a combination of right-moving and left-moving plane waves.

3. Physical Interpretation
• Momentum Eigenstates: The free particle solutions 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 are eigenstates of the
∂
momentum operator 𝑝̂ = −𝑖ℏ ∂𝑥, with eigenvalue 𝑝 = ℏ𝑘.
• Wave-Packet Solutions: A single plane wave is not normalizable (infinite extent). A
physically realistic free particle is described by a wave packet, a superposition of plane
waves:
∞
1
𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∫ 𝜙 (𝑘)𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑘
√2𝜋 −∞

where 𝜙(𝑘) is the momentum-space wavefunction.

4. Key Observations
• No Quantization: Since 𝐸 can take any positive value, energy is not quantized for a free
particle.
• Uncertainty Principle: A pure momentum state (𝛥𝑝 = 0) implies 𝛥𝑥 → ∞, meaning the
particle is completely delocalized.
• Group Velocity: The velocity of a wave packet is given by the group velocity 𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝜔 ℏ𝑘 𝑝
= = 𝑚, consistent with classical mechanics.
𝑑𝑘 𝑚

Conclusion
The free particle in quantum mechanics is described by plane-wave solutions with continuous
energy and momentum. While idealized plane waves are non-normalizable, physically
meaningful states are constructed using wave packets that localize the particle while respecting
the uncertainty principle.

Particle in a potential(step,square well etc) barrier:

In quantum mechanics, particles encountering potential barriers or wells (like step potentials,
square wells, or barriers) exhibit wave-like behavior, leading to phenomena such as tunneling
and quantized energy levels. Below, we discuss key cases:
1. Step Potential (Finite or Infinite)
(a) Infinite Step Potential (Hard Wall)
• Potential:
0 if 𝑥 < 0 (Region I)
𝑉(𝑥) = {
∞ if 𝑥 ≥ 0 (Region II)
• Solution:
 o Region I (𝑥 < 0):
𝜓𝐼 (𝑥) = 𝐴sin(𝑘𝑥) + 𝐵cos(𝑘𝑥) (or exponentials)
Boundary condition 𝜓(0) = 0 ⇒ 𝐵 = 0.
⇒ 𝜓𝐼 (𝑥) = 𝐴sin(𝑘𝑥).
o Region II (𝑥 ≥ 0): 𝜓𝐼𝐼 (𝑥) = 0 (wavefunction cannot penetrate infinite barrier).
• Energy Quantization:
If confined in a box [0, 𝐿], energy levels are:
𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
𝐸𝑛 = , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, . ..
2𝑚𝐿2
(b) Finite Step Potential
• Potential:
0 if 𝑥 < 0 (Region I)
𝑉(𝑥) = {
𝑉0 if 𝑥 ≥ 0 (Region II)
• Case 1: 𝐸 > 𝑉0 (Scattering State)
o Region I: Incoming + reflected waves
√2𝑚𝐸
𝜓𝐼 (𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 , 𝑘=
ℏ
o Region II: Transmitted wave
′ √2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉0 )
𝜓𝐼𝐼 (𝑥) = 𝐶𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 , 𝑘′ =
ℏ
o Transmission (T) & Reflection (R) Coefficients:
2
4𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑘 − 𝑘′
𝑇= , 𝑅=( )
(𝑘 + 𝑘 ′ )2 𝑘 + 𝑘′
• Case 2: 𝐸 < 𝑉0 (Quantum Tunneling)
o Region I: Oscillatory solution
√2𝑚𝐸
𝜓𝐼 (𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 , 𝑘=
ℏ
o Region II: Exponentially decaying
√2𝑚(𝑉0 − 𝐸)
𝜓𝐼𝐼 (𝑥) = 𝐶𝑒 −𝜅𝑥 , 𝜅=
ℏ
o Tunneling Probability: Non-zero chance to find particle in 𝑥 > 0:
∣ 𝑇 ∣2 ∝ 𝑒 −2𝜅𝐿 (if barrier has width 𝐿)
2. Square Well Potential
(a) Infinite Square Well (Particle in a Box)
• Potential:
0 if 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿
𝑉(𝑥) = {
∞ otherwise
 • Wavefunctions & Energies:
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
𝜓𝑛 (𝑥) = √ sin ( ), 𝐸𝑛 =
𝐿 𝐿 2𝑚𝐿2
(Quantized energy levels due to boundary conditions.)
(b) Finite Square Well (Bound States)
• Potential:
−𝑉 if − 𝐿/2 < 𝑥 < 𝐿/2
𝑉(𝑥) = { 0
0 otherwise
• Bound States (𝐸 < 0):
o Inside well: Oscillatory solutions 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴cos(𝑘𝑥) (even) or 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐵sin(𝑘𝑥)
(odd).
o Outside well: Exponentially decaying 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐶𝑒 −𝜅∣𝑥∣ .
o Quantization condition from matching 𝜓 and 𝜓′ at boundaries.
3. Potential Barrier (Tunneling)
• Potential:
𝑉0 if 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿
𝑉(𝑥) = {
0 otherwise
• Case 𝐸 < 𝑉0 (Tunneling):
o Transmission Probability:
16𝐸(𝑉0 − 𝐸) −2𝜅𝐿 √2𝑚(𝑉0 − 𝐸)
𝑇≈ 𝑒 , 𝜅 =
𝑉02 ℏ
(Non-zero probability to penetrate barrier!)
Key Observations
1. Quantization: Infinite/finite wells have discrete energy levels.
2. Tunneling: Finite barriers allow particles to "leak" through classically forbidden regions.
3. Scattering: Step potentials lead to partial reflection/transmission.

