LECTURE 1:

INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS

1-1. DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Part 1: Data Communications
1. Data Communications
a. 4 fundamental characteristics Communication = sharing information
i. Delivery • This sharing can be local or remote
ii. Accuracy
a. Local communication usually occurs
face to face
iii. Timeliness
b. Remote communication takes place
iv. Jitter
over distance
2. 5 Components of a data communication system
a. Message
The term telecommunication means communication at a
-Different forms
distance.
i. Text
• includes telephony, telegraphy, and television
ii. Numbers
• tele is Greek for “far”
iii. Images
iv. Audio
v. video The word data refers to information presented in
b. Sender whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and
c. Receiver using the data.
d. Transmission medium
e. Protocol
Data communications are the exchange of data between
3. Data flow
two devices via some form of transmission medium such
3 types of data flow
as a wire cable.
a. Simplex
b. Half-duplex • For data communications to occur, the
c. Full-duplex communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a
Part 2: Networks combination of hardware (physical equipment –
1. Network, node, link sender & receiver devices, as well as intermediate
2. Network criteria devices through which the data passes) and
a. Performance
software (programs - protocol).
i. Transit time
ii. Response time
iii. Factors
Protocol
b. Reliability
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
c. Security
communications.
3. Physical structures
a. Types of connection • A protocol defines what is communicated, how it
i. Point to point is communicated, and when it is communicated.
ii. Multipoint
b. Physical topology
i. Connection of devices Solid-state components which can act through
ii. Type of transmission the introduction of electrons: resistors, capacitors
4. Categories of network o No program/software needed but some
needed software/program to activate
Part 3: The Internet
The effectiveness of a data communications system
depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery,
Part 4: Protocol
accuracy, timeliness, and jitter

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ANGELA MONIQUE Z. BUHAT, ICE 3205
 o For example, let us assume that
4 FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
video packets are sent every 3D
ms.
1. DELIVERY o If some of the packets arrive
with 3D-ms delay and others
o The system must deliver data to the
with 4D-ms delay, an uneven
correct destination.
quality in the video is the result.
o Data must be received by the intended
device or user and only by that device or
user. 5 COMPONENTS OF A DATA COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM
2. ACCURACY

o The system must deliver the data

accurately.
o Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are
unusable.
o Without introducing errors, and if there
are errors, the receiver can recover the
said data/information. 1. MESSAGE

• The message is the information (data) to

be communicated by a sender to a
3. TIMELINESS receiver.
o Especially in audio and video, the system • Popular forms of information include
must deliver data in a timely manner text, numbers, pictures, audio, and
without any delay. video.

o Data delivered late are useless.

✓ Letters
o In the case of video and audio, timely • Stored in a pattern of bits
delivery means delivering data as they o Bits has an encoded system
(e.g. Letter) – pattern of bits of
are produced, in the same order that
0 and 1
they are produced, and without
significant delay. The most prevalent coding system for
letters is ASCII or the American
o This kind of delivery is called real-time
Standard Code for Information
transmission.
Interchange and the Unicode.

4. JITTER

o Jitter refers to the variation in the

American Standard Code for Information
packet arrival time.
o Data are converted into packets Interchange (ASCII)
o constitutes the first 127 characters
▪ Packets are arranged in
in Unicode and is also referred to as
a manner which follows
Basic Latin
the protocol
o developed some decades ago in the
▪ Packets are divided United States,
into several pieces
Unicode
o Jitter and timeliness are o the prevalent coding system
somewhat interconnected nowadays
o uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or
o It is the uneven delay in the delivery of character used in any language in
audio or video packets. the world.

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✓ Numbers o Even when we use a microphone
• Also stored in a pattern of bits of 0s and to change voice or music to an
1s. electric signal, we create a
o However, a code such as ASCII continuous signal.
is not used to represent ▪ *Analog-to-Digital
numbers; the number is directly Converter
converted to a binary number to
simplify mathematical ✓ Video
operations. • Video refers to the recording or
broadcasting of a picture or movie.
✓ Images
• Composed of smallest element called • Video can either be produced as a
pixels. continuous entity (e.g., by a TV
o Therefore, pictures are matrix of camera), or it can be a combination
pixel elements. of images, each a discrete entity,
arranged to convey the idea of
motion.

