THE CELL: THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Cells are the smallest structural and functional unit of living organisms. All living things, from
single-celled bacteria to complex multicellular organisms like humans, are composed of cells.
A living thing, whether made of one cell (like bacteria) or many cells (like a human), is called
an organism. Thus, cells are the basic building blocks of all organisms. Several cells of one
kind that interconnect with each other and perform a shared function form tissue; several tissues
combine to form an organ (your stomach, heart, or brain); and several organs make up an organ
system (such as the digestive system, circulatory system, or nervous system). Several systems
that function together form an organism (like a human being). There are many types of cells all
grouped into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. For example, both
animal and plant cells are classified as eukaryotic cells, whereas bacterial cells are classified
as prokaryotic.
A prokaryotic cell is a primitive type of cell that is characterized by the absence of a nucleus.
Furthermore, prokaryotes do not possess membrane-bound cellular organelles. Prokaryotes are
exclusively unicellular.
Eukaryotic cells are cells that possess a true nucleus along with membrane-bound organelles.
Eukaryotes can either be unicellular or multicellular.
 PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES

Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular

Cell size Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – Size ranges from 10 μm – 100
2.0 μm in diameter μm in diameter

Cell wall Usually present; chemically When present, chemically

complex in nature simple in nature

Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have Present

a nucleoid region in the cell

Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and Present. Comparatively

spherical in shape larger in size and linear in
shape

DNA arrangement Circular (Plasmid) Linear

Mitochondria Absent Present

Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles Present, cell organelles

absent present

Endoplasmic reticulum Absent Present

Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes

Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes Lysosomes and centrosomes

are absent are present

Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size
Ex: Vibrio cholerae, E.coli Ex: animal sperm cells, fungal
spores

Reproduction Asexual (Binary fission) Both asexual and sexual

(Mitosis)
Example Bacteria and Archaeabacteria Plant and Animal cell

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF A CELL

Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry
out life’s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus,
and cell organelles.
Cell Membrane
The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances in
and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell membrane is
present in all the cells.
The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such as the
cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
By structure, it is a porous membrane which permits the movement of selective substances in
and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects the cellular component from
damage and leakage.
It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.
Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from external
factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.
Cell Wall
The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin.
The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells (Absent in animal’s cell). It protects the
plasma membrane and other cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of
plant cells.
It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and
injuries.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are
suspended in this cytoplasm.
1. Nucleus
The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
2. Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry
out life’s processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are as
follows:
▪ Nucleolus
The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular
activities and cellular reproduction.
▪ Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the cell.
It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and
proteins.
▪ Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of materials
within the cell.
▪ Ribosome
Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.
▪ Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it produces
ATP – the cell’s energy currency.
▪ Lysosomes
Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in cell
renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.
▪ Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.
Functions of Cell
A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism.
Provides Support and Structure:
All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the organisms. The
cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide support and
structure to the organism. For eg., the skin is made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present
in the vascular plants is made of cells that provide structural support to the plants.
Allows Transport of Substances:
Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on
inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells.
Energy Production:
Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the
cells through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.
Aids in Reproduction:
A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis is termed as the asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form daughter
cells. Meiosis causes the daughter cells to be genetically different from the parent cells.
 Plant Cell & Animal Cell

Both animal and plant cells have mitochondria, but only plant cells have chloroplasts. Plants
don’t get their sugar from eating food, so they need to make sugar from sunlight. This process
(photosynthesis) takes place in the chloroplast. Once the sugar is made, it is then broken down
by the mitochondria to make energy for the cell. Because animals get sugar from the food they
eat, they do not need chloroplasts: just mitochondria.
Both plant and animal cells have vacuoles. A plant cell contains a large, singular vacuole that
is used for storage and maintaining the shape of the cell. In contrast, animal cells have many,
smaller vacuoles.
Plant cells have a cell wall, as well as a cell membrane. In plants, the cell wall surrounds the
cell membrane. This gives the plant cell its unique rectangular shape. Animal cells simply have
a cell membrane, but no cell wall.
STEM CELLS AND ITS APPLICATION
Stem cells are remarkable cells with the unique ability to develop into many different cell types
in the body during early life and growth. They serve as a sort of repair system for the body,
replenishing other cells as long as a person or animal is still alive. These cells have strong
healing power. There are two main types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells and adult stem
cells.
▪ Embryonic Stem Cells: The fertilized egg begins to divide immediately. All the cells in
the young embryo are totipotent cells (Totipotent Stem Cells: These can differentiate
into all possible types of stem cells). These cells form a hollow structure within a few
days. Cells in one region group together to form the inner cell mass. This contains
pluripotent cells that make up the developing foetus.