Reflection and Transmission Coefficients in Quantum:

1. Key Definitions
• Reflection Coefficient (𝑅): Probability the particle is reflected.
• Transmission Coefficient (𝑇): Probability the particle is transmitted.
• Conservation: 𝑅 + 𝑇 = 1 (for unitary time evolution).
2. Step Potential (𝑉(𝑥) = 0 for 𝑥 < 0, 𝑉(𝑥) = 𝑉0 for 𝑥 ≥ 0)
(a) Case 𝐸 > 𝑉0
• Wavevectors:
√2𝑚𝐸 √2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉0 )
𝑘= , 𝑘′ =
ℏ ℏ
• Coefficients:
 2
𝑘 − 𝑘′ 4𝑘𝑘 ′
𝑅=( ) , 𝑇=
𝑘 + 𝑘′ (𝑘 + 𝑘 ′ )2
• Behavior:
o If 𝐸 ≫ 𝑉0 , 𝑇 ≈ 1 (full transmission).
o If 𝐸 → 𝑉0+ , 𝑇 → 0.
(b) Case 𝐸 < 𝑉0
• Decay parameter:
√2𝑚(𝑉0 − 𝐸)
𝜅=
ℏ
• Coefficients:
𝑅 = 1, 𝑇 ≈ 0 (No steady-state transmission)
• Tunneling: Non-zero probability density in 𝑥 > 0, but no propagating wave.
3. Rectangular Barrier (𝑉(𝑥) = 𝑉0 for 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿)
(a) Case 𝐸 > 𝑉0
• Transmission:
−1
(𝑘 2 − 𝑘 ′2 )2 sin2 (𝑘 ′ 𝐿) √2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉0 )
𝑇 = [1 + 2 ′2
] , 𝑘′ =
4𝑘 𝑘 ℏ
• Resonances: 𝑇 = 1 when 𝑘 𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋 (constructive interference).
′

(b) Case 𝐸 < 𝑉0 (Tunneling)

• Transmission:
16𝐸(𝑉0 − 𝐸) −2𝜅𝐿 √2𝑚(𝑉0 − 𝐸)
𝑇≈ 2 𝑒 , 𝜅=
𝑉0 ℏ
• Exponential suppression: 𝑇 decays rapidly with 𝜅𝐿.
4. General Barrier (Arbitrary Shape)
• WKB Approximation:
𝑥
−2 ∫𝑥 2 𝜅 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 √2𝑚(𝑉(𝑥) − 𝐸)
𝑇≈𝑒 1 , 𝜅(𝑥) =
ℏ
where 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 are classical turning points.
5. Key Observations
1. Energy Dependence:

o 𝑇 increases as 𝐸 approaches 𝑉0 from below (tunneling).

o For 𝐸 > 𝑉0, 𝑇 oscillates due to interference.
2. Barrier Thickness:

o 𝑇 decays exponentially with 𝐿 for 𝐸 < 𝑉0 .