Pictures = matrix of pixel elements

Pixels = represented by bits 2. TRANSMISSION MEDIUM

• the physical path by which a

o Each pixel will require
message travels from sender to
different number of bits
receiver.
that will represent the
value of the pixel • Some examples of transmission
media include twisted-pair wire,
• The size of the pixel depends upon the coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and
number of pixel (resolution) radio waves.
o For example, an image can
be divided into 1000 pixels 3. SENDER
or 10,000 pixels.
• the device that sends the data
o In the second case, there is
message.
a better representation of
the image (better • It can be a computer, workstation,
resolution), but more telephone handset, video camera,
memory is needed to store and so on.
the image.
4. RECEIVER
• After an image is divided into pixels,
each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The • the device that receives the
size and the value of the pattern depend message.
on the image. For an image made of only
• It can be a computer, workstation,
black-and-white dots (e.g., a
telephone handset, television, and
chessboard), a I-bit pattern is enough to
so on.
represent a pixel.

5. PROTOCOL
Prevalent image formats: JPEG, PNG, BMP • An agreed set of rules by the sender
and the receiver to communicate
data.
✓ Audio
• Audio refers to the recording or • a set of rules that govern data
broadcasting of sound or music. communications.

• Audio is by nature different from text, • It represents an agreement between

numbers, or images. the communicating devices.

• It is continuous, not discrete. • Without a protocol, two devices may

be connected but not
communicating, just as a person

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ANGELA MONIQUE Z. BUHAT, ICE 3205
 speaking French cannot be • In a half-duplex transmission, the
understood by a person who speaks entire capacity of a channel is taken
only Japanese. over by whichever of the two
devices is transmitting at the time.
• It is necessary for a data
communication to have a protocol • The half-duplex mode is used in
because without it, there will be no cases where there is no need for
transmission of data or exchange of
communication in both directions at
information.
the same time; the entire capacity of
the channel can be utilized for each
3 TYPES OF DATA FLOW direction.

o Walkie-talkies and CB
(citizens band) radios are
both half-duplex systems.

3. FULL-DUPLEX

• both stations can transmit and

receive simultaneously

• In full-duplex mode, signals going in

one direction share the capacity of
the link: with signals going in the
other direction.
1. SIMPLEX
• This sharing can occur in two ways:
• In simplex mode, the communication is
(1) Either the link must contain two
unidirectional, as on a one-way street.
physically separate transmission
• Only one of the two devices on a link can paths, one for sending and the other
transmit; the other can only receive. for receiving; or (2) the capacity of
the channel is divided between
o Keyboards and traditional
signals traveling in both directions.
monitors are examples of
simplex devices. The keyboard • The full-duplex mode is used when
can only introduce input; the communication in both directions is
monitor can only accept output. required all the time.
o Televisions only receives data
• The capacity of the channel,
from telecommunication
however, must be divided between
programs.
the two directions.
o FM radios are also an example.
o One common example of
• The simplex mode can use the entire
full-duplex communication
capacity of the channel to send data
is the telephone network.
in one direction.
When two people are
communicating by a
2. HALF-DUPLEX
telephone line, both can
• each station can both transmit and talk and listen at the same
receive, but not at the same time. time.

• When one device is sending, the

other can only receive, and vice
versa.

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 o the capabilities of the connected
hardware, and
1-2. NETWORKS
o the efficiency of the software.

Performance is often evaluated by two networking

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links. metrics: throughput and delay.
• We often need more throughput and less delay.
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other However, these two criteria are often
device capable of sending and/or receiving data contradictory.
generated by other nodes on the network.
• If we try to send more data to the network, we
o A computer network is used in data may increase throughput but we increase the
communication system. delay because of traffic congestion in the
o A computer network should ensure we network.
can send one information from one point
to another

RELIABILITY
NETWORK CRITERIA
o In addition to accuracy of delivery, network
reliability is measured by the frequency of
A network must be able to meet a certain number of
failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a
criteria. The most important of these are performance,
failure, and the network's robustness in a
reliability, and security.
catastrophe.
▪ Must achieve higher throughput and smaller
o Robustness is the integrity of the
delay time.
network

PERFORMANCE
SECURITY

o Performance can be measured in many ways,

o Network security issues include protecting data
including transit time and response time
from unauthorized access, protecting data from
(network elements).
damage and development, and implementing
Transit time is the amount of time required for a policies and procedures for recovery from
message to travel from one device to another. breaches and data losses.

