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Chapter 5: Vector Calculus

Vector calculus extends the ideas of differentiation and integration to vector fields, which are
functions that assign a vector to each point in space. This allows us to model and analyze
phenomena involving flow, forces, rotation, and flux, such as fluid dynamics, electromagnetism,
and gravitational fields.

5.1 Vector Fields

 Definition:
o A vector field on R² is a function F that assigns a two-dimensional vector F(x, y)
= P(x, y)i + Q(x, y)j to each point (x, y) in a domain D in the xy-plane.
o A vector field on R³ is a function F that assigns a three-dimensional vector F(x,
y, z) = P(x, y, z)i + Q(x, y, z)j + R(x, y, z)k to each point (x, y, z) in a domain E
in space.
 Geometric Meaning: Imagine attaching an arrow (a vector) to every point in a region.
The length and direction of the arrow can vary from point to point.
o Visualization: Think of wind patterns on a weather map (vectors show wind speed
and direction at each location) or the flow of water in a river (vectors show
velocity). In physics, gravitational or electromagnetic fields assign a force vector
to each point in space.
 Why we need it: Single numbers (scalar fields, like temperature T(x, y, z)) aren't enough
when direction matters. Force, velocity, acceleration, fluid flow, electric and magnetic
fields all have both magnitude and direction at every point, requiring vector fields for
their description.
 Why it works: It's a natural extension of functions. Instead of mapping a point to a
scalar, we map a point to a vector, capturing directional information inherent in many
physical systems.
 Example 1 (2D): F(x, y) = -yi + xj.
o At (1, 0), F = 0i + 1j = j. (Arrow points straight up).
o At (0, 1), F = -1i + 0j = -i. (Arrow points left).
o At (-1, 0), F = 0i - 1j = -j. (Arrow points straight down).
o At (0, -1), F = 1i + 0j = i. (Arrow points right).
o Geometric Meaning: This vector field represents a counter-clockwise rotation
around the origin. The magnitude ||F|| = sqrt((-y)² + x²) = sqrt(x² + y²) increases
with distance from the origin.
 Example 2 (3D): F(x, y, z) = xi + yj + zk.
o At any point (x, y, z), the vector points directly away from the origin.
 o Geometric Meaning: This is a radial field, pointing outwards from the origin. Its
magnitude ||F|| = sqrt(x² + y² + z²), the distance from the origin. Think of an
explosion originating at (0,0,0) or a source emitting particles radially.

5.2 Line Integrals

Line integrals allow us to integrate a function (scalar or vector) along a curve in space.

A. Line Integrals of Scalar Functions

 Definition: Let f(x, y, z) be a scalar function and C be a smooth curve parameterized by

r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k, for a ≤ t ≤ b. The line integral of f along C is:
∫_C f(x, y, z) ds = ∫_a^b f(x(t), y(t), z(t)) ||r'(t)|| dt
where ds = ||r'(t)|| dt is the element of arc length, ||r'(t)|| = sqrt((dx/dt)² + (dy/dt)² +
(dz/dt)²).
 Geometric Meaning: If f(x, y) ≥ 0 and C is a curve in the xy-plane, then ∫_C f(x, y) ds
represents the area of the "fence" or "curtain" whose base is the curve C and whose
height at each point (x, y) on C is given by f(x, y).
o Visualization: Imagine the curve C drawn on the floor, and the height of the fence
above each point on the curve is given by the function f. The line integral
calculates the total area of the fence material.
 Why we need it: To calculate quantities distributed along a curve, like:
o The mass of a wire C if f(x, y, z) is the linear density (mass per unit length).
o The average value of a function f along a curve C.
 Why it works: We break the curve C into tiny segments of length Δs. On each segment,
we approximate the function value f as constant. The contribution of that segment is f *
Δs. Summing these up and taking the limit as Δs → 0 gives the integral. The formula ∫ f ||
r'(t)|| dt arises from converting the integral with respect to arc length s into an integral
with respect to the parameter t, using the relationship ds = ||r'(t)|| dt.
 Example: Integrate f(x, y) = x + y over the curve C: r(t) = cos(t)i + sin(t)j, 0 ≤ t ≤ π/2
(quarter circle in the first quadrant).
o x(t) = cos(t), y(t) = sin(t)
o r'(t) = -sin(t)i + cos(t)j
o ||r'(t)|| = sqrt((-sin(t))² + (cos(t))²) = sqrt(sin²t + cos²t) = 1
o f(x(t), y(t)) = cos(t) + sin(t)
o ∫_C f ds = ∫_0^(π/2) (cos(t) + sin(t)) * 1 dt
o = [sin(t) - cos(t)]_0^(π/2)
o = (sin(π/2) - cos(π/2)) - (sin(0) - cos(0))
o = (1 - 0) - (0 - 1) = 2
o Geometric Meaning: The area of the "fence" under f(x, y) = x+y over the first-
quadrant quarter unit circle is 2.

