Variable Head Flow Meters

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answer these questions in detail from the subject

instrumentation

Great! Let's go through the questions one by one from the subject Instrumentation,
specifically focusing on flow measurement topics. I’ll start by answering the first few
questions in detail:

4. What are variable head flow meters? Explain their principle of

working citing suitable examples.
Variable Head Flow Meters are devices that measure the flow rate of a fluid by observing
the change in pressure (head) as the fluid flows through a restriction in the flow path.

Principle: They work on Bernoulli's theorem, which states that the total mechanical energy
of the flowing fluid remains constant. When the fluid passes through a constriction (like an
orifice, venturi, or nozzle), its velocity increases, and the pressure decreases. The difference
in pressure before and after the restriction is proportional to the square of the flow rate.

Common Types:

Venturimeter

Orifice meter

Flow nozzle meter

2ΔP
Formula (generalized): Q =C ⋅A⋅ ρ
Where:
​ ​

Q = flow rate
C = coefficient of discharge
A = cross-sectional area
ΔP = pressure difference

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 ρ = fluid density

Example: A venturimeter is used in water pipelines to monitor flow rates in industries and
water treatment plants.

5. Describe the construction and working of a Venturimeter. Derive

the expression for actual flow rate for incompressible fluids.
Construction:

Converging Section: Entry point where fluid velocity increases.

Throat: Narrowest section; maximum velocity and minimum pressure.

Diverging Section: Gradual expansion to recover pressure.

Working:

When fluid enters the venturi, it accelerates in the converging section, and pressure
drops.

The pressure difference between the inlet and throat is measured using a differential
manometer.

Derivation:

Using Bernoulli's equation and continuity:

P1 v12 P2 v22
+ = +
​ ​
​ ​

ρg 2g ρg 2g
​ ​ ​ ​

A2
A 1 v1 = A 2 v2 ⇒ v1 =
​ ​ ​ ​ ​
​

​
v
A1 2
​ ​

Substitute in Bernoulli’s:

ΔP = ρ2 (v22 − v12 ) ​ ​ ​

Final expression for discharge:

2ΔP
Q = Cd A 2
ρ(1 − (A2 /A1 )2 )
​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​

Where Cd is the discharge coefficient (typically 0.98).

​

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6. Describe the different types of orifice plates giving their
applications.
Orifice Plates are thin plates with a hole in the middle, used to create a pressure drop to
measure flow rate.

Types:

1. Concentric Orifice – Circular hole in the center; used for clean liquids and gases.

2. Eccentric Orifice – Hole offset from the center; suitable for fluids with solid particles or
sludge.

3. Segmental Orifice – A segment-shaped opening; also used for dirty fluids.

4. Quadrant Edge Orifice – Used for low Reynolds number flows (laminar flow).

Applications:

Used in petrochemical plants, refineries, HVAC systems, and water distribution

systems.

Would you like me to continue answering questions 7–21 next in sequence, or do you want
me to focus on a few specific ones you're finding tricky?

yes continue

Perfect! Let's continue from Question 7 onward:

7. Describe the arrangement for measurement of actual flow rate

with the help of orifice meters. Derive the expression for the actual
flow rate.
Orifice Meter Arrangement:

It consists of a thin plate with a central hole (orifice) installed in a pipeline.

Pressure tapping points are placed upstream and downstream of the orifice plate.

A differential pressure manometer (U-tube or electronic) measures the pressure drop.

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Working Principle: Based on Bernoulli’s equation and continuity equation.

Let:

A1 = upstream area
​

A2 = orifice area
​

ΔP = P1 − P2
​ ​

Continuity:

A2
Q = A 1 v1 = A 2 v2 ⇒ v1 =
​

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ v2 ​ ​

A1 ​

Bernoulli’s Equation:

1 1 1
P1 + ρv12 = P2 + ρv22 ⇒ ΔP = ρ(v22 − v12 )
2 2 2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Solving gives:

2ΔP
Q = Cd A 2
ρ(1 − (A2 /A1 )2 )
​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​

Where Cd is the discharge coefficient, accounting for losses.