3. Applications:
o Alpha decay: Nuclei tunnel through Coulomb barrier.
o Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM): Measures surface electron density.
 o Quantum Dots: Resonant tunneling controls electron transport.

6. Example Calculation
Problem: A 1 eV electron encounters a 2 eV barrier of width 1 nm. Calculate 𝑇.
Solution:
1. Compute 𝜅:
√2(9.11 × 10−31 )(2 − 1)(1.6 × 10−19 )
𝜅= ≈ 5.12 × 109 m−1
1.05 × 10−34
2. Compute 𝑇:
16(1)(1) −2(5.12×109)(10−9)
𝑇≈ 𝑒 ≈ 4𝑒 −10.24 ≈ 4 × 3.5 × 10−5 ≈ 1.4 × 10−4
4

Final Notes
−1
𝑚𝛼2
• For delta potentials (𝑉(𝑥) = 𝛼𝛿(𝑥)), 𝑇 = (1 + 2ℏ2𝐸) .
• Multiple barriers can exhibit resonant tunneling (e.g., RTDs).

Energy Level Calculations in Quantum Mechanics:

Quantum systems with bound states (e.g., particles in potentials like wells or harmonic
oscillators) have discrete energy levels. Here’s how to calculate them for key potentials:
1. Infinite Square Well (Particle in a Box)
Potential:
0 if 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿
𝑉(𝑥) = {
∞ otherwise
Wavefunctions (standing waves):

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜓𝑛 (𝑥) = √ sin ( ), 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
𝐿 𝐿

Energy Levels:
𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
𝐸𝑛 =
2𝑚𝐿2
𝜋 2 ℏ2
• Ground state (𝑛 = 1): 𝐸1 = 2𝑚𝐿2
• First excited state (𝑛 = 2): 𝐸2 = 4𝐸1
• Scale dependence: 𝐸𝑛 ∝ 1/𝐿2 → Smaller box → Larger energy gaps.
2. Finite Square Well
Potential:
−𝑉 if − 𝐿/2 < 𝑥 < 𝐿/2
𝑉(𝑥) = { 0
0 otherwise
Bound States (𝐸 < 0):
1. Even Parity Solutions (𝜓(𝑥) = 𝜓(−𝑥)):

𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴cos(𝑘𝑥) (inside well), 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐵𝑒 −𝜅∣𝑥∣ (outside)

o Quantization Condition:
𝑘𝐿 √2𝑚(𝑉0 + 𝐸) √−2𝑚𝐸
𝑘tan ( ) = 𝜅, 𝑘 = , 𝜅=
2 ℏ ℏ
2. Odd Parity Solutions (𝜓(𝑥) = −𝜓(−𝑥)):

𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴sin(𝑘𝑥) (inside), 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐵𝑒 −𝜅∣𝑥∣ (outside)

o Quantization Condition:
𝑘𝐿
𝑘cot ( ) = −𝜅
2
Numerical Solution Required: Solve transcendental equations graphically or numerically.
3. Harmonic Oscillator
Potential:
1
𝑉(𝑥) = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2
2
Energy Levels (Equally spaced):
1
𝐸𝑛 = (𝑛 + ) ℏ𝜔, 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …
2
1
• Zero-point energy: 𝐸0 = 2 ℏ𝜔 (ground state).
• Degeneracy: Non-degenerate (1D).
4. Hydrogen Atom (Coulomb Potential)
Potential:
𝑒2
𝑉(𝑟) = −
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
Energy Levels (Bohr formula):
13.6 eV
𝐸𝑛 = − , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
𝑛2
 • Degeneracy: 𝑛2 -fold degenerate (includes angular momentum states).

