MOMBASA AIRWAYS TRAINING INSTITUTE

Information network and Internet

E-learning
Department of Information Technology
Tutor: Mr. Kevin Osanya (0713665783)

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Table of Contents
What is a Network?....................................................................................................................................... 5
Local Area Network ................................................................................................................................... 5
Wide Area Network .................................................................................................................................. 5
Advantages of Installing a School Network .............................................................................................. 5
Disadvantages of Installing a Network...................................................................................................... 6
What is a Protocol? ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Ethernet (Physical/Data Link Layers) .................................................................................................... 8
Ethernet ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Fast Ethernet ......................................................................................................................................... 8
Gigabit Ethernet .................................................................................................................................... 9
HTTP, FTP, SMTP and DNS (Session/Presentation/Application Layers)................................................ 9
What is Networking Hardware?.................................................................................................................. 10
File/Network Servers .............................................................................................................................. 10
Workstations ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Laptops/Mobile Devices ......................................................................................................................... 11
Network Interface Cards ......................................................................................................................... 11
Ethernet Cards .................................................................................................................................... 12
Wireless Adapters ............................................................................................................................... 12
Switches .............................................................................................................................................. 13
Repeaters ............................................................................................................................................ 13
Bridges ................................................................................................................................................ 13
Routers ................................................................................................................................................ 14
Firewalls .............................................................................................................................................. 15
What is Network Cabling?........................................................................................................................... 15
Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector.................................................................................................... 17
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable ....................................................................................................... 17
Coaxial Cable ....................................................................................................................................... 17
Coaxial Cable Connectors.................................................................................................................... 18
Fiber Optic Cable ................................................................................................................................. 18
Installing Cable - Some Guidelines .......................................................................................................... 19
Wireless LANs.......................................................................................................................................... 20
Wireless standards and speeds........................................................................................................... 20

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 Wireless Security ................................................................................................................................. 21
Advantages of wireless networks: ...................................................................................................... 21
Disadvantages of wireless networks: .................................................................................................. 22
What is a Topology? .................................................................................................................................... 22
Main Types of Physical Topologies ................................................................................................. 22
Linear Bus ................................................................................................................................................ 23
Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology ............................................................................................ 23
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology ........................................................................................ 23
Star .......................................................................................................................................................... 23
Advantages of a Star Topology ........................................................................................................ 24
Disadvantages of a Star Topology ................................................................................................... 24
Tree or Expanded Star............................................................................................................................. 24
Advantages of a Tree Topology ....................................................................................................... 25
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology ................................................................................................... 25
5-4-3 Rule ............................................................................................................................................ 25
Considerations When Choosing a Topology ....................................................................................... 26
Summary Chart ................................................................................................................................ 26
Internet ....................................................................................................................................................... 26
Evolution ..................................................................................................................................................... 27
Advantages.............................................................................................................................................. 27
Disadvantages ......................................................................................................................................... 29
TERMS USED ON THE INETRNET ................................................................................................................. 30
Domain ................................................................................................................................................ 30
Browser ............................................................................................................................................... 30
E-mail .................................................................................................................................................. 31
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) ................................................................................................................. 31
Homepage ........................................................................................................................................... 31
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).................................................................................................... 31
Internet Protocol (IP) Address ............................................................................................................ 31
Link or Hypertext Link ......................................................................................................................... 31
TelNet .................................................................................................................................................. 32
Uniform Resource Locator (URL) ........................................................................................................ 32
Web Page ............................................................................................................................................ 32

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 Website ............................................................................................................................................... 32
Wide World Web (WWW)................................................................................................................... 32
E-MAIL ......................................................................................................................................................... 32
E-mail address breakdown................................................................................................................... 32
How to send and receive e-mail ........................................................................................................... 33
E-mail program ................................................................................................................................. 33
Online e-mail ..................................................................................................................................... 33
How to create an e-mail account ............................................................................................................ 33
Google Gmail........................................................................................................................................... 33
Outlook.com (formerly Hotmail) ............................................................................................................ 35
Yahoo! Mail ............................................................................................................................................. 36
Microsoft Outlook ................................................................................................................................... 37
Mozilla Thunderbird................................................................................................................................ 38
Writing an e-mail .................................................................................................................................... 38
What makes a valid e-mail address? ...................................................................................................... 39
Advantages of e-mail .............................................................................................................................. 40
What's the difference between webmail and an e-mail client? ......................................................... 40
What are some of the popular e-mail clients? ................................................................................... 40
What can be sent in an e-mail? .......................................................................................................... 40
Should I use "e-mail" or "email" in my writing? ................................................................................. 41

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What is a Network?
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as
printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a
network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light
beams.

Two very common types of networks include:

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Wide Area Network (WAN)

Local Area Network

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area. It is
generally limited to a geographic area such as a writing lab, school, or building.

