3.

1 Specialist and Generalist Species Learning Objective

Identify differences between
Specialists: generalist and specialist species.
Essential Knowledge
Smaller range of
1. Specialist species tend to be
tolerance, or narrower ecological advantaged in habitats that remain
niche makes them more prone to constant, while generalist species
tend to be advantaged in habitats
extinction that are changing.

Generalists:
Larger range of
tolerance, broader niche makes
them less prone to extinction & more
likely to be invasive
3.2 K-selected & r-selected species Learning Objective
Identify differences between K-selected
Reproductive strategies - think Quality versus Quantity and r-selected species.
Essential Knowledge
K-selected species – “quality”
1. K-selected species tend to be large, have
Few offspring, heavy parental care few offspring per reproduction event, live
to protect them
▰ Generally have fewer reproductive
in stable environments, expend significant
events than r-strategists energy for each offspring, mature after
▻ Ex: most mammals, birds many years of extended youth and parental
▰ Long lifespan, long time to sexual care, have long life spans/life expectancy,
maturity = low biotic potential =
slow pop. growth rate
and reproduce more than once in their
▻ More likely to be disrupted by lifetime. Competition for resources in K-
env. change or invasive selected species’ habitats is usually
relatively high.
r-selected species – “quantity” 2. r-selected species tend to be small, have
many offspring, expend or invest minimal
Many offspring, little to no care
energy for each offspring, mature early,
▰ May reproduce only once, but generally
reproduce many times throughout have short life spans, and may reproduce
lifespan only once in their lifetime. Competition for
▻ Ex: insects, fish, plants resources in r-selected species’ habitats is
▰ Shorter lifespan, quick to sexual
typically relatively low.
maturity = high biotic potential = high
pop. growth rate 3. Biotic potential refers to the maximum
▻ More likely to be invasive reproductive rate of a population in ideal
▻ Better suited for rapidly changing conditions.
env. conditions
4. Many species have reproductive strategies
that are not uniquely r-selected or K-
selected, or they change in different
conditions at different times.
5. K-selected species are typically more
adversely affected by invasive species than
r-selected species, which are minimally
affected by invasive species. Most invasive
species are r-selected species.

Biotic potential

the maximum reproductive

capacity of a species under ideal
environmental conditions,

assuming unlimited resources and

minimal environmental
constraints

The reproductive strategy

r-Selected species tend to be low biotic potential of a species is a product of
K-selected species tend to be high biotic potential adaptation and natural
selection.
3.3 Survivorship curves Learning Objective
Explain survivorship curves.
Essential Knowledge
1. A survivorship curve is a line that
displays the relative survival rates of a
cohort—a group of individuals of the
same age—in a population, from birth to
the maximum age reached by any one
cohort member. There are Type I, Type
II, and Type III curves.
2. Survivorship curves differ for K-selected
and r-selected species, with K-selected
species typically following a Type I or
Type II curve and r-selected species
following a Type III curve.

Survivorship Curve: line that shows survival rate of a cohort (group of same-aged
individuals) in a pop. from birth to death. Faster drop in line = quicker die-off of individuals
Slower drop in line longer avg. lifespan

Type I, II, and III

Type I (mostly K-selected)
High survivorship early in life due
to high parental care
▰ High survivorship in mid life due to
large size & defensive behavior
▰ Rapid decrease in survivorship in
late life as old age sets in
▻ Ex: most mammals

Type II (in between r & K)

Steadily decreasing survivorship
throughout life

Type III (mostly r-selected)

▰ High mortality (low survivorship) early
in life due to little to no parental care
▰ Few make it to midlife; slow, steady
decline in survivorship in mid life
▰ Even fewer make it to adulthood; slow
decline in survivorship in old age
▰ Ex: insects, fish, plants

K= carrying capacity (when

resources are limited)

r= maximum potential for growth

with unlimited resources
3.4 Carrying Capacity Learning Objectives
Carrying capacity (K): the max. Number of Describe carrying capacity.
individuals in a pop. that an ecosystem can
support (based on limiting resources)
Describe the impact of carrying
capacity on ecosystems.
Essential Knowledge
1. When a population exceeds its carrying
capacity (carrying capacity can be
denoted as K), overshoot occurs. There
are environmental impacts of population
overshoot, including resource depletion.
2. A major ecological effect of population
overshoot is dieback of the population
(often severe to catastrophic) because
the lack of available resources leads to
famine, disease, and/or conflict.

Carrying Capacity (K)

Die-off
Limiting resources:
Highest pop. size an ecosystem can
support based on limiting resources:
Example
▻ Food
▻ Water
▻ Habitat (nesting sites, space)
Overshoot:
when a population briefly
exceeds carrying capacity
▻ Ex: deer breed in fall, give birth all at
once in spring; sudden spike in pop. =
overshoot
Consequence of overshoot:
resource
depletion ex: overgrazing in deer
Die-off/die-back: sharp decrease in pop. Size, when resource depletion
(overshoot) leads to many individuals dying
▻ Ex: many deer starve with too
many new fawns feeding in

Predator-
Prey
1.
2.
Hare pop. increase due to low predator pop. (lynx)
Lynx pop. increase due to increase in food (hare)
3. Increasing lynx pop. limits hare pop; leads to die-
off
4. Hare die-off decreases lynx food source, leading to
die-off
5. Hare pop. increase due to low predator pop. (lynx)
K= carrying capacity (when resources are limited)

r= Biotic potential; maximum potential for growth

with unlimited resources
3.5 Pop. Growth & Resource Availability Learning Objective
Explain how resource availability
Population affects population growth.
Characteristics Essential Knowledge
Size (N): 1. Population growth is limited by
environmental factors, especially by
the available resources and space.
2. Resource availability and the total
Density: resource base are limited and finite
over all scales of time.
3. When the resources needed by a
population for growth are abundant,
population growth usually
accelerates.
Distribution: 4. When the resource base of a
population shrinks, the increased
potential for unequal distribution of
resources will ultimately result in
increased mortality, decreased
fecundity, or both, resulting in
population growth declining to, or
Sex ratio: below, carrying capacity.