B. Line Integrals of Vector Fields

 Definition: Let F(x, y, z) be a vector field and C be a smooth curve parameterized by

r(t), a ≤ t ≤ b. The line integral of F along C is:
 ∫_C F ⋅ dr = ∫_C F ⋅ T ds = ∫_a^b F(r(t)) ⋅ r'(t) dt
where T = r'(t) / ||r'(t)|| is the unit tangent vector, and dr = r'(t) dt.
 Geometric Meaning: This integral measures the tendency of the vector field F to align
with the curve C. It calculates the accumulated component of F that is tangent to the

o If F represents a force field, ∫_C F ⋅ dr calculates the work done by the force field
curve, summed along the curve's length.

o If F represents the velocity field of a fluid, ∫_C F ⋅ dr measures the circulation or

in moving a particle along the curve C.

flow of the fluid along the curve C (especially if C is a closed loop). Positive
work/circulation means the field generally points along the curve's direction;
negative means it generally points against it.
 Why we need it: Crucial in physics for calculating work done by variable forces along
paths (e.g., gravity, electric fields). Used in fluid dynamics to measure flow along or
around boundaries.
 Why it works: We break the curve into small displacement vectors Δr. For each small

field F in the direction of the step, multiplied by the step length: F ⋅ T Δs. The dot
step, the work done (or flow contribution) is approximately the component of the vector

product F ⋅ T picks out the component of F parallel to the tangent vector T. Summing
these contributions and taking the limit gives ∫ F ⋅ T ds. The formula ∫ F(r(t)) ⋅ r'(t) dt
comes from substituting T ds = (r'(t) / ||r'(t)||) * (||r'(t)|| dt) = r'(t) dt.
 Example: Calculate the work done by the force field F(x, y) = xi - yj in moving a
particle along the curve C: r(t) = cos(t)i + sin(t)j, 0 ≤ t ≤ π/2.
o F(r(t)) = cos(t)i - sin(t)j

o F(r(t)) ⋅ r'(t) = (cos(t))(-sin(t)) + (-sin(t))(cos(t)) = -2sin(t)cos(t) = -sin(2t)

o r'(t) = -sin(t)i + cos(t)j

o Work = ∫_C F ⋅ dr = ∫_0^(π/2) -sin(2t) dt

o = [1/2 * cos(2t)]_0^(π/2)
o = (1/2 * cos(π)) - (1/2 * cos(0))
o = (1/2 * -1) - (1/2 * 1) = -1/2 - 1/2 = -1
o Interpretation: The work done is negative, meaning the field generally opposed
the motion along this path.

5.3 Conservative Vector Fields and the Fundamental Theorem for Line Integrals

function f, called a potential function. That is, F = ∇f (where ∇f = (∂f/∂x)i + (∂f/∂y)j +

 Definition: A vector field F is called conservative if it is the gradient of some scalar

(∂f/∂z)k).

parameterized by r(t), a ≤ t ≤ b, starting at A = r(a) and ending at B = r(b), and if F = ∇f

 Fundamental Theorem for Line Integrals: If C is a piecewise smooth curve

∫_C F ⋅ dr = ∫_C ∇f ⋅ dr = f(B) - f(A)

is a conservative vector field with f having continuous partial derivatives, then:

integral ∫_C F ⋅ dr depends only on the endpoints A and B of the curve C, not on the path
 Path Independence: A crucial property equivalent to being conservative: The line

taken between them.

  Loop Property: Another equivalent property: The line integral ∫_C F ⋅ dr around any
closed loop C (where A = B) is zero for a conservative field.
 Geometric Meaning:
o Conservative fields represent forces where energy is conserved (like gravity or
ideal electrostatic forces). The work done depends only on the change in potential
energy (f) between the start and end points. Moving along a closed path results in
zero net work.