Wide Area Network

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect networks in larger geographic areas, such as kenya, the
United States, or the world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to
connect this type of global network.

Advantages of Installing a School Network

i. User access control.
a. Modern networks almost always have one or more servers which allows
centralized management for users and for network resources to which they have
access. User credentials on a privately-owned and operated network may be as
simple as a user name and password, but with ever-increasing attention to
computing security issues, these servers are critical to ensuring that sensitive
information is only available to authorized users.
ii. Information storing and sharing.
a. Computers allow users to create and manipulate information. Information takes
on a life of its own on a network. The network provides both a place to store the
information and mechanisms to share that information with other network users.
iii. Connections.
a. Administrators, instructors, and even students and guests can be connected using
the campus network.

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 iv. Services.
a. The school can provide services, such as registration, school directories, course
schedules, access to research, and email accounts, and many others. (Remember,
network services are generally provided by servers).
v. Internet.
a. The school can provide network users with access to the internet, via an internet
gateway.
vi. Computing resources.
a. The school can provide access to special purpose computing devices which
individual users would not normally own. For example, a school network might
have high-speed high quality printers strategically located around a campus for
instructor or student use.
vii. Flexible Access.
a. School networks allow students to access their information from connected
devices throughout the school. Students can begin an assignment in their
classroom, save part of it on a public access area of the network, then go to the
media center after school to finish their work. Students can also work
cooperatively through the network.
viii. Workgroup Computing.
a. Collaborative software allows many users to work on a document or project
concurrently. For example, educators located at various schools within a county
could simultaneously contribute their ideas about new curriculum standards to the
same document, spreadsheets, or website.

Disadvantages of Installing a Network

i. Expensive to Install.
a. Large campus networks can carry hefty price tags. Cabling, network cards,
routers, bridges, firewalls, wireless access points, and software can get expensive,
and the installation would certainly require the services of technicians. But, with
the ease of setup of home networks, a simple network with internet access can be
setup for a small campus in an afternoon.
ii. Requires Administrative Time.
a. Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time and expertise. Many
schools have installed a network, only to find that they did not budget for the
necessary administrative support.
iii. Servers Fail.
a. Although a network server is no more susceptible to failure than any other
computer, when the files server "goes down" the entire network may come to a
halt. Good network design practices say that critical network services (provided
by servers) should be redundant on the network whenever possible.
iv. Cables May Break.
a. The Topology chapter presents information about the various configurations of
cables. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the inconvenience of
a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can stop the entire
network.

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 v. Security and compliance.
a. Network security is expensive. It is also very important. A school network would
possibly be subject to more stringent security requirements than a similarly-sized
corporate network, because of its likelihood of storing personal and confidential
information of network users, the danger of which can be compounded if any
network users are minors. A great deal of attention must be paid to network
services to ensure all network content is appropriate for the network community it
serves.

What is a Protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a network. In
order for two computers to talk to each other, they must be speaking the same language. Many
different types of network protocols and standards are required to ensure that your computer (no
matter which operating system, network card, or application you are using) can communicate
with another computer located on the next desk or half-way around the world. The OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) Reference Model defines seven layers of networking protocols. The
complexity of these layers is beyond the scope of this tutorial; however, they can be simplified
into four layers to help identify some of the protocols with which you should be familiar (see fig
1).

OSI Layer Name Common Protocols

HTTP | FTP | SMTP | DNS |
7 Application
Telnet
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport TCP | SPX
3 Network IP | IPX
2 Data Link
Ethernet
1 Physical

Fig 1. OSI model related to common network protocols

Figure 1 illustrates how some of the major protocols would correlate to the OSI model in order to
communicate via the Internet. In this model, there are four layers, including:

 Ethernet (Physical/Data Link Layers)

 IP/IPX (Network Layer)
 TCP/SPX (Transport Layer)
 HTTP, FTP, Telnet, SMTP, and DNS(combined Session/Presentation/Application
Layers)

Assuming you want to send an e-mail message to someone in Italy, we will examine the layers
"from the bottom up" -- beginning with Ethernet (physical/data link layers).

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Ethernet (Physical/Data Link Layers)

The physical layer of the network focuses on hardware elements, such as cables, repeaters, and
network interface cards. By far the most common protocol used at the physical layer is Ethernet.
For example, an Ethernet network (such as 10BaseT or 100BaseTX) specifies the type of cables
that can be used, the optimal topology (star vs. bus, etc.), the maximum length of cables, etc.
(See the Cabling section for more information on Ethernet standards related to the physical
layer).

The data link layer of the network addresses the way that data packets are sent from one node to
another. Ethernet uses an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection). This is a system where each computer listens to the cable before
sending anything through the network. If the network is clear, the computer will transmit. If
some other node is already transmitting on the cable, the computer will wait and try again when
the line is clear. Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit at the same instant. When this
happens a collision occurs. Each computer then backs off and waits a random amount of time
before attempting to retransmit. With this access method, it is normal to have collisions.
However, the delay caused by collisions and retransmitting is very small and does not normally
effect the speed of transmission on the network.