Population Growth Biotic potential =

Factors
Density-Dependent Factors:
(tend to be biotic, have a strong influence
when the number of organisms per unit area
reaches a certain level)
Biotic potential = Logistic growth =

Density-Independent Factors:
(tend to be abiotic, have an effect on all
populations, regardless of size or density)

Calculating Population
Change K= carrying capacity (when
resources are limited)

r= maximum potential for growth

with unlimited resources
Population Size = (Immigrations + births) - (immigrations + deaths)
3.6 Age Structure Diagrams
Learning Objective
Explain age structure diagrams.
Essential Knowledge
1. Population growth rates can be
interpreted from age structure
diagrams by the shape of the structure.
2. A rapidly growing population will, as a
rule, have a higher proportion of
younger people compared to stable or
declining populations.

Age structure diagram =

population pyramid

Age cohorts:

46+ years old =

post-reproductive
_____________
15-45 years old =
reproductive age
_____________
0-14 years old =
pre-reproductive

Extreme Pyramid Less Extreme Pyramid House Inverted Pyramid

The size of the cohorts (shape of the structure) indicates growth rate
Look specifically at the size difference between 0-14 and 15-45.
- Larger 0-14 cohort =
- Roughly equal 0-14 & 15-45 =
- Larger 15-45 =
3.7 Total Fertility Rate Learning Objective
Explain factors that affect total fertility
TFR & Infant Mortality rate in human populations.
 Total Fertility Rate (TFR):
Essential Knowledge
1. Total fertility rate (TFR) is affected by
the age at which females have their
 Replacement Level Fertility: first child, educational opportunities for
females, access to family planning, and
government acts and policies.
2. If fertility rate is at replacement levels,
a population is considered relatively
 Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): stable.
3. Factors associated with infant mortality
rates include whether mothers have
access to good healthcare and
 Higher IMR = higher TFR, due to families having replacement children nutrition. Changes in these factors can
lead to changes in infant mortality rates
over time

Factors in IMR Decline

1. Access to
2. Access to
3. More

Factors that Affect Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

 Development (Affluence):

 Government Policy:

TFR
Developing nations = above 2.1
Developed nations = below 2.1
3.7 Daily Video 2:52
3.8 Human Population Dynamics Learning Objective
Explain how human populations
Thomas
experience growth and decline.
Malthus
Essential Knowledge
1. Birth rates, infant mortality rates, and
overall death rates, access to family
planning, access to good nutrition,
Does Earth Have a Human Carrying access to education, and postponement
of marriage all affect whether a human
Capacity?
population is growing or declining.
 Malthusian’s theory:
2. Factors limiting global human
population include the Earth’s carrying
capacity and the basic factors that limit
human population growth as set forth
by Malthusian theory.
3. Population growth can be affected by
both density-independent factors, such
as major storms, fires, heat waves, or
droughts, and density-dependent
factors, such as access to clean water
 Technological Advancement: and air, food availability, disease
transmission, or territory size.
4. The rule of 70 states that dividing the
number 70 by the percentage
population growth rate approximates
the population’s doubling time.

Growth Rate (r) = % increase in a population (usually per year) Factors that increase Factors that decrease
population growth population growth
Crude Birth Rate (CBR) = Births per 1,000 people
Factors
Crude Deaththat
RateAffect
(CDR) = Total Fertility
Death per Rate
1,000 people (TFR)
 Development (Affluence):
Calculating Growth Rate (r)

Government
Growth Policy:
rate is always expressed as a %

Doubling Time (Rule of 70)

 Rule of 70: The time it takes (in years) for a population to double is
equal to 70 divided by the growth rate
Doubling time = 70/r (where r is a percentage, not a decimal)

Why 70? Because one minus the log of 2 (time to double) is about 0.7
3.9 Demographic Transition Learning Objective

Industrialization Define the demographic

 Industrialization:
transition.
Essential
Knowledge
1. The demographic
transition refers to the
transition from high to
lower birth and death
rates in a country or
region as development
occurs and that country
moves from a
preindustrial to an
industrialized economic
system. This transition is
typically demonstrated
through a four-stage
demographic transition
model (DTM).
2. Characteristics of
developing countries
include higher infant
mortality rates and more
children in the workforce
than developed
countries.

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

Pre-industrial Industrializing/ Industrialized/ Highly
Developing Developed Developed

Demographic
Transition
Is a model showing how a
nation’s population,
birth, and death rate are
historically correlated
when transitioning from
agrarian to industrialized

APES presents this model

slightly differently from
AP Human Geo, which
presents it as a 5-stage
model. For APES, stick
with the 4 stages
presented here.