Response time is the elapsed time between an

inquiry and a response. (query)

o The performance of a network depends on a NETWORK CRITERIA

number of factors, including the
▪ PERFORMANCE
o number of users,
» Depends on network elements
o the type of transmission medium, » Measured in terms of delay and
▪ In terms of transmission rate, throughput

coaxial cable vs fiber optics

▪ RELIABILITY
(fiber optics is faster because it » Failure rate of network components
transmits light waves) » Measured in terms of
▪ coaxial cable transmits availability/robustness

electrical signal ▪ SECURITY

▪ although in theory, light and » Data protection against corruption/loss of
electrical travels the same data due to:
✓ Errors
▪ light waves degrades less than
✓ Malicious users
an electrical signal
▪ electrical signal depends on the
distance

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ANGELA MONIQUE Z. BUHAT, ICE 3205
 but other options, such as microwave or satellite
PHYSICAL STRUCTURES
links, are also possible.

Network attributes • When you change television channels by infrared

1. Type of connection remote control, you are establishing a point-to-

a. Point-to-point point connection between the remote control and

b. Multipoint the television's control system.

2. Physical topology
MULTIPOINT
a. Mesh
b. Star • A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is
c. Bus one in which more than two specific devices
d. Ring share a single link.
__________________________________________
• In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the
channel is shared, either spatially or temporally.
TYPES OF CONNECTION
• If several devices can use the link
simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
A network is two or more devices connected through links.
connection. If users must take turns, it is a
timeshared connection.
A link is a communications pathway that transfers data
from one device to another.
CATEGORIES OF TOPOLOGY
o For visualization purposes, it is simplest to
imagine any link as a line drawn between two
points. The term physical topology refers to the way in which a

o For communication to occur, two devices must be network is laid out physically: two or more devices

connected in some way to the same link at the connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.

same time.
The topology of a network is the geometric

There are two possible types of connections: point-to- representation of the relationship of all the links and

point and multipoint. linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.

There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus,

and ring.

POINT-TO-POINT
MESH TOPOLOGY
• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated
➢ In a mesh topology, every device has a
link between two devices.
dedicated point-to-point link to every
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for other device.
transmission between those two devices. ➢ The term dedicated means that the link
carries traffic only between the two
• Most point-to-point connections use an actual
devices it connects.
length of wire or cable to connect the two ends,

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  Finally, the hardware required to connect each
link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive.
o For these reasons a mesh topology is
usually implemented in a limited
fashion, for example, as a backbone
connecting the main computers of a
hybrid network that can include several
other topologies.

Example: regional telephone offices

A mesh offers several advantages over other network >>>redundancy
topologies. o One practical example of a mesh topology is the
connection of telephone regional offices in which
✓ First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that
each regional office needs to be connected to
each connection can carry its own data load, thus
every other regional office.
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur
when links must be shared by multiple devices.
STAR TOPOLOGY
✓ Second, a mesh topology is robust.
➢ In a star topology, each device has a
o If one link becomes unusable, it does not
dedicated point-to-point link only to a
incapacitate the entire system.
central controller, usually called a hub.
➢ The devices are not directly linked to one
✓ Third, there is the advantage of privacy or
another.
security.
➢ Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology
o When every message travels along a
does not allow direct traffic between
dedicated line, only the intended
devices.
recipient sees it. Physical boundaries
➢ The controller acts as an exchange: If one
prevent other users from gaining access
device wants to send data to another, it
to messages.
sends the data to the controller, which
then relays the data to the other
✓ Finally, point-to-point links make fault
connected device.
identification and fault isolation easy.
o Traffic can be routed to avoid links with
suspected problems. This facility
enables the network manager to
discover the precise location of the fault
and aids in finding its cause and
solution.