∇f always points in the direction of the steepest ascent of f, and its magnitude is
o The potential function f(x, y, z) acts like a "height" function. The vector field F =

the rate of that ascent. The line integral calculates the total change in "height" (f)
along the path.
 Why we need it: If a field is conservative, calculating work becomes incredibly simple:
just find the potential function f and evaluate it at the endpoints. This avoids
parameterizing the path and performing the often complex line integral calculation. Path

Why it works (Intuition based on Chain Rule): If F = ∇f and r(t) parameterizes C,

independence is a vital concept in physics (conservation of energy).


F(r(t)) ⋅ r'(t) = ∇f(r(t)) ⋅ r'(t)

then

= (∂f/∂x * dx/dt + ∂f/∂y * dy/dt + ∂f/∂z * dz/dt)

So, ∫_a^b F(r(t)) ⋅ r'(t) dt = ∫_a^b d/dt [f(r(t))] dt.

By the chain rule for multivariable functions, this is exactly d/dt [f(r(t))].

By the regular Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, this equals [f(r(t))]_a^b = f(r(b)) -

f(r(a)) = f(B) - f(A).
 Checking for Conservatism (Component Test): If F = Pi + Qj + Rk has continuous
first partial derivatives, it is conservative if and only if
∂P/∂y = ∂Q/∂x, ∂P/∂z = ∂R/∂x, ∂Q/∂z = ∂R/∂y. (These are equivalent to saying curl F = 0,
see section 5.5).

function and evaluate ∫_C F ⋅ dr where C goes from (0,0) to (1,2).

 Example: Let F(x, y) = (2x + y)i + (x + 3y²)j. Is it conservative? If so, find a potential

o P = 2x + y, Q = x + 3y²
o ∂P/∂y = 1, ∂Q/∂x = 1. Since they are equal (and it's 2D), F is conservative.
o Find f such that ∂f/∂x = P and ∂f/∂y = Q.
∂f/∂x = 2x + y => f(x, y) = ∫(2x + y) dx = x² + xy + g(y) (g(y) is the "constant" of
integration, which can depend on y).
∂f/∂y = ∂/∂y (x² + xy + g(y)) = 0 + x + g'(y)
We need this to equal Q: x + g'(y) = x + 3y² => g'(y) = 3y²
So, g(y) = ∫ 3y² dy = y³ + K (K is a true constant).
A potential function is f(x, y) = x² + xy + y³ (we can choose K=0).

∫_C F ⋅ dr = f(1, 2) - f(0, 0)

o Evaluate the integral using the Fundamental Theorem:

= (1² + 1*2 + 2³) - (0² + 0*0 + 0³)

= (1 + 2 + 8) - 0 = 11
o Interpretation: The work done by this force field moving from (0,0) to (1,2) is 11,
regardless of the path taken.

5.4 Green's Theorem

Green's Theorem relates a line integral around a simple closed curve C in the plane to a double
integral over the region D enclosed by C. It comes in two main forms: Circulation and Flux.

 Setup: Let C be a positively oriented (counter-clockwise), piecewise smooth, simple

closed curve in the xy-plane. Let D be the region bounded by C. Let F(x, y) = P(x, y)i +
Q(x, y)j be a vector field with continuous first partial derivatives on an open region
containing D.

∮_C F ⋅ dr = ∮_C P dx + Q dy = ∬_D (∂Q/∂x - ∂P/∂y) dA

 Circulation Form:

∮_C F ⋅ n ds = ∮_C P dy - Q dx = ∬_D (∂P/∂x + ∂Q/∂y) dA

 Flux Form:

(where n is the outward unit normal vector to C).

 Geometric Meaning:
o Circulation Form: Relates the total "circulation" or tendency of the field to flow
along the boundary curve C (left side) to the sum of the "microscopic circulation"
(∂Q/∂x - ∂P/∂y, the k-component of curl F) over the entire region D (right side).
o Flux Form: Relates the total "flux" or flow of the field across the boundary curve
C (left side) to the sum of the "microscopic expansion/source strength" (∂P/∂x +
∂Q/∂y, the divergence of F) over the entire region D (right side).
 Why we need it:
o Provides an alternative way to compute line integrals (sometimes the double
integral is easier) or double integrals (sometimes the line integral is easier).
o Fundamental theoretical tool connecting boundary behavior to interior behavior.