▪ Adult Stem Cells: These stem cells are obtained from developed organs and tissues.
They can repair and replace the damaged tissues in the region where they are located.
For eg., hematopoietic stem cells are found in the bone marrow. These stem cells are
used in bone marrow transplants to treat specific types of cancers.
 Applications of stem cells include:
▪ Regenerative medicine: Stem cells have the potential to repair or replace damaged
tissues and organs. This could be particularly useful in treating conditions such as spinal
cord injuries, heart disease, -iabetes, and arthritis.
▪ Disease modeling: Stem cells can be used to create disease models in the laboratory,
allowing researchers to study the underlying mechanisms of various diseases and
develop new drugs and therapies.
▪ Drug testing: Stem cells can be used to test the safety and efficacy of new drugs in the
laboratory, potentially reducing the need for animal testing and speeding up the drug
development process.
▪ Tissue engineering: Stem cells can be combined with biomaterials to create tissues and
organs for transplantation. This could help alleviate the shortage of donor organs and
reduce the risk of rejection by the recipient's immune system.
▪ Understanding development: Studying stem cells can provide insights into the
processes of development and differentiation in the embryo, shedding light on
fundamental biological processes.

BIOMOLECULES
Biomolecules are organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and small
amount of phosphate and sulphur. They play a major role in functioning of living organisms.

1. CARBOHYDRATES:
Carbohydrates are a diverse group of organic compounds made of Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen atoms. They are known as Saccharides.
These are primary source of energy for the body and plays a important role in cell structure
and numerous biological functions in organisms.

Carbohydrates are one of three macronutrients along with protein and fats, which includes
whole grain, legumes, vegetables, fruits, nuts which are rich in fiber, vitamin, minerals and
can provide more energy.

It is classified based on chemical structure and properties:

a) Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides are simple sugar molecules. They are made up of
a single sugar unit with a carbon chain of three to six carbons, and are composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
Ex: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose, Ribose.
b) Disaccharides: 2 Monosaccharides units are joined together by a glycosidic bond.
Ex: Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose
Lactose = Glucose + Galactose
Maltose = Glucose + Glucose
Commonly found in sweeteners and broken down into monosaccharides during
digestion.

c) Oligosaccharides: Oligosaccharides consist of a small number of monosaccharides

units (3-10) linked by glycosidic bonds.
They are found in Probiotics, nourishment for beneficial gut bacteria.
Ex: Raffinose and Fructo-oligosaccharide

d) Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of long chain

of monosaccharides units. They can be branched or unbranched and can contain 100-
1000 sugar molecules.
Polysaccharides are important for energy storage and structural support in living
organisms.
Ex: Starch, Cellulose (plants), Glycogen (animals)
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES:
• Energy production: primary role is to provide energy to all cells.
• Energy storage: When body has sufficient energy to support its functions, the excess
glucose in the body is stored as glycogen and stored in muscle and liver.
• Helps in regulation of blood glucose.
• Form structural frame work of DNA and RNA.
• Provide structural component cell wall in plants and exoskeleton in insects.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES:

• Food & Beverage: used as sweeteners, thickeners, stabilizers in food and beverage
products.
• Also used as energy source in sports drinks and energy bars.
• Pharmaceuticals: used as excipients. Used as a source of energy in medical nutrition
products.
• Cosmetics: used in products such as moisturizers, shampoos, conditioners to provide
hydration and improve skin and hair health.
• Biotechnology field: production of biodegradable plastics, biofuels and other renewable
energy source.
• Research: Carbohydrates are used as research tools in immunology, virology and
cellular biology field.

