Business Research Methods (KMBN 203)

Unit 2
Research Design
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. In fact, the research
design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted. it constitutes the blueprint for
the collection measurement and analysis of data. In keeping the above stated design decisions, one
may split the overall research design into the following parts.
1. The sampling design: Which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
given study.
2. The above observational design: which relates to the conditions under which the observation
is to be made?
3. The statistical Design: which concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed
and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed.
4. The operational design: which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in
the sampling, statistical and observational design can be carried out.
Need for and Importance of Research Design
Research design carries an important influence on the reliability of the results attained. It therefore
provides a solid base for the whole research. It is needed due to the fact that it allows for the smooth
working of the many research operations. This makes the research as effective as possible by providing
maximum information with minimum spending of effort, money and time. For building of a car, we
must have a suitable blueprint made by an expert designer. In a similar fashion, we require a suitable
design or plan just before data collection and analysis of the research project. Planning of design must
be carried out cautiously as even a small mistake might mess up the purpose of the entire project. The
design helps the investigator to organize his ideas, which helps to recognize and fix his faults, if any.
Features of the Research Design
1. It is a plan that specifies the source and types of information relevant to the research problem.
2. It is an outline that specifies the objectives of the study and the hypothesis Relevant to the
research questions.
• It is a blueprint specifying his methods to be adopted for gathering and analysing data.
3. It is a scheme defining the domain of generalisability.
Significance of Research Design
• It may lead in the desired type of study with useful conclusions.
• It may lead to more accurate results or help to reduce inaccuracy.
• It may lead to optimum efficiency and reliability.
• It may minimize the wastage of time and beating about the bush.
• It may minimize the uncertainty, confusing and practical hazards associated with research
problem.
• It may be helpful for the collection of research material and testing of hypothesis.
• A research design is a guidepost for research direction.

1
Use of a Good Research Design
A well-structured research design is essential for conducting effective and meaningful research. Here
are key reasons why a good research design is important:
1. Clarity and Focus
• Defines Objectives: A good research design clearly outlines the research objectives and
goals. This helps to maintain focus throughout the study.
• Guides Hypotheses: It provides a basis for formulating hypotheses that are specific,
measurable, and testable.
2. Consistency and Reliability
• Ensures Reliability: A well-planned research design ensures that the research methods
produce consistent results over repeated trials.
• Increases Validity: It enhances the validity of the research by accurately measuring what
is intended to be measured.
3. Efficient Resource Utilization
• Optimal Use of Resources: It helps in the efficient use of resources (time, money,
manpower) by planning the research process systematically.
• Avoids Redundancy: Prevents duplication of efforts and ensures that each step of the
research is necessary and contributes to the overall objectives.
4. Control and Manipulation
• Manages Variables: A good research design allows researchers to control and manipulate
variables effectively, especially in experimental research.
• Reduces Bias: It minimizes biases and errors, ensuring that the findings are objective and
credible.
5. Generalizability
• Broader Application: It enables the findings to be generalized to a larger population or
different contexts, thereby enhancing the relevance and impact of the research.
• External Validity: Ensures that the results are applicable beyond the specific study sample.
6. Data Collection and Analysis
• Systematic Data Collection: It provides a structured approach for data collection, ensuring
that the data gathered is relevant and sufficient for analysis.
• Appropriate Analysis Techniques: Guides the selection of appropriate statistical or
qualitative analysis techniques to interpret the data accurately.
7. Ethical Standards
• Adheres to Ethics: A well-designed research project considers ethical issues, such as
informed consent, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw.
• Protects Participants: Ensures the safety and well-being of research participants,
maintaining the integrity of the research process.
8. Improves Credibility
• Builds Trust: A transparent and well-documented research design builds trust among
stakeholders, including participants, funding bodies, and the academic community.
• Enhances Reputation: Contributes to the researcher’s reputation by demonstrating
methodological rigor and adherence to ethical standards.
9. Provides a Roadmap