∮_C x dy = -∮_C y dx = 1/2 ∮_C x dy - y dx).

o Used to derive other theorems and in applications like calculating area (Area(D) =

tiny rectangular cells. Calculate the circulation ∮ P dx + Q dy around each tiny rectangle.
 Why it works (Intuition for Circulation Form): Imagine dividing region D into many

The ∂Q/∂x term relates to the difference in Q (y-component of F) across the rectangle
horizontally, contributing to circulation. The -∂P/∂y term relates to the difference in P (x-
component of F) across the rectangle vertically, also contributing. So, (∂Q/∂x - ∂P/∂y) dA
represents the approximate circulation around a tiny rectangle of area dA. When you sum
these tiny circulations over all rectangles in D, the line integrals along interior shared

the line integrals along the outer boundary C remain, summing up to ∮_C P dx + Q dy.
edges cancel out (because adjacent rectangles are traversed in opposite directions). Only

 Example (Circulation Form): Evaluate ∮_C (x²y) dx + (x³) dy where C is the boundary
of the rectangle D: 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 2, oriented counter-clockwise.
o P = x²y, Q = x³
o ∂Q/∂x = 3x², ∂P/∂y = x²
o ∂Q/∂x - ∂P/∂y = 3x² - x² = 2x²

∮_C F ⋅ dr = ∬_D (2x²) dA = ∫_0^1 ∫_0^2 (2x²) dy dx

o Using Green's Theorem:

= ∫_0^1 [2x²y]_0^2 dx = ∫_0^1 (4x²) dx

= [4x³/3]_0^1 = 4/3
o Interpretation: The net circulation of the field F = (x²y)i + (x³)j around the
boundary of the rectangle is 4/3. This is much easier than parameterizing the four
sides of the rectangle and calculating four separate line integrals.
5.5 Curl

curl F = ∇ × F = | i j k |
 Definition: The curl of a vector field F = Pi + Qj + Rk is a vector field defined as:

| ∂/∂x ∂/∂y ∂/∂z |

|PQR|

(Note: ∇ = (∂/∂x)i + (∂/∂y)j + (∂/∂z)k is the "del" operator).

= (∂R/∂y - ∂Q/∂z)i + (∂P/∂z - ∂R/∂x)j + (∂Q/∂x - ∂P/∂y)k

 Geometric Meaning: The curl measures the microscopic rotation or circulation

density of a vector field at a point.

curl vector ∇ × F points along the axis around which the paddle wheel would
o Imagine placing a tiny paddle wheel in the vector field at a point (x, y, z). The

spin fastest. The magnitude ||∇ × F|| is proportional to the speed of that rotation.
o If curl F = 0 at a point, there is no microscopic rotation there (the field is locally
irrotational).
 Why we need it:
o Characterizes the rotational properties of vector fields (essential in fluid dynamics
for vortices, and electromagnetism for relating changing magnetic fields to
electric fields - Faraday's Law).
o Provides the condition for a vector field to be conservative (on a simply
connected domain): F is conservative if and only if curl F = 0.
o It is the key ingredient in Stokes' Theorem.
 Why it works: The components of curl, like (∂Q/∂x - ∂P/∂y) (the k-component), measure
the difference in how the field changes in perpendicular directions. For instance, ∂Q/dx
measures how the y-component changes as we move in x, while ∂P/dy measures how the
x-component changes as we move in y. The difference indicates a twisting or rotational
tendency around the z-axis.
 Example: Find the curl of F(x, y, z) = -yi + xj + z²k.
o P = -y, Q = x, R = z²
o curl F = (∂(z²)/∂y - ∂(x)/∂z)i + (∂(-y)/∂z - ∂(z²)/∂x)j + (∂(x)/∂x - ∂(-y)/∂y)k
o = (0 - 0)i + (0 - 0)j + (1 - (-1))k
o = 0i + 0j + 2k = 2k
o Interpretation: This field has a constant curl pointing purely in the +z direction.
This matches our earlier observation that F(x, y) = -yi + xj represents rotation
around the origin (which is rotation around the z-axis). The paddle wheel would
spin counter-clockwise (viewed from positive z) everywhere, with the same
speed.