The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the

amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports (network
interface) required.
Advantage
 First, because every device must be connected to ✓ A star topology is less expensive than a mesh
every other device, installation and reconnection topology.
are difficult. o In a star, each device needs only one link
and one I/O port to connect it to any
 Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be
number of others. This factor also makes
greater than the available space (in walls,
it easy to install and reconfigure. Far less
ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
cabling needs to be housed, and
additions, moves, and deletions involve

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ANGELA MONIQUE Z. BUHAT, ICE 3205
 only one connection: between that For this reason, there is a limit on the
device and the hub. number of taps a bus can support and on
the distance between those taps.
✓ Other advantages include robustness.
o If one link fails, only that link is affected.
All other links remain active.
o This factor also lends itself to easy fault
identification and fault isolation.
o As long as the hub is working, it can be
used to monitor link problems and
bypass defective links.

Disadvantages
Advantages
 One big disadvantage of a star topology is the
✓ Include ease of installation.
dependency of the whole topology on one single
o Backbone cable can be laid along the
point, the hub.
most efficient path, then connected to
o If the hub goes down, the whole system
the nodes by drop lines of various
is dead.
lengths.
o Although a star requires far less cable
o In this way, a bus uses less cabling than
than a mesh, each node must be linked
mesh or star topologies.
to a central hub.
o In a star, for example, four network
o For this reason, often more cabling is
devices in the same room require four
required in a star than in some other
lengths of cable reaching all the way to
topologies (such as ring or bus).
the hub.
o Example: router/modem in houses
o In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated.
serves as hub
Only the backbone cable stretches
through the entire facility. Each drop line
BUS TOPOLOGY has to reach only as far as the nearest
point on the backbone.
➢ A bus topology, on the other hand, is
multipoint. One long cable acts as a
Disadvantages
backbone to link all the devices in a network
 Include difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
(see Figure 1.7).
Example: CATV o A bus is usually designed to be optimally
▪ Easier to design; ease of efficient at installation.
installation
o It can therefore be difficult to add new
➢ Nodes are connected to the bus cable by devices.
drop lines and taps.
o Signal reflection at the taps can cause
➢ A drop line is a connection running between degradation in quality. This degradation
the device and the main cable. can be controlled by limiting the number
and spacing of devices connected to a
➢ A tap is a connector that either splices into given length of cable.
the main cable or punctures the sheathing
of a cable to create a contact with the o Adding new devices may therefore
metallic core. require modification or replacement of
the backbone
➢ As a signal travels along the backbone, some
of its energy is transformed into heat.  In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops
all transmission, even between devices on the
o Therefore, it becomes weaker and same side of the problem.
weaker as it travels farther and farther.
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ANGELA MONIQUE Z. BUHAT, ICE 3205
 o The damaged area reflects signals back Disadvantages
in the direction of origin, creating noise  Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
in both directions. o In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such
as a disabled station) can disable the
Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in entire network.
the design of early local area networks. o This weakness can be solved by using a
dual ring or a switch capable of closing
off the break.
RING TOPOLOGY

➢ In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated

point-to-point connection with only the two Ring topology was prevalent when International
devices on either side of it. Business Machines (IBM) introduced its local-area
network Token Ring. Today, the need for higher-speed
➢ A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, LANs has made this topology less popular.
from device to device, until it reaches its
destination.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY
➢ Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
➢ A network can be hybrid. For example, we can
o When a device receives a signal intended
have a main star topology with each branch
for another device, its repeater
connecting several stations in a bus topology as
regenerates the bits and passes them
shown in Figure 1.9.
along (see Figure 1.8).

Advantages
✓ A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
o Each device is linked to only its NETWORK MODELS
immediate neighbors (either physically
or logically). Computer networks are created by different entities.
o To add or delete a device requires o Standards are needed so that these
changing only two connections. The only heterogeneous networks can communicate with
constraints are media and traffic one another.
considerations.
The two best-known standards are the OSI model and the
✓ Fault isolation is simplified
Internet model.
o Generally, in a ring, a signal is circulating
✓ The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model
at all times. If one device does not
defines a seven-layer network
receive a signal within a specified
✓ The Internet model defines a five-layer network.
period, it can issue an alarm.
o The alarm alerts the network operator to
the problem and its location.