2. NUCLEIC ACIDS:
Nucleic acids are macro-biomolecules composed of monomeric units called as
Nucleotides which consists of 3 components:
a. Nitrogenous base: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine/Uracil.
b. Pentose sugar: deoxyribose-DNA
Ribose-RNA
c. Phosphate group
Sequence of nucleotides along the DNA or RNA strand forms the genetic code.
2 types of nucleic acids are:
i. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): DNA is a biomolecule with double stranded
helical structure.
It is a genetic material present and carriers the genetic instructions used in
development, functioning and reproduction of all organisms.
Four nucleotides present in DNA are:
Adenine (A) that pairs with Thymine (T) with two hydrogen bonds
Guanine (G) that pairs with Cytosine (C) with three hydrogen bonds.

ii. Ribonucleic acid (RNA): RNA is a biomolecule with single stranded structure.
Synthesised from DNA through a process Transcription.
Four nucleotides present in RNA are:
Adenine (A) that pairs with Uracil (U) with two hydrogen bonds
Guanine (G) that pairs with Cytosine (C) with three hydrogen bonds.
Messenger RNA (mRNA), Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and Transfer RNA (tRNA)
are the three types of RNA.
FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS:
• It is responsible for the synthesis of protein in our body.
• RNA is a vital component of Protein synthesis.
• Loss of DNA leads to disease.
• DNA is an essential component required for transferring genes from parents to
offspring.
• All information is stored in DNA.

3. PROTEIN:
Protein are large complex macromolecules made up of chains of smaller building
blocks called Amino acids.
They play a vital role in structure, function and regulation of cells, tissues and organs.
Also, in synthesis of enzymes, hormones and antibodies.
Protein is essential component of human diet and are commonly consumed as a source
of nutrition.
General intakes should be of 10-35% of total daily calorie.
Two types of protein sources are:
a. Complete proteins: These contains all the essential amino acids that body cannot
produce on its own. These are of high-quality and highly digestible.
Ex: Meat, fish, poultry, egg, dairy products.
 b. Incomplete proteins: these proteins may lack one or more essential amino acids.
Ex: Legumes (beans, lentils, chickpeas), soy products (tofu), whole grains, nuts and
seeds.

FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS:
i. Catalysing chemical reactions:
• Amylase – an enzyme that breaks down starch into simple sugars like
glucose and maltose. It is found in saliva and pancreatic juice.
• Lipase – an enzyme that breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. It is
found in the pancreas and small intestine.
• Catalase – an enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide into water and
oxygen. It is found in most cells of the body.
ii. Transporting molecules:
• Haemoglobin – is a protein found in red blood cells that transports oxygen
from lungs to tissues in the body.
• Albumin – is a protein found in blood plasma that help transport various
substances such as hormones, fatty acids, drugs throughout the body.
• Ferritin – is a protein that stores iron in a non-toxic form in the liver, spleen
and bone marrow.
iii. Providing mechanical support:
• Collagen – is the main structural protein in the body and provides support
to tissues such as skin, tendons, cartilage, bone and teeth.
• Keratin – is protein that forms the structural basis of hair, nails and outer
layer of skin.
• Elastin – is a protein that provides elasticity and stretchability to tissues such
as skin, lungs, arteries and ligaments.
• Actin & Myosin – are proteins that are involved in muscle contraction and
provide the mechanical force required for movement.
iv. Regulating cell behaviour:
• Transcription factors – are proteins that bind to DNA and regulate gene
expression.
• Adhesion proteins – are proteins that are involved in cell to cell & cell to
matrix adhesion. Play a role in tissue development and wound healing.
• Ion channels – are proteins that allow ions to move across the cell
membrane.