​

8. What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of Venturi,

Orifice, and Flow Nozzle meters?

Meter Type Advantages Disadvantages

Venturimeter High accuracy, low pressure loss, suitable Expensive, bulky, needs long pipe
for dirty fluids lengths

Orifice Meter Simple, cheap, easy to install High pressure loss, less accurate,
prone to wear

Flow Nozzle Better than orifice in pressure recovery, Less accurate than venturi, costlier
Meter compact than orifice

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9. Describe the construction of a Pitot tube and show how it can be
used for measurement of velocity of a fluid flowing in a pipe. Describe
its advantages and disadvantages.
Construction:

A straight tube facing the flow (measures stagnation pressure).

A second hole on the side measures static pressure.

Working:

Based on Bernoulli’s principle.

The difference in pressures gives the dynamic pressure.

2(Pt − Ps )
v=
​ ​

​ ​

Where:

Pt = total (stagnation) pressure

​

Ps = static pressure
​

Advantages:

Simple and inexpensive

Minimal pressure drop

Disadvantages:

Only suitable for clean and steady flows

Sensitive to alignment

10. Describe the construction and working of an Annubar tube used

for flow measurements. Describe its advantages and disadvantages.
Annubar Tube:

A multi-port version of the Pitot tube.

Has several pressure sensing holes along its length for more accurate readings.

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 Measures both static and total pressure at multiple points.

Working:

Uses pressure difference between total and static to compute velocity.

Flow rate is then calculated using:

2ΔP
Q=C ⋅A⋅ ​ ​

Advantages:

More accurate than Pitot tube

Can be inserted into existing pipelines

Disadvantages:

Higher cost

Needs proper calibration

11. Describe how weirs and flumes can be used for measurement of
flow in open channels.
Weirs:

A notch or barrier across an open channel.

Flow rate is related to the height of fluid over the weir.

Types:

Rectangular, Triangular (V-notch), Cipolletti

Discharge Formula (Rectangular Weir):

2
Q= Cd b 2g h3/2
3
​ ​ ​

Where b = width of weir, h = head of water

Flumes:

Constricted channels (like Parshall flumes) to measure flow.

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 Create acceleration and pressure drop without impeding flow.

Advantages:

Accurate for open channel flows

Minimal flow resistance (especially in flumes)

Let me continue with questions 12 to 16 next. Let me know if you want them all at once or in
smaller batches!

answer all

Alright Janhavi, here are the detailed answers for questions 12 to 21 from your
Instrumentation subject — especially focusing on flow measurement techniques:

12. Explain how variable head meters can be used for measurement
of velocity and mass flow rate of compressible fluids. Derive the
expression for flow rate explaining the assumptions made.
Variable Head Meters (like orifice and venturi meters) can measure compressible flow (e.g.,
gases) by using modified Bernoulli’s equations.

Assumptions:

Isentropic (no heat transfer)

Steady flow

Negligible friction losses

Mass flow rate ṁ is:

ṁ = Cd A
​ 2ρΔP ​

For compressible fluids, the flow rate depends on pressure and temperature. The equation
becomes:

2/γ (γ+1)/γ
[( ) ]
2γP1
−( )
P2 P2
ṁ = Cd A
​ ​

(γ − 1)
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

P1 ​ P1 ​

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Where:

γ = ratio of specific heats

P1 , P2 = upstream and downstream pressures
​ ​

13. Describe the construction and working of a Rotameter. Derive the

expression for the volume flow rate. Explain its advantages and
disadvantages.
Construction:

Vertically tapered tube

Float inside the tube moves up/down depending on flow

Working:

As flow increases, the float rises until upward drag force balances float’s weight.

Flow rate is proportional to float’s height.