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 for example, engineering workstations
CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS
or accounting PCs. One of the computers
may be given a large-capacity disk drive
Today when we speak of networks, we are generally and may become a server to clients.
referring to two primary categories: local-area networks
and wide-area networks. o Software can be stored on this central

o The category into which a network falls is server and used as needed by the whole
determined by its size. group.
o A LAN normally covers an area less than ▪ In this example, the size of the
2 mi; LAN may be determined by
o a WAN can be worldwide. licensing restrictions on the
o Networks of a size in between are number of users per copy of

normally referred to as metropolitan- software, or by restrictions on

area networks and span tens of miles. the number of users licensed to
access the operating system.

LOCAL AREA NETWORK ➢ In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from

other types of networks by their transmission
➢ A local area network (LAN) is usually privately media and topology.
owned and links the devices in a single office, o In general, a given LAN will use only one
building, or campus. type of transmission medium.
o The most common LAN topologies are
o Depending on the needs of an
bus, ring, and star.
organization and the type of technology
used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs
and a printer in someone's home office; Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per
or it can extend throughout a company second (Mbps) range.
and include audio and video peripherals. • Today, however, speeds are normally 100 or 1000
Mbps
➢ Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
• Wireless LANs are the newest evolution in LAN
technology.

WIDE AREA NETWORK

➢ A wide area network (WAN) provides long-

distance transmission of data, image, audio, and
video information over large geographic areas
that may comprise a country, a continent, or even
the whole world.

➢ Synonymous to the internet

➢ LANs are designed to allow resources to be ➢ A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that
shared between personal computers or connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-up line
workstations. that connects a home computer to the Internet.
o The resources to be shared can include
➢ We normally refer to the first as a switched WAN
hardware (e.g., a printer), software (e.g.,
and to the second as a point-to-point WAN
an application program), or data.
(Figure 1.11).
o A common example of a LAN, found in
many business environments, links a
workgroup of task-related computers,

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ANGELA MONIQUE Z. BUHAT, ICE 3205
 ➢ Another example is the cable TV network that
originally was designed for cable TV, but today
can also be used for high-speed data connection
to the Internet.

INTERCONNECTION OF NETWORKS: INTERNETWORK

➢ Today, it is very rare to see a LAN, a MAN, or a LAN

in isolation; they are connected to one another.

When two or more networks are connected, they

become an internetwork, or internet.

The switched WAN connects the end systems, which

usually comprise a router (internet-working connecting
device) that connects to another LAN or WAN.

o An early example of a switched WAN is X.25, a

network designed to provide connectivity
between end users.

o A good example of a switched WAN is the

asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network,
which is a network with fixed-size data unit
packets called cells.

The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a

telephone or cable TV provider that connects a home
computer or a small LAN to an Internet service provider
(lSP).
• This type of WAN is often used to provide
Internet access. CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS

▪ LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LANs)

» Short distances
Another example of WANs is the wireless WAN that
» Designed to provide local interconnectivity
is becoming more and more popular.
▪ WIDE AREA NETWORKS (WANs)
» Long distances
» Provide connectivity over large areas
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS
▪ METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS (MANs)
➢ A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network ✓ Provide connectivity over areas
such as city, a campus
with a size between a LAN and a WAN.

➢ It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.

➢ It is designed for customers who need a high-

speed connectivity, normally to the Internet, and
have endpoints spread over a city or part of city.

A good example of a MAN is the part of the

telephone company network that can provide a high-
speed DSL line to the customer.

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ANGELA MONIQUE Z. BUHAT, ICE 3205
 1-3. THE INTERNET 1969
» ARPANET was a reality
The Internet is a structured, organized system.
» Four nodes, at the University of California at Los
o The Internet is a communication system that has Angeles (UCLA), the University of California at
brought a wealth of information to our fingertips Santa Barbara (UCSB), Stanford Research
and organized it for our use. Institute (SRI), and the University of Utah, were
connected via the IMPs to form a network.

» Software called the Network Control Protocol

A BRIEF HISTORY (NCP) provided communication between the
hosts.