2
 • Step-by-Step Guide: Acts as a roadmap for conducting research, detailing each step from
defining the problem to reporting the findings.
• Facilitates Replication: Allows other researchers to replicate the study, verifying and
validating the findings, and contributing to the body of knowledge.
10. Decision-Making
• Informed Decisions: Facilitates informed decision-making by providing reliable data and
insights.
• Strategic Planning: Helps organizations in strategic planning and policy formulation
based on robust research evidence.
Qualitative and Quantitative Research Approaches
Understanding the differences between qualitative and quantitative research approaches is crucial for
conducting effective research. Each approach has its own set of methods, purposes, and characteristics.
Here’s an overview of both:
Qualitative Research
Purpose:
• To explore and understand the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human
problem.
• Provides in-depth insights into underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations.
Characteristics:
• Subjective: Focuses on the subjective experiences of participants.
• Exploratory: Used to explore complex phenomena that are difficult to quantify.
• Non-numeric Data: Involves collecting non-numeric data like words, images, or objects.
• Rich and Detailed: Provides rich, detailed descriptions and deep understanding of the
context.
Common Methods:
• Interviews: In-depth, semi-structured, or unstructured interviews to gather detailed
information.
• Focus Groups: Group discussions to explore participants' views on a specific topic.
• Observation: Participant or non-participant observation to gather data in a natural setting.
• Case Studies: In-depth study of a single case or a small number of cases.
Data Analysis:
• Thematic Analysis: Identifying and analysing themes or patterns within qualitative data.
• Content Analysis: Systematic coding and categorizing of textual information.
• Narrative Analysis: Analysing stories or personal accounts to understand how people
make sense of events.
Advantages:
• Depth of Understanding: Provides a comprehensive understanding of complex issues.
• Flexibility: Can adapt to changes during the research process.
• Contextual Insight: Offers insights into the context and environment of the study.
Disadvantages:

3
 • Time-Consuming: Data collection and analysis can be very time-consuming.
• Subjectivity: Results may be influenced by researcher bias.
• Limited Generalizability: Findings are often not generalizable to a larger population.
Quantitative Research
Purpose:
• To quantify the data and generalize results from a sample to the population of interest.
• Tests hypotheses, looks at cause-and-effect relationships, and makes predictions.
Characteristics:
• Objective: Focuses on objective measurements and statistical analysis.
• Structured: Uses structured methods like surveys and questionnaires.
• Numeric Data: Involves collecting numeric data that can be quantified.
• Generalizable: Aims to generalize findings to a larger population.
Common Methods:
• Surveys and Questionnaires: Structured tools to collect data from a large number of
respondents.
• Experiments: Controlled studies to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships.
• Secondary Data Analysis: Analysis of existing data collected for another purpose.
• Statistical Analysis: Use of statistical techniques to analyse numerical data.
Data Analysis:
• Descriptive Statistics: Summarizing the basic features of the data (e.g., mean, median,
mode).
• Inferential Statistics: Drawing conclusions from data that are subject to random variation
(e.g., t-tests, ANOVA).
• Regression Analysis: Examining relationships between variables.
Advantages:
• Large Sample Sizes: Can handle large amounts of data, enhancing the generalizability of
the results.
• Precision and Accuracy: Provides precise, numerical data that can be statistically
analysed.
• Replication: Easier to replicate studies due to structured methodology.
Disadvantages:
• Lack of Depth: May not provide detailed insights into complex issues.
• Rigidity: Less flexible and may not capture contextual nuances.
• Potential for Missing Variables: Important variables may be overlooked if not included
in the data collection process.
Aspects Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Purpose Explore and understand Quantify data, test hypotheses
meanings
Nature Subjective, exploratory Objective, conclusive
Data Type Non-numeric (words, images) Numeric (numbers, statistics)

4
 Methods Interviews, focus groups, case Surveys, experiments, secondary
studies data analysis
Flexibility High (adaptable) Low (structured)
Depth High (rich, detailed) Low (broad, superficial)
Generalizability Limited High
Sample Size Small Large
Time and Resource High Moderate to low
Intensive
Bias and Subjectivity High Low
Replicability Difficult Easy
Analysis Thematic, content, narrative Statistical analysis (descriptive,
analysis inferential)

Exploratory Research Design

Exploratory research design is used when a problem is not clearly defined or understood. It aims to
explore the research questions and gather preliminary data to establish a framework for more
conclusive research. The primary objective is to gain insights and familiarity with the subject matter
for developing hypotheses and guiding subsequent studies.
Characteristics:
• Flexible and adaptable to changes.
• Uses open-ended questions and qualitative data.
• Provides insights and understanding of the problem context.
• Often employs small, non-representative samples.
Types of Exploratory Research Design: Qualitative Techniques
1. Projective Techniques
Projective techniques involve presenting ambiguous stimuli to respondents, encouraging them to
project their underlying thoughts, feelings, and motivations. These techniques are used to uncover
subconscious or hidden aspects of respondents' attitudes and perceptions.
Types:
• Word Association: Respondents are presented with a list of words and asked to respond
with the first word that comes to mind.
• Sentence Completion: Respondents complete incomplete sentences in their own words.
• Storytelling: Respondents are asked to create a story based on a picture or scenario.
• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Respondents are shown ambiguous images and
asked to describe what they see or the story behind the image.
Pros:
• Reveals hidden motivations and attitudes.
• Encourages creative and spontaneous responses.
• Useful for sensitive topics.
Cons:
• Interpretation can be subjective and requires skilled analysts.

