FIGURES

Choice between Figure and Table

• Tables are useful for presenting
- raw or processed data
- intermediate calculations
- precision of the data values
- multiple comparison between elements
• Figures are useful for presenting
- overall trend or fluctuation
- and comprehending a story
- comparing between a few elements
• Any illustration other than a table is called a figure.
• A figure may be a

- chart (boxes connected with lines, pie charts),

- graph (line graphs, bar graphs, scatter plots, box plots,
and pictorial graphs),
- photograph,
- map,
- drawing and diagram (block diagram, maps, and line
art)
- painting, or
- some such depiction.

• A figure conveys an overall pattern or concept underlying a

set of data.
 Referencing a Figure
• All figures need to be referenced in the text:

Figure 8.2 shows the variation of …

The variation of . . . is shown in Figure 8.2.
The variation of . . . is plotted (Fig. 8.2).

• When a figure number appears as the first word

of a sentence, it is not abbreviated.

• Merely referencing figures in the text is not

enough. One needs to discuss, in the text, all the
essential features depicted in the figure.
 Figure Caption
• Every figure should have a caption (title).
• A short one-line caption is desirable.
• The word “Figure” or the abbreviation “Fig.” and the figure
number (followed by a colon and a space) precede the
caption.
• Use the chosen word consistently in both the text and the
figure caption.

Figure 5.1: Probability Density Function of Population Density

Fig. 5.1: Probability Density Function of Population Density

• Figure caption (along with figure number) appears below

the figure and is usually placed symmetric to the figure.
• No period appears after a figure caption.
 Figure Number
• Figures are numbered.
• In small documents they are numbered
serially as they are first referenced.
• In large documents that are divided into
chapters, the figure number follows a double-
numeration system (such as Fig. 5.1) where
the first number indicates the chapter number
and the second number indicates the serial
number of the figure in that chapter.
 Subplots
• Related figures may be assigned letters a and b,
with figure number and label appearing at the
bottom.

• The text refers to these figures as follows:

Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b

 bc=80
abcd=96

ac=60 cd=75

C C
ab=65 bd=45
B
B
(1)=45 ad=100
A A

a. The Principal Fraction b. The Alternate Fraction

Figure 2: The Two One-Half Fractions of 23 Design

 Figure Legends
• A legend provides a key to symbols.
• It clarifies meanings of line styles, symbols, or such other
details given in the figure.
• It needs to be given in an area in an unused corner of the
figure.
• A legend may also be an explanation consisting of one or
more sentences. In this case the figure caption ends
with a period after which the legend starts:

Figure 5.2: Annual Production of Indian Steel

Plants. This figure indicates the annual production
of hot metal in India.
 (a)

(b)
Fig.2. (a) I-V curve (b) P-V curve of PV module at different irradiation and
temperature of 25 °C
 Line Thickness
• The lines in a figure should never be thinner
than 0.5 point and should be of uniform
density.
• Figures of equal importance should be of
same size.
• For computer-generated figures, the output
must have a minimum resolution of 300 dots
per inch (dpi).
 Citing Source of Figure/Data
• If a figure is taken from an already published
work of someone else, its source must be
mentioned below the figure caption.

• For such reproduction, prior permission of the

copyright owner is required.

• Write “With permission from . . .” as a footnote to

the figure.
 bc=80
abcd=96

ac=60 cd=75

C C bd=45
ab=65
B
B
(1)=45 ad=100
A A

a. The Principal Fraction b. The Alternate Fraction

Figure 2: The Two One-Half Fractions of 23 Design

Source: Montgomery (2010, p. 295)

• If you reproduce a figure from one of your own
published papers, you need to get the permission
of the publisher unless such permission is given in
the signed copyright transfer from.

• If the data published by someone else are used to

develop a figure, the source should be credited
by writing

Data from . . .

after the figure caption.

 Location of a Figure
• A figure should be placed after, and close to,
the text where it is first referred.
• If it cannot be fitted on the page where it is
first referred, it should be given on the top of
the next page.
• The aspect ratio of a figure is height: width ::
2:3.

• Use arrows, circles, call-out boxes, and similar

aids to help you draw attention to details if
needed.

• In block diagrams, use a maximum of 10

blocks or shapes.
Graphs
• A graph is a special form of figure that shows
the variation of dependent variables (Y-axis)
with the change in the value of an
independent variable (X-axis).

• Often they may be two- or three-dimensional.

 Graph Guidelines
• Label both X and Y axes and write their units of
measure.