A network is a group of connected communicating devices

such as computers and printers.
1972

» Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part

An internet (note the lowercase letter i) is two or more of the core ARPANET group, collaborated on what
networks that can communicate with each other. they called the Internetting Project.

The most notable internet is called the Internet » Cerf and Kahn's landmark 1973 paper outlined the
(uppercase letter I), a collaboration of more than protocols to achieve end-to-end delivery of
hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks. packets.

o This paper on Transmission Control

Protocol (TCP) included concepts such
Mid-1960s as encapsulation, the datagram, and the
functions of a gateway.
» Mainframe computers in research organizations
were stand-alone devices.
» Computers from different manufacturers were
Authorities made a decision to split TCP into two
unable to communicate with one another
protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in Internetworking Protocol (lP).
the Department of Defense (DoD)
o interested in finding a way to connect • Internetworking Protocol (IP) would handle
computers so that the researchers they datagram routing, while
funded could share their findings,
thereby reducing costs and eliminating • Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) would be
duplication of effort. responsible for higher-level functions such as
segmentation, reassembly, and error detection.
1967
o The internetworking protocol became
» ARPA presented its ideas for ARPANET, a small known as TCPIIP.
network of connected computers at an
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)
meeting
o The idea was that each host computer THE INTERNET TODAY:
(not necessarily from the same INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS
manufacturer) would be attached to a
specialized computer, called an interface
The Internet has come a long way since the 1960s.
message processor (IMP).
▪ The IMPs, in turn, would be • The Internet today is not a simple hierarchical
connected to one another. structure.
▪ Each IMP had to be able to • It is made up of many wide- and local-area
communicate with other IMPs networks joined by connecting devices and
as well as with its own attached switching stations.
host • Today most end users who want Internet
connection use the services of Internet service
providers (lSPs).

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ANGELA MONIQUE Z. BUHAT, ICE 3205
 The Internet today is run by private Local Internet Service Providers
companies, not the government. Figure 1.13 shows a
conceptual (not geographic) view of the Internet. » Local Internet service providers provide direct
service to the end users.

» The local ISPs can be connected to regional ISPs

or directly to national ISPs.

» Most end users are connected to the local ISPs.

o Note that in this sense, a local ISP can be

a company that just provides Internet
services, a corporation with a network
that supplies services to its own
employees, or a nonprofit organization,
such as a college or a university, that
runs its own network.

o Each of these local ISPs can be

connected to a regional or national
Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
service provider.
1. International Internet Service Providers
2. National Internet Service Providers
3. Regional Internet Service Providers
1-4. PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
4. Local Internet Service Providers

Protocols = rules
International Internet Service Providers
Standards = agreed-upon rules
» At the top of the hierarchy are the international
service providers that connect nations together.
PROTOCOLS

National Internet Service Providers In computer networks, communication occurs

between entities in different systems.
» The national Internet service providers are
backbone networks created and maintained by
specialized companies. An entity is anything capable of sending or receiving
information. However, two entities cannot simply send bit
» To provide connectivity between the end users,
streams to each other and expect to be understood. For
these backbone networks are connected by
communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.
complex switching stations (normally run by a
third party) called network access points (NAPs).
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
» Some national ISP networks are also connected communications.
to one another by private switching stations ✓ A protocol defines what is communicated, how it
called peering points. is communicated, and when it is communicated.
o These normally operate at a high data
rate (up to 600 Mbps). ✓ The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics, and timing.

Regional Internet Service Providers SYNTAX

» Regional internet service providers or regional • refers to the structure or format of the data,
ISPs are smaller ISPs that are connected to one meaning the order in which they are presented.
or more national ISPs. o For example, a simple protocol might
expect the first 8 bits of data to be the
» They are at the third level of the hierarchy with a
smaller data rate. address of the sender, the second 8 bits
to be the address of the receiver, and the
rest of the stream to be the message
itself.

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ANGELA MONIQUE Z. BUHAT, ICE 3205
SEMANTICS
STANDARD ORGANIZATIONS
• refers to the meaning of each section of bits.