5.6 Divergence

 Definition: The divergence of a vector field F = Pi + Qj + Rk is a scalar function

div F = ∇ ⋅ F = ∂P/∂x + ∂Q/∂y + ∂R/∂z

defined as:

 Geometric Meaning: The divergence measures the microscopic expansion or outward

flux density of a vector field at a point.
 o Imagine a tiny box centered at a point (x, y, z) in a fluid flow field F. div F
represents the net rate at which fluid is flowing out of the box per unit volume.
o Positive divergence (div F > 0) indicates a source at that point (more fluid leaving
than entering).
o Negative divergence (div F < 0) indicates a sink at that point (more fluid entering
than leaving).
o Zero divergence (div F = 0) indicates the field is incompressible at that point
(fluid entering equals fluid leaving).
 Why we need it:
o Characterizes sources and sinks in vector fields (fluid dynamics,
electromagnetism - Gauss's Law for electricity relates charge density to
divergence of E).
o Describes compressibility of fluid flow.
o It is the key ingredient in the Divergence Theorem.
 Why it works: Each term measures the rate of change of the vector field component in
its own direction. ∂P/∂x measures how much the x-component changes as you move in x.
If it's positive, the flow is "stretching out" in the x-direction. Similarly for y and z.
Summing them gives the overall tendency for the field to expand (positive divergence) or
contract (negative divergence) at that point.
 Example: Find the divergence of F(x, y, z) = xi + yj + zk (the radial field).
o P = x, Q = y, R = z
o div F = ∂(x)/∂x + ∂(y)/∂y + ∂(z)/∂z
o =1+1+1=3
o Interpretation: The divergence is a constant positive value (3). This indicates that
the field is expanding outwards everywhere. This field acts like a source centered
at the origin (though the divergence is non-zero everywhere, not just at the
origin).
 Example 2: Find the divergence of F(x, y, z) = -yi + xj + z²k (the rotating field from the
curl example).
o P = -y, Q = x, R = z²
o div F = ∂(-y)/∂x + ∂(x)/∂y + ∂(z²)/∂z
o = 0 + 0 + 2z = 2z
o Interpretation: The divergence depends on z. For z > 0, it's positive (source-like
behavior in the vertical direction). For z < 0, it's negative (sink-like). For z = 0 (in
the xy-plane), the divergence is zero, meaning the purely rotational flow in that
plane is incompressible.

Important Identity: For any vector field F with continuous second-order partial derivatives,
div(curl F) = 0.

 Meaning: The curl of a field is always source-free (incompressible). Rotation doesn't

create or destroy "stuff".

5.7 Parametric Surfaces and Surface Integrals

To integrate over surfaces, we first need a way to describe them, often using parameters.
  Parametric Surfaces: A surface S in R³ can be described by a vector function r(u, v) =
x(u, v)i + y(u, v)j + z(u, v)k, where (u, v) belong to a domain D in the uv-plane.
o Analogy: Like parameterizing a curve r(t) with one parameter t, we use two
parameters u, v to "sweep out" a surface.
o Tangent Vectors: r_u = ∂r/∂u and r_v = ∂r/∂v are vectors tangent to the surface
along lines of constant v and constant u, respectively.
o Normal Vector: The cross product r_u × r_v gives a vector perpendicular
(normal) to the surface at the point r(u, v). Its magnitude ||r_u × r_v|| represents
the area of a small parallelogram on the surface spanned by Δu * r_u and Δv *
r_v.
o Surface Area Element: dS = ||r_u × r_v|| dA, where dA = du dv.

A. Surface Integrals of Scalar Functions

 Definition: Let f(x, y, z) be a scalar function and S be a smooth surface parameterized by

∬_S f(x, y, z) dS = ∬_D f(r(u, v)) ||r_u × r_v|| dA

r(u, v) for (u, v) in D. The surface integral of f over S is:

 Geometric Meaning: If f(x, y, z) ≥ 0, this calculates the mass of the surface S if f

represents the surface density (mass per unit area). If f = 1, it calculates the surface area
of S.
 Why we need it: To calculate quantities distributed over a surface, like mass, charge, or
average temperature on a surface.
 Why it works: We break the surface S into many small patches, each parameterized by a
small rectangle in the uv-plane. The area of a patch is approximately ΔS = ||r_u × r_v||
ΔA. We multiply the function value f on the patch by the patch area ΔS and sum these up.
Taking the limit gives the integral.
 Example: Integrate f(x, y, z) = z over the part of the sphere x² + y² + z² = a² with z ≥ 0
(upper hemisphere).
o Parameterize using spherical coordinates: x = a sin(φ) cos(θ), y = a sin(φ) sin(θ), z
= a cos(φ).
r(φ, θ) = a sin(φ) cos(θ)i + a sin(φ) sin(θ)j + a cos(φ)k
Domain D: 0 ≤ φ ≤ π/2, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
o Calculate ||r_φ × r_θ||. For spherical coordinates, this is known to be a² sin(φ).
(Calculation involves finding partials r_φ, r_θ and their cross product).