5. General Approach for Bound States

1. Solve the TISE:
ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜓
− + 𝑉(𝑥)𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐸𝜓(𝑥)
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
2. Apply Boundary Conditions:
o 𝜓(𝑥) → 0 as 𝑥 → ±∞ (for bound states).
o Continuity of 𝜓(𝑥) and 𝜓′ (𝑥) at potential edges.
3. Quantization: Only certain 𝐸 yield normalizable solutions.
Example: Infinite Well Energy Calculation
Problem: An electron (𝑚 = 9.11 × 10−31 kg) is confined in a 1D box of width 𝐿 = 1 nm. Find
𝐸1 and 𝐸2 .
Solution:
𝜋 2 (1.05 × 10−34 )2
𝐸1 = −31 −9 2
≈ 6.02 × 10−20 J ≈ 0.376 eV
2(9.11 × 10 )(10 )
𝐸2 = 4𝐸1 ≈ 1.50 eV
Key Takeaways
• Infinite Well: 𝐸𝑛 ∝ 𝑛2.
• Finite Well: Numerical solution needed.
• Harmonic Oscillator: Equally spaced levels.
• Hydrogen Atom: 𝐸𝑛 ∝ −1/𝑛2 .

Quantum Tunneling Through a Potential Barrier:

Quantum tunneling is a phenomenon where a particle passes through a classically forbidden
region (where its kinetic energy 𝐸 is less than the potential energy 𝑉0). This is impossible in
classical mechanics but allowed in quantum mechanics due to the wave nature of particles.
1. Rectangular Potential Barrier
Consider a barrier of height 𝑉0 and width 𝐿:
0 if 𝑥 < 0 (Region I)
𝑉(𝑥) = {𝑉0 if 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿 (Region II)
0 if 𝑥 > 𝐿 (Region III)
Case: 𝐸 < 𝑉0 (Tunneling Regime)
• Incident particle energy 𝐸 is less than 𝑉0.
• Classically, the particle would be reflected.
• Quantum mechanically, there's a non-zero probability of transmission.
2. Wavefunctions in Each Region
(a) Region I (𝑥 < 0): Incident + Reflected Wave

√2𝑚𝐸
𝜓𝐼 (𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 , 𝑘=
ℏ
• 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 : Incoming wave (incident particle).
• 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 : Reflected wave.
(b) Region II (0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿): Exponentially Decaying

√2𝑚(𝑉0 − 𝐸)
𝜓𝐼𝐼 (𝑥) = 𝐶𝑒 𝜅𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 −𝜅𝑥 , 𝜅=
ℏ
• 𝑒 −𝜅𝑥 : Decaying solution (physically meaningful).
• 𝑒 𝜅𝑥 : Growing solution (discarded for 𝑥 → ∞).
(c) Region III (𝑥 > 𝐿): Transmitted Wave
𝜓𝐼𝐼𝐼 (𝑥) = 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥
• 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 : Transmitted wave (particle tunnels through).
3. Transmission Probability (𝑇)
By matching boundary conditions (𝜓 and 𝜓′ continuous at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝐿), we derive:
𝐹 2 1
𝑇 =∣ ∣ =
𝐴 𝑉 2 sinh2 (𝜅𝐿)
1+ 0
4𝐸(𝑉0 − 𝐸)
Approximation for Thick Barrier (𝜅𝐿 ≫ 1)
1
Since sinh(𝜅𝐿) ≈ 2 𝑒 𝜅𝐿 , the transmission simplifies to:

16𝐸(𝑉0 − 𝐸) −2𝜅𝐿
𝑇≈ 𝑒
𝑉02
Key Features
1. Exponential Dependence:
o 𝑇 ∝ 𝑒 −2𝜅𝐿 , meaning:
▪ Thicker barrier (𝐿 ↑) → 𝑇 decreases exponentially.
▪ Higher barrier (𝑉0 ↑) → 𝜅 ↑ → 𝑇 decreases.
2. Energy Dependence:
o As 𝐸 approaches 𝑉0, 𝑇 increases.
o For 𝐸 ≪ 𝑉0, 𝑇 becomes negligible.
4. Physical Interpretation
• Tunneling occurs because the wavefunction doesn’t vanish abruptly at the barrier; it
decays exponentially inside the barrier and has a small but finite amplitude on the other
side.
• No violation of energy conservation: The uncertainty principle allows transient
"borrowing" of energy 𝛥𝐸 for short times 𝛥𝑡 ∼ ℏ/𝛥𝐸.
5. Applications of Tunneling
1. Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM):
o A sharp tip is brought near a surface (~1 nm gap).
o Electrons tunnel from tip to surface, creating a measurable current.
o Used to image surfaces at atomic resolution.
2. Alpha Decay:
o An alpha particle escapes the nucleus by tunneling through the Coulomb barrier.
3. Semiconductor Devices:
o Tunnel diodes exploit tunneling for high-speed switching.
4. Nuclear Fusion in Stars:
o Protons tunnel through the Coulomb barrier to fuse into helium.
6. Example Calculation
Problem: An electron (𝑚 = 9.11 × 10−31 kg) with energy 𝐸 = 1 eV encounters a barrier of
height 𝑉0 = 2 eV and width 𝐿 = 1 nm. Calculate 𝑇.
Solution:
1. Compute 𝜅:
√2(9.11 × 10−31 )(2 − 1)(1.6 × 10−19 )
𝜅= ≈ 5.12 × 109 m−1
1.05 × 10−34
2. Compute 𝜅𝐿:
𝜅𝐿 = (5.12 × 109 )(10−9 ) = 5.12
3. Plug into 𝑇:
16(1)(1) −2(5.12)
𝑇≈ 𝑒 ≈ 4𝑒 −10.24 ≈ 4 × 3.5 × 10−5 ≈ 1.4 × 10−4
4
Conclusion: 𝑇 ≈ 0.014% (tiny but non-zero!).
7. Advanced Considerations
• Resonant Tunneling: Double-barrier structures can enhance 𝑇 at specific energies.
• WKB Approximation: Estimates 𝑇 for arbitrary smooth barriers:
 𝑥
−2 ∫𝑥 2 𝜅 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 √2𝑚(𝑉(𝑥) − 𝐸)
𝑇≈𝑒 1 , 𝜅(𝑥) =
ℏ

Summary
• Tunneling is a purely quantum effect where particles penetrate classically forbidden
regions.
• Transmission probability 𝑇 depends exponentially on barrier width and height.
• Applications range from microscopy to nuclear physics. the linear harmonic oscillator

The Linear Harmonic Oscillator in Quantum Mechanics:

The quantum harmonic oscillator (QHO) is one of the most important models in quantum
mechanics, describing systems near equilibrium (e.g., molecular vibrations, phonons in solids,
and quantum field theory). Unlike the classical harmonic oscillator, the QHO has discrete
energy levels due to quantization.
1. Classical vs. Quantum Harmonic Oscillator
Classical Quantum
Particle oscillates with continuous energy. Energy levels are quantized (𝐸 = (𝑛 + 1) ℏ𝜔).
𝑛 2
Motion described by 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴cos(𝜔𝑡). State described by wavefunctions 𝜓𝑛 (𝑥).
Energy can be zero (particle at rest). 1
Zero-point energy: 𝐸0 = 2 ℏ𝜔 (ground state).