• How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and Standards are developed through the cooperation of
what action is to be taken based on that standards creation committees, forums, and government
interpretation? regulatory agencies.
o For example, does an address identify
the route to be taken or the final Standards Creation Committees
destination of the message? While many organizations are dedicated to the
establishment of standards, data telecommunications in
TIMING North America rely primarily on those published by the
• refers to two characteristics: when data should following:
be sent and how fast they can be sent. 1. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
2. International Telecommunication Union-
• For example, if a sender produces data at 100
Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T)
Mbps but the receiver can process data at only 1
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver
4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
and some data will be lost. 5. Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

STANDARDS International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

The ISO is a multinational body whose membership is

Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an
drawn mainly from the standards creation committees of
open and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and various governments throughout the world.
international interoperability of data and
• The ISO is active in developing cooperation in the
telecommunications technology and processes.
realms of scientific, technological, and economic
• Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, activity.
vendors, government agencies, and other service
providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity
necessary in today's marketplace and in
International Telecommunication Union-
international communications.
Telecommunication Standards
Data communication standards fall into two categories: Sector (ITU-T)
de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention") and de This committee was devoted to the research and
jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation"). establishment of standards for telecommunications in
general and for phone and data systems in particular.
➢ De facto
o Standards that have not been approved • By the early 1970s, a number of countries were
by an organized body but have been
defining national standards for
adopted as standards through
telecommunications, but there was still little
widespread use are de facto standards.
international compatibility.
o De facto standards are often established
originally by manufacturers who seek to • The United Nations responded by forming, as
define the functionality of a new product part of its International Telecommunication
or technology. Union (ITU), a committee, the Consultative
Committee for International Telegraphy and
➢ De jure
Telephony (CCITT).
o Those standards that have been
legislated by an officially recognized
• On March 1, 1993, the name of this committee was
body are de jure standards.
changed to the International Telecommunication
Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector
(ITU-T).

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ANGELA MONIQUE Z. BUHAT, ICE 3205
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) • By concentrating their efforts on a particular
technology, the forums are able to speed
Despite its name, the American National Standards
acceptance and use of those technologies in the
Institute is a completely private, nonprofit corporation
telecommunications community.
not affiliated with the U.S. federal government.
• The forums present their conclusions to the
• However, all ANSI activities are undertaken with standards bodies.
the welfare of the United States and its citizens
occupying primary importance.
Regulatory Agencies
• All communications technology is subject to
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) regulation by government agencies such as the
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is the
the United States.
largest professional engineering society in the world.
• The purpose of these agencies is to protect the
• International in scope, it aims to advance theory, public interest by regulating radio, television,
creativity, and product quality in the fields of and wire/cable communications.
electrical engineering, electronics, and radio as
• The FCC has authority over interstate and
well as in all related branches of engineering.
international commerce as it relates to
• As one of its goals, the IEEE oversees the communications.
development and adoption of international
standards for computing and communications.
INTERNET STANDARDS

Electronic Industries Association (EIA) • An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested

specification that is useful to and adhered to by
Aligned with ANSI, the Electronic Industries Association
those who work with the Internet.
is a nonprofit organization devoted to the promotion of
electronics manufacturing concerns. • It is a formalized regulation that must be
followed.
• Its activities include public awareness education
and lobbying efforts in addition to standards • There is a strict procedure by which a
development. specification attains Internet standard status. A
• In the field of information technology, the EIA specification begins as an Internet draft.
has made significant contributions by defining
physical connection interfaces and electronic An Internet draft is a working document (a work
signaling specifications for data communication. in progress) with no official status and a 6-month
lifetime.
o Upon recommendation from the Internet
Forums authorities, a draft may be published as
Telecommunications technology development is moving a Request for Comment (RFC).
faster than the ability of standards committees to ratify ▪ Each RFC is edited, assigned a
standards. number, and made available to
• To accommodate the need for working models all interested parties.
and agreements and to facilitate the ▪ RFCs go through maturity levels
standardization process, many special-interest and are categorized according
groups have developed forums made up of to their requirement level.
representatives from interested corporations.

• The forums work with universities and users to

test, evaluate, and standardize new technologies.

[ECE 426] Fundamentals of Data Communications | Module 1 | 15

ANGELA MONIQUE Z. BUHAT, ICE 3205