5
 • Responses may be influenced by the ambiguity of stimuli.
2. Depth Interview
Depth interviews involve one-on-one, in-depth conversations between a researcher and a respondent.
The goal is to explore the respondent’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences in great detail.
Types:
• Unstructured Interviews: No pre-determined questions, allowing for free-flowing
conversation.
• Semi-structured Interviews: Guided by a set of open-ended questions but allows for
flexibility in responses.
Pros:
• Provides detailed and rich qualitative data.
• Allows for probing and follow-up questions to gain deeper insights.
• Can explore complex and sensitive topics.
Cons:
• Time-consuming and labour-intensive.
• Data analysis can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of information.
• Potential for interviewer bias.
3. Experience Survey
Experience surveys gather insights from individuals who have relevant experience or expertise with
the research problem. This technique is used to obtain informed opinions and suggestions.
Types:
• Expert Interviews: Conversations with subject matter experts to gather specialized
knowledge.
• Key Informant Interviews: Discussions with individuals who have unique insights into
the issue being studied.
Pros:
• Provides expert opinions and informed perspectives.
• Can identify potential problems and solutions.
• Quick and cost-effective for obtaining initial insights.
Cons:
• Relies on the availability and willingness of experts.
• May not be representative of the broader population.
• Potential for bias if experts have strong opinions or vested interests.
4. Focus Groups
Focus groups involve moderated group discussions with 6-12 participants, aiming to explore their
perceptions, opinions, and attitudes towards a specific topic.
Types:
• Traditional Focus Groups: Conducted in-person with a trained moderator.

6
 • Online Focus Groups: Conducted virtually using video conferencing tools.
Pros:
• Encourages interaction and discussion among participants.
• Generates diverse perspectives and ideas.
• Can identify consensus or disagreements within a group.
Cons:
• Group dynamics can influence individual responses.
• Dominant participants may overshadow quieter ones.
• Requires skilled moderation to manage the discussion effectively.
5. Observations
Observational research involves systematically watching and recording behaviour and interactions in
natural settings without interfering.
Types:
• Participant Observation: The researcher actively engages with the participants while
observing.
• Non-participant Observation: The researcher observes without becoming involved.
• Structured Observation: Specific behaviours and interactions are recorded using a
predefined checklist.
• Unstructured Observation: Observations are made without predefined criteria, allowing
for a more holistic view.
Pros:
• Provides real-time, accurate data on actual behaviour.
• Reduces the risk of respondent bias.
• Useful for studying natural interactions and environments.
Cons:
• Time-consuming and may require prolonged engagement.
• Observer bias can affect the interpretation of data.
• Ethical concerns regarding privacy and consent.
Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive research design aims to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being
studied. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred; rather, it
addresses the "what" aspect. This type of research is concerned with describing the current state of
affairs and is often the precursor to other research methods, such as exploratory or explanatory
research.
Characteristics:
• Focuses on describing phenomena or characteristics of a group.
• Utilizes observational and survey methods.
• Often involves large sample sizes.
• Produces quantitative data but can include qualitative data for richer description.

7
Types of Descriptive Research Design
1. Survey Research
Survey research collects data from respondents using questionnaires or interviews. It's used to gather
information about people's attitudes, opinions, behaviours, or characteristics.
Types:
• Questionnaires: Structured forms with a set of questions, either open-ended or closed-
ended.
• Interviews: One-on-one conversations, which can be structured, semi-structured, or
unstructured.
Uses:
• Market research to understand consumer preferences.
• Public opinion polling.
• Assessing educational programs and interventions.
2. Observational Research
Observational research involves watching and recording behaviours and events as they occur naturally,
without manipulating any variables.
Types:
• Participant Observation: The researcher becomes part of the group being studied.
• Non-participant Observation: The researcher observes without becoming involved.
• Structured Observation: Uses predefined criteria for observing specific behaviours.
• Unstructured Observation: Observations are made without predefined criteria.
Uses:
• Studying social interactions and behaviours in natural settings.
• Analysing consumer behaviour in retail environments.
• Monitoring wildlife or ecological changes.
3. Case Study Research
Case study research involves an in-depth study of a single case or a small number of cases. It provides
detailed information about a specific individual, group, event, or situation.
Uses:
• Investigating complex phenomena in real-life contexts.
• Exploring new or unique cases that provide insights into broader principles.
• Developing in-depth understanding of particular issues or problems.
4. Developmental Research
Developmental research focuses on changes over time, typically in a specific individual, group, or
phenomenon. It often involves longitudinal or cross-sectional studies.
Uses:
• Understanding human development and growth patterns.
• Studying organizational change and development.