2. Hamiltonian and Schrödinger Equation

The potential for a harmonic oscillator is:
1
𝑉(𝑥) = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2
2
The time-independent Schrödinger equation (TISE) becomes:
ℏ2 𝑑 2 1
[− 2
+ 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2 ] 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐸𝜓(𝑥)
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
3. Energy Levels (Quantization)
The QHO has equally spaced energy levels:
1
𝐸𝑛 = (𝑛 + ) ℏ𝜔, 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …
2
1
• Ground state (𝑛 = 0): 𝐸0 = 2 ℏ𝜔 (zero-point energy).
• Excited states: Each level increases by ℏ𝜔.
• Degeneracy: Non-degenerate (only one state per energy level in 1D).
4. Wavefunctions
The solutions 𝜓𝑛 (𝑥) are Hermite polynomials multiplied by a Gaussian:
𝑚𝜔 1/4 1 𝑚𝜔 2
𝜓𝑛 (𝑥) = ( ) 𝐻𝑛 (√ 𝑥) 𝑒 −𝑚𝜔𝑥 /2ℏ
𝜋ℏ √2𝑛 𝑛! ℏ

where 𝐻𝑛 are Hermite polynomials:

• 𝐻0 (𝜉) = 1
• 𝐻1 (𝜉) = 2𝜉
• 𝐻2 (𝜉) = 4𝜉 2 − 2
Key Features of 𝜓𝑛 (𝑥):
1. Ground State (𝑛 = 0):
𝑚𝜔 1/4 −𝑚𝜔𝑥 2 /2ℏ
𝜓0 (𝑥) = ( ) 𝑒
𝜋ℏ
o Gaussian distribution (most probable at 𝑥 = 0).
1
o Non-zero energy (𝐸0 = 2 ℏ𝜔) due to the uncertainty principle.
2. First Excited State (𝑛 = 1):

𝑚𝜔 1/4 𝑚𝜔 2
𝜓1 (𝑥) = ( ) √2 (√ 𝑥) 𝑒 −𝑚𝜔𝑥 /2ℏ
𝜋ℏ ℏ

o Odd function (node at 𝑥 = 0).

5. Ladder Operators (Algebraic Method)
The QHO can be solved elegantly using creation (𝑎† ) and annihilation (𝑎) operators:
𝑚𝜔 𝑖𝑝 𝑚𝜔 𝑖𝑝
𝑎=√ (𝑥 + ), 𝑎† = √ (𝑥 − )
2ℏ 𝑚𝜔 2ℏ 𝑚𝜔
• Hamiltonian in terms of 𝑎 and 𝑎† :
1
𝐻 = ℏ𝜔 (𝑎† 𝑎 + )
2
• Action on States:
o 𝑎† ∣ 𝑛⟩ = √𝑛 + 1 ∣ 𝑛 + 1⟩ (raises energy by ℏ𝜔).
o 𝑎 ∣ 𝑛⟩ = √𝑛 ∣ 𝑛 − 1⟩ (lowers energy by ℏ𝜔).
o 𝑎 ∣ 0⟩ = 0 (no state below ground state).
6. Key Observations
1. Zero-Point Energy:
 1
o The ground state has energy 2 ℏ𝜔, a direct consequence of the uncertainty
principle (𝛥𝑥𝛥𝑝 ≥ ℏ/2).
2. Equal Spacing:

o Levels are evenly spaced by ℏ𝜔, unlike the hydrogen atom (𝐸𝑛 ∝ −1/𝑛2 ).
3. Classical Limit:

o For large 𝑛, the quantum probability density resembles the classical distribution
(correspondence principle).
7. Applications
1. Molecular Vibrations:
o Diatomic molecules vibrate as QHOs near equilibrium.
2. Phonons in Solids:
o Lattice vibrations quantized as phonons (bosonic excitations).
3. Quantum Field Theory:
o Fields are treated as collections of harmonic oscillators.
8. Example Calculation
Problem: A quantum harmonic oscillator has 𝜔 = 1014 rad/s. Find the energy of the 𝑛 = 2 state.
Solution:
1 5
𝐸2 = (2 + ) ℏ𝜔 = (1.05 × 10−34 )(1014 ) ≈ 2.63 × 10−20 J ≈ 0.164 eV
2 2
Summary
1
• Energy Levels: 𝐸𝑛 = (𝑛 + 2) ℏ𝜔.
• Wavefunctions: Hermite polynomials × Gaussian.
• Ladder Operators: Simplify calculations and provide insight.
• Zero-Point Energy: Fundamental quantum effect.