• Do not crowd the interval marks on the axis scales.

• Line weights should be the heaviest for the graph, and

the lightest for the boundary (Maximize data-ink ratio).

• All symbols and letters in the axis labels and the legend
must be clear and readable (not less than 8 point).
• To compare values of two variables, plot the two
variables on the same graph using the same scale.

• Give tick marks at equal intervals on each axis to

indicate units of measurement. Tick marks should not
too many, and should point outwards for both axes.

• An axis label should be placed parallel to the axis

unless the label is short (one or two words). Letters
stacked vertically or words stacked vertically are bad.

• To have better clarity, choose the Y-axis scale such that

the curves are separated by adequate space.

• Do not clutter a graph with too many curves. Usually,

no more than four curves are shown in a graph.
• In case of bar graphs, one can show error bar
(1-sigma) or error bar (95 % C. I.) on the top of
each bar.

• Box plots show the median, the 1st and the 3rd
quartiles, and extreme values (maximum and
minimum, or 1.5 × IQR, or 1-sigma) on
whiskers above and below the box.
 Mild Outliers Extreme
Box Plot Outliers

* ◦

0 5 X 10 15

Example:
Consider data: 1 4 7 8 9 12 32
Lower Inner Fence: x.25 – 1.5 IQR
Upper Inner Fence: x.75 + 1.5 IQR x.50 = 2nd quartile = Median = 8
Lower Outer Fence: x.25 – 3 IQR x.25 = 1st quartile = 4
Upper Outer Fence: x.75 + 3 IQR x.75 = 3rd quartile =12
IQR = 12 – 4 = 8
Mild outliers are outside the inner fences but (1.5)(IQR) = (1.5)(12) = 18
inside the outer fences. Upper Outer Fence = 12 + 18 = 30
Extreme outliers are outside the outer fences.
32 is an extreme outlier.
 20 20
18 ◦
◦
16
14 15
% of ◦ ◦ ◦
12

% of Total
Total ◦
10 10 ◦ ◦
8
6 ◦ 5 ◦ ◦ ◦
◦ ◦
4 ◦ ◦◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
◦
2 ◦ ◦◦◦◦◦◦ ◦◦ 0 ◦
0 ◦ ◦◦
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 1 3 5 7 9
log2 (Number of Recipients)
Number of Recipients

Poorly Constructed • Data rectangles smaller than the scale rectangles.

Scatterplot • Grids are omitted.
• Less number of ticks.
• Tick marks pointed outward.
• Logarithmic scale (to the base 2) is used.
Number of Registered Voters

Number of Registered Voters

40

30 40
30
20
20 10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Month
10
0 20 40 60 80 100
Aspect Ratio Banked to 45 Degrees
120 Month
Aspect Ratio Set to 1.0 New information Conveyed by This Figure

The drop off in registration following a spike is

Minimizes the sum of the absolute values of the
much sharper than the gradual increase in
slopes of the interpolated lines.
registration numbers that occur on the leading
edge of each spike.
Photographs
 Photograph Guidelines
• Photographs should be taken in proper lighting
condition, suitable background and with subject clearly
distinguishable.

• If a series of pictures are taken for comparison

purpose, use the same height, the same angle, and the
same distance from the subject.

• Indicate the scale (scale bar) – particularly on

micrographs, or at least provide a reference point, to
indicate the relative size. Alternatively, if you want to
state the original magnfication, give it in the legend
and add the photographic reduction when it is known.
• For micrographs, indicate the power to which the
image was taken (either in the caption or on the figure
itself).

• Original photographs, not photocopies, should be

attached to each report.

• They should be high-quality, black-and-white glossy

prints with good density, sharp focus, and details, and
with good contrast between light and dark areas.

• A photograph should have rich contrast and sharp

prints. A light or dark background can provide good
contrast. It is good to use black-and-white prints to
achieve better contrast.
• Highlight the subject and the details. Eliminate
extraneous details.

• The recommended resolution of a photograph is 300

dpi (dots per inch), whereas that of a line art is 600 dpi.

• If you choose to give colour prints, then there must be

colour prints on all copies because photocopying a
colour print does not always give an accurate
reproduction.

• If you like to compare two photographs, put them side-

by-side.
• If you like to give a person’s photograph, get the
person’s signed consent.

• Glue the photographs on to the pages rather than

staple or pin it.

• Photographs should be placed on the main text of

the document, not in the Appendix.

• Label everything that is relevant.