o ∬_S z dS = ∫_0^(2π) ∫_0^(π/2) (a cos(φ)) (a² sin(φ)) dφ dθ

o f(r(φ, θ)) = z = a cos(φ)

o = ∫_0^(2π) [a³/2 * sin²(φ)]_0^(π/2) dθ (using u=sin(φ), du=cos(φ)dφ)

o = ∫_0^(2π) (a³/2 * (1² - 0²)) dθ = ∫_0^(2π) (a³/2) dθ
o = (a³/2) * [θ]_0^(2π) = (a³/2) * 2π = πa³
o Interpretation: If z represents density, the mass of the upper hemisphere is πa³.

B. Surface Integrals of Vector Fields (Flux)

 Definition: Let F(x, y, z) be a vector field and S be an oriented smooth surface with unit
normal vector n, parameterized by r(u, v) for (u, v) in D. The surface integral of F over S
(also called the flux of F across S) is:
 ∬_S F ⋅ dS = ∬_S F ⋅ n dS = ∬_D F(r(u, v)) ⋅ (r_u × r_v) dA
(Note: We use r_u × r_v, assuming this gives the correct orientation for n. If it gives the
opposite direction, we multiply by -1).
 Geometric Meaning: This measures the net rate of flow of the vector field F through
the surface S. It calculates the accumulated component of F that is normal to the surface,
summed over the surface area.
o If F is the velocity field of a fluid, flux is the volume of fluid crossing S per unit
time.
o If F is an electric field, flux is related to the electric charge enclosed (Gauss's
Law).
o Positive flux means net flow is in the direction of n; negative means net flow is
opposite to n.
 Why we need it: Essential in fluid dynamics (flow through membranes, pipes),
electromagnetism (Gauss's laws for E and B fields), heat transfer (heat flow rate across a
surface).
 Why it works: We break the surface into small patches ΔS with normal vector n. The

multiplied by the patch area: (F ⋅ n) ΔS. The dot product F ⋅ n picks out the component of
flow rate through a patch is approximately the component of F normal to the patch,

F perpendicular to the surface. Summing these contributions and taking the limit gives ∬
F ⋅ n dS. The formula ∬ F ⋅ (r_u × r_v) dA comes from substituting n dS = (r_u × r_v / ||
r_u × r_v||) * (||r_u × r_v|| dA) = (r_u × r_v) dA, assuming the orientation matches.
 Example: Calculate the flux of F(x, y, z) = zk across the upper hemisphere S: x² + y² +
z² = a², z ≥ 0, oriented upwards.
o Use the same parameterization r(φ, θ) as before.
o r_φ × r_θ points radially outward. For the upper hemisphere, this is the correct
upward orientation. We found r_φ × r_θ corresponds to a² sin(φ) * n, where n is
the outward normal. A more direct calculation gives r_φ × r_θ = a²sin²(φ)cos(θ)i
+ a²sin²(φ)sin(θ)j + a²sin(φ)cos(φ)k.

o F ⋅ (r_φ × r_θ) = (0)(...) + (0)(...) + (a cos(φ))(a² sin(φ) cos(φ)) = a³ cos²(φ) sin(φ)

o F(r(φ, θ)) = zk = a cos(φ)k

o Flux = ∬_S F ⋅ dS = ∫_0^(2π) ∫_0^(π/2) a³ cos²(φ) sin(φ) dφ dθ

o = a³ ∫_0^(2π) [-1/3 * cos³(φ)]_0^(π/2) dθ (using u=cos(φ), du=-sin(φ)dφ)
o = a³ ∫_0^(2π) (-1/3 * (0³ - 1³)) dθ = a³ ∫_0^(2π) (1/3) dθ
o = (a³/3) * [θ]_0^(2π) = (a³/3) * 2π = 2πa³/3
o Interpretation: The total flow rate of the field z k upward through the upper
hemisphere is 2πa³/3.

5.8 Stokes' Theorem

Stokes' Theorem relates the line integral of a vector field around the boundary curve C of an
oriented surface S to the surface integral of the curl of the field over the surface S. It is a
generalization of Green's Theorem to 3D.