8
 • Examining changes in behaviour, attitudes, or performance over time.
Cross-Sectional Research
Cross-sectional research involves collecting data from a population at a single point in time. It provides
a snapshot of the current state of the population or phenomenon.
Characteristics:
• Measures variables at one point in time.
• Can be descriptive or analytical.
• Often used in surveys and observational studies.
Uses:
• Assessing the prevalence of health conditions or diseases.
• Examining the relationship between variables at a specific point in time.
• Market research to understand consumer behaviour and preferences.
Pros:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive to conduct.
• Useful for identifying associations between variables.
Cons:
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Limited to the specific point in time when data is collected.
Longitudinal Research
Longitudinal research involves collecting data from the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time.
It is used to study changes and developments over time.
Characteristics:
• Measures variables at multiple points in time.
• Can track changes and developments.
• Often involves long-term commitment and follow-up.
Types:
• Panel Studies: Follow the same individuals or groups over time.
• Cohort Studies: Follow individuals who share a common characteristic or experience
within a defined period.
Uses:
• Studying life course development and aging.
• Examining the long-term effects of interventions or treatments.
• Tracking changes in attitudes, behaviours, or health status.
Pros:
• Can establish temporal sequences and causality.
• Provides comprehensive data on changes over time.
Cons:
• Time-consuming and expensive.

9
 • Subject to attrition, as participants may drop out over time.
Experimental Research Design
Experimental design is a systematic method used to determine the cause-and-effect relationships
between variables. It involves manipulating one or more independent variables to observe the effect
on dependent variables while controlling for extraneous factors. This approach helps establish causal
relationships and allows for testing hypotheses in controlled settings.
Key Concepts
1. Cause and Causal Relationship
Cause:
A cause is an event, condition, or factor that brings about an effect or result. In experimental research,
establishing a cause involves demonstrating that changes in one variable (the independent variable)
directly lead to changes in another variable (the dependent variable).
Causal Relationship:
A causal relationship exists when a change in one variable directly results in a change in another
variable. Establishing causality requires demonstrating three key conditions:
• Temporal Precedence: The cause must precede the effect in time.
• Covariation of Cause and Effect: Changes in the cause must be associated with changes in
the effect.
• Elimination of Alternative Explanations: No other variables should explain the relationship
between the cause and effect.
2. Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent Variable (IV):
The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent
variable. It is considered the "cause" in the cause-and-effect relationship.
Dependent Variable (DV):
The variable that is measured or observed to assess the effect of the independent variable. It is
considered the "effect" in the cause-and-effect relationship.
Example: In a study examining the effect of a new teaching method (IV) on student performance
(DV), the teaching method is manipulated to observe changes in student performance.
3. Concomitant Variable
Concomitant variables, also known as covariates, are variables that are not the primary focus of the
study but may influence the dependent variable. These variables are measured and accounted for in
the analysis to control their potential impact on the results.
Example: In a study on the effect of a weight loss program (IV) on body weight (DV), physical activity
level might be a concomitant variable that needs to be controlled.
4. Extraneous Variable

10
Extraneous variables are variables other than the independent variable that might affect the dependent
variable. If not controlled, these variables can introduce bias and confound the results of the
experiment.
Types:
• Controlled Extraneous Variables: Variables that the researcher identifies and controls to
prevent their influence on the DV.
• Uncontrolled Extraneous Variables: Variables that are not identified or controlled,
potentially confounding the results.
Example: In a study on the effect of a new drug (IV) on blood pressure (DV), factors like diet, stress
levels, and exercise are extraneous variables that should be controlled.
5. Treatment
Treatment refers to the specific intervention or condition that is applied to the experimental group(s)
in an experiment. It represents the manipulation of the independent variable.
Example: In a clinical trial, the treatment might be the administration of a new medication to
participants in the experimental group.
6. Control Group
The control group is a group of participants who do not receive the experimental treatment. This group
serves as a baseline to compare the effects of the treatment and helps control for extraneous variables.
Types:
• No-Treatment Control Group: Participants receive no intervention.
• Placebo Control Group: Participants receive a placebo treatment that has no therapeutic
effect.
• Active Control Group: Participants receive a standard treatment or intervention for
comparison with the experimental treatment.
Example: In a study examining the effect of a new diet on weight loss, the control group might follow
their usual diet while the experimental group follows the new diet plan.

11