4. LIPIDS:
Lipids are class of biomolecules composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. Unlike,
carbohydrates lipids have a lower proportion of oxygen. Hence, they are non-polar in
nature, insoluble in water and hydrophobic.
Dietary sources are meat, dairy products, eggs, olive oil, coconut oil, nuts, seeds,
avocados, few fruits.
Excessive consumption such as saturated and trans-fat can have negative effect.
Types of lipids are:
a. Triglycerides: are main component of fats and oils. They are esters of glycerol and
three fatty acids. They are most common type of lipid and serve as a major energy
storage in the body.

b. Phospholipids: Phospholipids have a similar structure to triglycerides but one fatty

acid is replaced by a phosphate group. They are a major component of cell
membranes and play role in maintain their structure and function.

c. Sterols: Sterols are a type of lipid that have a specific multi-ring structure. They are
essential for production of hormones, bile acids and cell structure of cell
membranes. Ex: Cholesterol
d. Waxes: waxes are esters of long – chain fatty acids and long – chain alcohols. They
have protective functions in plants and animals, providing a waterproof coating.
FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS:
• Energy storage: Triglycerides serve as energy source. They store and release energy as
and when needed and act as fuels for cellular processes.
• Structural component: Phospholipids are fundamental component of cell membranes.
They form lipid bilayer that helps maintain the integrity and selective permeability of
cells.
• Insulation and protection: Adipose tissue, which is composed of fat cells act as
insulating layer helping regulate body temperature. Also provide padding and
protection to vital organs.
• Hormone production: Steroids, a class of lipid derived from cholesterol serve as
precursors of various hormones including sex hormones and adrenal hormones.
• Absorption of fat-soluble vitamins: Plays a role in absorption and transport of fat-
soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) in the body.
• Cellular signalling: Lipids, particularly certain types of Phospholipids act as signalling
molecules and are involved in cell communication and signal transduction pathways.
IMPORTANCE OF SPECIAL BIOMOLECULES
Biomolecules are vital for life as it aids organisms to grow, sustain, and reproduce. They are
involved in building organisms from single cells to complex living beings like humans, by
interacting with each other. The diversity in their shape and structure provides diversity in their
functions.
ENZYMES:
Enzymes can be defined as biological polymers that catalyse biochemical reactions. Ex:
Photosynthesis, oxidation, reduction, digestion, protein synthesis. Enzymes control the speed
and specificity of the reaction. Found in all tissues and fluid of the body.
Enzymes are a linear chain of amino acids, which give rise to a three-dimensional structure.
The sequence of amino acids specifies the structure, which identifies the catalytic activity of
the enzyme.
Enzyme classification:
Divided into six classes, based on type of reaction in which they catalyse:
 1. Oxidoreductase: The enzyme catalyses the oxidation reaction where the electrons tend
to travel from one form of a molecule to the other.
Ex: Alcohol dehydrogenase – converts alcohol into aldehyde/ketones.
2. Transferases: Transferase enzyme help in the transportation of the functional group
among acceptors and donor molecules.
Ex: Phosphofructokinase – kinases catalyse the transfer of a phosphate group.
3. Hydrolases: Hydrolases are enzymes which catalyse the hydrolysis reaction by adding
water to cleave the bond and hydrolyse it.
Ex: Lipases catalyse the hydrolysis of lipids.
Nucleases catalyse the hydrolysis of DNA & RNA.
4. Lyases: Lyases enzyme adds water, carbon dioxide or ammonia across double bonds or
eliminate these to create double bonds.
Ex: Fumarase – hydratases catalyse the addition of water.
Decarboxylase – catalyse the removal of carboxyl groups.
5. Isomerases: Isomerase are enzymes present in reactions in which compound is
converted to its Isomer.
Ex: Triose phosphate Isomerase – Isomerase may catalyse the conversion of an aldose
to a ketone.
6. Ligases: Ligases are enzymes present in reactions in which new bonds are formed
between carbon and another atom where energy is required.
Ex: Pyruvate Carboxylase – carboxylase catalyse the addition of carbon dioxide using
ATP.

FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES:
▪ They breakdown large molecules into smaller molecules that can be easily
absorbed by the body.
▪ Help in generating energy in the body. ATP synthase is the enzyme involved in
the synthesis of energy.
▪ Helps in speeding up metabolism or chemical reactions in our bodies.
▪ Vital role in the proper functioning of digestive system, nervous system,
muscular system etc.
VITAMINS
Vitamins are natural and essential nutrients, required in small quantities and play a major role
in growth and development, repair and healing wounds, maintaining healthy bones and tissues
for the proper functioning of an immune system and other biological functions.
Vitamins cannot be synthesised by our body. Therefore, we need to get them from the food we
consume.
Types of Vitamins based on solubility:
1. Fat-soluble vitamin: These are stored in the fat cells and these vitamins require fat in
order to be absorbed.
Ex: Vitamin A, D, E and K.
2. Water-soluble vitamin: These are not stored in our body as its excess gets excrete
through urine. Therefore, these vitamins needs to be replenished constantly.
Ex: Vitamin B and C.
 The best sources of vitamins include:
Vitamin A: Found in potato, carrots, pumpkins, spinach, beef and eggs.
Vitamin D: Found in fortified milk and other dairy products.
Vitamin E: Found in fortified cereals, leafy green vegetables, seeds, and nuts.
Vitamin K: Found in dark green leafy vegetables and in turnip or beet green.
Vitamin B1 or Thiamin: Found in pork chops, ham, enriched grains and seeds.
Vitamin B2 or Riboflavin: Found in whole grains, enriched grains and dairy products.
Vitamin B3 or Niacin: Found in mushrooms, fish, poultry, and whole grains.
Vitamin B5 or Pantothenic Acid: Found in chicken, broccoli, legumes and whole grains.
Vitamin B6 or Pyridoxine: Found in fortified cereals and soy products.
Vitamin B7 or Biotin: Found in many fruits like fruits and meats.
Vitamin B9 or Folic Acid: Found in leafy vegetables.
Vitamin B12: Found in fish, poultry, meat and dairy products.
Vitamin C: Found in citrus fruits and juices, such as oranges and grapefruits.

Main functions:
▪ Help the body maintain good health.
▪ Regulating the tissues and help in repairing cells.
▪ Fight against ageing.
▪ Formation of new cells.
▪ Keeping bones, teeth and nails healthy.
▪ Help the muscles and ligaments smoothly.

Deficiency diseases:
Vit A – Night Blindness
B1 – Dwarfism
B2 – disorder in digestive system, skin burning, cheilosis
B6 – convulsions, conjunctivitis
B12 – Anaemia
C – bleeding in gums, Scurvy
D – Improper bones, soft bones, rickets
E – weakness in muscles
K – role in blood clotting. Severe deficiency may cause death due to excessive blood loss in
cut or injury.

HORMONES
Hormones are various chemicals released within the human body that regulate and control the
activities of multiple organs. The introduction of hormones to the blood takes place via
endocrine glands.
Endocrine glands – Pituitary & adrenal glands, do not have ducts and deliver their secretions
through the blood straight to the site of action.
 TYPES:
1. Peptide hormones: These are composed of amino acids and are soluble in water.
Peptide hormones are unable to pass through the cell membrane as it contains a
phospholipid bilayer that stops any fat-insoluble molecules from diffusing into the cell.
Synthesised in rough ER.
Ex: Insulin, Oxytocin, Parathyroid hormone.
2. Steroid hormones: These are hormones derived from cholesterol and fat-soluble. And
these are able to pass through cell membrane.
Synthesised in smooth ER.
Ex: Sex hormones such as testosterone, estrogen and progesterone.

Functions of Hormones
▪ Food metabolism.
▪ Growth and development.
▪ Controlling thirst and hunger.
▪ Maintaining body temperature.
▪ Regulating mood and cognitive functions.
▪ Initiating and maintaining sexual development and reproduction.
Properties of Hormones
▪ Hormones have low molecular weight, thus can easily pass through blood capillaries.
▪ Hormones always act in low concentration.
▪ They are soluble in water so that they can be transported via blood.
▪ Do not influence any metabolic activities of a cell directly.
▪ After their function is over, they are readily destroyed, excreted or inactivated.
▪ Hormonal activities are not hereditary.
▪ Non-antigenic (biologically very active).