 Theorem: Let S be an oriented, piecewise smooth surface bounded by a simple, closed,

piecewise smooth boundary curve C, whose orientation is consistent with S (using the
right-hand rule: if fingers curl along C, thumb points in direction of S's normal vector n).
 Let F be a vector field whose components have continuous partial derivatives on an open

∮_C F ⋅ dr = ∬_S (curl F) ⋅ dS = ∬_S (∇ × F) ⋅ n dS

region containing S. Then:

 Geometric Meaning: The total "circulation" of F around the boundary curve C (left
side) is equal to the total "flux of the curl" of F through the surface S (right side). It says
that the macroscopic circulation around the edge C is the sum of all the microscopic
circulations (curl F) occurring on the surface S bounded by C.
 Why we need it:
o Relates line integrals and surface integrals in 3D.
o Provides an alternative way to calculate circulation or flux of curl.
o Fundamental in physics, especially electromagnetism (Ampère's Law, Faraday's

o Shows that if curl F = 0 everywhere on the surface S, then the circulation ∮_C F ⋅
Law).

dr = 0 around the boundary C.

 Why it works (Intuition): Similar to Green's Theorem. Imagine dividing the surface S
into many tiny oriented patches. For each patch, the flux of curl F through it represents
the microscopic circulation around its tiny boundary. When you sum these up over all
patches on S, the line integrals along the interior shared edges cancel out (due to opposite

up to the total circulation ∮_C F ⋅ dr.

orientations). Only the line integrals along the outer boundary curve C remain, summing

 Example: Verify Stokes' Theorem for F(x, y, z) = -yi + xj + 0k and S as the part of the
paraboloid z = x² + y² below the plane z = 1, oriented upward. The boundary C is the

o Line Integral Side (∮_C F ⋅ dr):

circle x² + y² = 1 in the plane z = 1, oriented counter-clockwise when viewed from above.

Parameterize C: r(t) = cos(t)i + sin(t)j + 1k, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

r'(t) = -sin(t)i + cos(t)j + 0k.

F(r(t)) ⋅ r'(t) = (-sin t)(-sin t) + (cos t)(cos t) + 0 = sin²t + cos²t = 1.

F(r(t)) = -sin(t)i + cos(t)j + 0k.

∮_C F ⋅ dr = ∫_0^(2π) 1 dt = 2π.

o Surface Integral Side (∬_S (curl F) ⋅ dS):
First, find curl F. We calculated this earlier: curl F = 2k.
Parameterize S: r(r, θ) = r cos(θ)i + r sin(θ)j + r²k, where 0 ≤ r ≤ 1, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
Find the normal vector r_r × r_θ:
r_r = cos(θ)i + sin(θ)j + 2rk
r_θ = -r sin(θ)i + r cos(θ)j + 0k
r_r × r_θ = (...)i + (...)j + (r cos²θ - (-r sin²θ))k
= (...)i + (...)j + rk
More completely: r_r × r_θ = -2r²cos(θ)i - 2r²sin(θ)j + rk.
This normal vector has a positive k-component (r ≥ 0), so it points upward,

curl F ⋅ (r_r × r_θ) = (0i + 0j + 2k) ⋅ (-2r²cos(θ)i - 2r²sin(θ)j + rk)

matching the required orientation.

∬_S (curl F) ⋅ dS = ∬_D (2r) dA = ∫_0^(2π) ∫_0^1 2r dr dθ

= 2 * r = 2r.

= ∫_0^(2π) [r²]_0^1 dθ = ∫_0^(2π) 1 dθ = 2π.

o Result: Both sides equal 2π, verifying Stokes' Theorem.
5.9 The Divergence Theorem (Gauss' Theorem)

The Divergence Theorem relates the flux of a vector field through a closed surface S to the triple
integral of the divergence of the field over the solid region E enclosed by S. It's another
generalization of Green's Theorem (specifically, the flux form).