Flow Rate:

Q = kA 2g(hf − h)
​ ​

Where:

k = calibration constant
A = annular area around float
h = height

Advantages:

No power required

Simple, direct reading

Disadvantages:

Limited to vertical installation

Not suitable for opaque fluids

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14. Show that there exists a linear relationship between volume flow
rate and float displacement in a rotameter.
From equilibrium:

Fbuoyancy + Fdrag = W eight

​ ​

As float rises, area A increases linearly with height → pressure drop remains constant → flow
rate becomes a function of height.

Thus, for small displacements:

Q∝h

So, flow rate Q is linearly proportional to float height h.

15. Describe the construction and working of an Electromagnetic Flow

Meter. Explain its advantages and disadvantages.
Construction:

A non-metallic pipe section with electrodes

Magnetic field applied perpendicular to fluid flow

Working:

Based on Faraday's Law:

E =B⋅v⋅d

Where:

E = induced EMF
B = magnetic field strength
v = fluid velocity
d = distance between electrodes

Advantages:

No pressure drop

Suitable for corrosive/dirty fluids

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 Accurate for low and high flows

Disadvantages:

Only works for conductive fluids

Costly

16. Explain the relative advantages and disadvantages of D.C. and A.C.
excitations used for Electromagnetic Flow Meters.

Excitation
Type Advantages Disadvantages

D.C. Simple, low noise at low frequency Electrolysis at electrodes, zero drift

A.C. Reduces electrode polarization, better More complex circuitry, susceptible to

stability external noise

17. What is a Hot Wire Anemometer? Describe its construction and

principle of working.
Construction:

Thin wire (platinum/tungsten) heated electrically

Placed in flow stream

Working:

Cooling of wire by fluid affects its resistance

Change in resistance is used to measure velocity

Modes:

1. Constant Temperature: Power adjusted to maintain wire temp.

2. Constant Current: Wire temp changes; voltage measured

Advantages:

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 High sensitivity

Fast response

18. Explain the constant temperature and constant current modes of

operation of Hot Wire Anemometers. Explain the advantages of
constant temperature mode.

Mode Description Advantages

Constant Maintains constant wire temp by adjusting Fast, stable, linear output
Temperature current

Constant Current Maintains fixed current, temp varies Simpler but slower
response

Advantage of CT Mode:

More accurate

Better for turbulent flows

Compensates for ambient temp variation

19. Describe the construction and working of Turbine Flow Meters.

Explain how the output is obtained in digital form for both flow rate
and total flow.
Construction:

Turbine rotor inside pipe

Magnetic/electrical pickups sense rotor rotation

Working:

Flow causes rotor to spin

Rotational speed ∝ flow velocity

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Digital Output:

Pulses generated per revolution

Flow rate = Pulse frequency

Total flow = Pulse count over time

Advantages:

High accuracy

Digital compatible

20. Explain the principle of working of a Vortex Shedding Meter.

Describe the different methods which can be used for measurement
of output.
Principle:

Obstacle in flow causes vortices (Kármán Vortex Street)

Frequency of vortex shedding ∝ velocity

Frequency:

St ⋅ v
f= ​

d
Where:

St = Strouhal number
d = bluff body width

Output Measurement:

Ultrasonic sensors

Pressure transducers

Piezoelectric sensors

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21. Describe the working of Ultrasonic Flow Meters. Explain their
construction and types used for measurement of flow.
Working:

Use ultrasound to measure flow velocity based on time of travel or Doppler shift.

Types:

1. Transit Time:

Measures time difference between two signals sent in opposite directions.

Best for clean fluids.

2. Doppler:

Measures frequency shift due to particles or bubbles.

Best for dirty or slurry flows.

Construction:

Pair of transducers placed on or around pipe

Signal sent through fluid, received and analyzed

Advantages:

Non-intrusive

No pressure drop

Let me know if you'd like a PDF of all these answers, or if you want to make a presentation
or notes from these. Happy to help!

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