 Theorem: Let E be a simple solid region and let S be the boundary surface of E, given
with positive (outward) orientation. Let F be a vector field whose components have

∬_S F ⋅ dS = ∬_S F ⋅ n dS = ∭_E (div F) dV = ∭_E (∇ ⋅ F) dV

continuous partial derivatives on an open region containing E. Then:

 Geometric Meaning: The total "flux" of F outward through the closed boundary surface
S (left side) is equal to the sum of all the "microscopic sources/sinks" (divergence of F)
within the entire volume E enclosed by S (right side). It says the net flow out of a region
equals the total "source strength" inside that region.
 Why we need it:
o Relates surface integrals (flux) and triple integrals (volume integrals).
o Provides an alternative way to compute flux (sometimes the triple integral of
divergence is easier) or the total divergence in a volume (sometimes the flux
integral is easier).
o Fundamental in physics: Gauss's Law for electricity and magnetism, conservation
laws in fluid dynamics (relating flow out of a region to changes inside).
 Why it works (Intuition): Imagine dividing the solid region E into many tiny cubic
cells. For each cell, the triple integral of div F over it represents the net outward flux from
that tiny cell. When you sum these contributions over all cells in E, the fluxes across
interior faces shared by adjacent cells cancel out (because the normal vectors are

summing up to the total outward flux ∬_S F ⋅ dS.

opposite). Only the fluxes through the faces on the outer boundary surface S remain,

 Example: Verify the Divergence Theorem for F(x, y, z) = xi + yj + zk and the region E
being the unit ball x² + y² + z² ≤ 1, bounded by the sphere S: x² + y² + z² = 1 oriented

o Surface Integral Side (∬_S F ⋅ dS):

outward.

S is the sphere of radius a=1. Use spherical parameterization r(φ, θ) from the
surface integral example. The outward normal corresponds to r_φ × r_θ =
sin²(φ)cos(θ)i + sin²(φ)sin(θ)j + sin(φ)cos(φ)k (since a=1).

F ⋅ (r_φ × r_θ) = (sin φ cos θ)(sin²φ cos θ) + (sin φ sin θ)(sin²φ sin θ) + (cos φ)
F(r(φ, θ)) = xi + yj + zk = sin(φ)cos(θ)i + sin(φ)sin(θ)j + cos(φ)k.

(sin φ cos φ)
= sin³φ cos²θ + sin³φ sin²θ + cos²φ sin φ
= sin³φ (cos²θ + sin²θ) + cos²φ sin φ
= sin³φ + cos²φ sin φ

Flux = ∬_S F ⋅ dS = ∫_0^(2π) ∫_0^π sin(φ) dφ dθ (Note: φ goes to π for the full
= sin φ (sin²φ + cos²φ) = sin φ.

sphere)
= ∫_0^(2π) [-cos(φ)]_0^π dθ
= ∫_0^(2π) (-cos(π) - (-cos(0))) dθ = ∫_0^(2π) (-(-1) - (-1)) dθ = ∫_0^(2π) 2 dθ
= [2θ]_0^(2π) = 4π.
 o Triple Integral Side (∭_E div F dV):

∭_E div F dV = ∭_E 3 dV = 3 * ∭_E 1 dV

First, find div F. We calculated this earlier: div F = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3.

The triple integral ∭_E 1 dV is just the volume of the region E.

So, ∭_E div F dV = 3 * (4π/3) = 4π.

E is the unit ball, its volume is (4/3)π(1)³ = 4π/3.

o Result: Both sides equal 4π, verifying the Divergence Theorem.

5.10 Interrelations and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Green's Theorem, Stokes' Theorem, and the Divergence Theorem are all higher-dimensional
generalizations of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (∫_a^b f'(x) dx = f(b) - f(a)).

Integral of Integral of
Dimensio Derivative
Theorem Derivative over Function over
n Operator
Region Boundary

FTC (Part 2) ∫_a^b F'(x) dx F(b) - F(a) 1D d/dx

∫_C ∇f ⋅ dr
Fund. Thm.
f(B) - f(A) 2D/3D Gradient (∇f)
Line Integrals

∬_D (curl F)_k dA ∮_C F ⋅ dr

Green's
2D Curl (∇ × F)
Theorem (curl)

∬_D div F dA ∮_C F ⋅ n ds

(∇ ⋅ F)
Green's Divergence
2D
Theorem (div)

∬_S (curl F) ⋅ dS ∮_C F ⋅ dr

Stokes'
3D Curl (∇ × F)
Theorem

∭_E div F dV ∬_S F ⋅ dS

(∇ ⋅ F)
Divergence Divergence
3D
Theorem

In each case, integrating some form of "derivative" (gradient, curl, or divergence) of a

function/field over a region (interval, curve, surface, volume) is equivalent to evaluating the
original function/field on the boundary of that region. This fundamental concept unifies much of
vector calculus.