Ethernet

The original Ethernet standard was developed in 1983 and had a maximum speed of 10 Mbps
(phenomenal at the time) over coaxial cable. The Ethernet protocol allows for bus, star, or tree
topologies, depending on the type of cables used and other factors. This heavy coaxial cabling
was expensive to purchase, install, and maintain, and very difficult to retrofit into existing
facilities.

The current standards are now built around the use of twisted pair wire. Common twisted pair
standards are 10BaseT, 100BaseT, and 1000BaseT. The number (10, 100, 1000) ands for the
speed of transmission (10/100/1000 megabits per second); the "Base" stands for "baseband"
meaning it has full control of the wire on a single frequency; and the "T" stands for "twisted
pair" cable. Fiber cable can also be used at this level in 10BaseFL.

Fast Ethernet

The Fast Ethernet protocol supports transmission up to 100 Mbps. Fast Ethernet requires the use
of different, more expensive network concentrators/hubs and network interface cards. In
addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is necessary. Fast Ethernet standards
include:

 100BaseT - 100 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP cable.

 100BaseFX - 100 Mbps over fiber cable.
 100BaseSX -100 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
 100BaseBX - 100 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.

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Gigabit Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a transmission speed of 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps). It
can be used with both fiber optic cabling and copper. (see the Cabling section for more
information).

 1000BaseT - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP cable.

 1000BaseTX - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 6 or better UTP cable.
 1000BaseFX - 1000 Mbps over fiber cable.
 1000BaseSX -1000 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
 1000BaseBX - 1000 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.

The Ethernet standards continue to evolve. with 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10,000 Mbps) and 100
Gigabit Ethernet (100,000 Mbps),

Ethernet Protocol Summary

Protocol Cable Speed

Ethernet Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Fiber 10 Mbps
Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 100 Mbps
Gigabit Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 1000 Mbps

HTTP, FTP, SMTP and DNS (Session/Presentation/Application Layers)

Several protocols overlap the session, presentation, and application layers of networks. There
protocols listed below are a few of the more well-known:

 DNS - Domain Name System - translates network address (such as IP addresses) into
terms understood by humans (such as Domain Names) and vice-versa
 DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol - can automatically assign Internet
addresses to computers and users
 FTP - File Transfer Protocol - a protocol that is used to transfer and manipulate files on
the Internet
 HTTP - HyperText Transfer Protocol - An Internet-based protocol for sending and
receiving webpages
 IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol - A protocol for e-mail messages on the
Internet
 IRC - Internet Relay Chat - a protocol used for Internet chat and other communications
 POP3 - Post Office protocol Version 3 - a protocol used by e-mail clients to retrieve
messages from remote servers
 SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol - A protocol for e-mail messages on the Internet

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What is Networking Hardware?
Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other equipment
needed to perform data-processing and communications within the network. CLICK on the terms
below to learn more about those pieces of networking hardware.

 Workstations
 Hubs
 Bridges
 Firewalls
 Routers
 FileServers
 Repeaters

This section provides information on the following components:

 Network Servers
 Workstations
 Network Interface Cards
 Switches
 Repeaters
 Bridges
 Routers
 Firewalls

File/Network Servers

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One or more network servers is a part of nearly every local area network. These are very fast
computers with a large amount of RAM and storage space, along with a one or more fast
network interface card(s). The network operating system provides tools to share server resources
and information with network users. A sophisticated permissions-handling system is included, so
that access to sensitive information can be carefully tailored to the needs of the users. For small
networks, a singe network server may provide access control, file sharing, printer sharing, email,
database, and other services.

The network server may be responding to requests from many network users simultaneously. For
example, it may be asked to load a word processor program to one workstation, receive a
database file from another workstation, and store an e-mail message during the same time period.
This requires a computer that can store and quickly share large amounts of information. When
configuring such a server, budget is usually the controlling factor. The following guidelines
should be followed:

 Fastest processor(s)
 Large amount of RAM
 multiple large, fast hard drives
 Extra expansion slots
 Fast network interface card(s)

Optionally (if no other such devices are available on the network):

 A RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) to preserve large amounts of data(even

after a disk failure)
 A back-up unit (i.e. DAT tape drive, removable hard drives, or CD/DVD/BluRay burner)

Workstations
Computers that humans use are broadly categorized as workstations. A typical workstation is a
computer that is configured with a network interface card, networking software, and the
appropriate cables. Workstations do not necessarily need large storage hard drives, because files
can be saved on the file server. Almost any computer can serve as a network workstation.

Laptops/Mobile Devices
Laptops and other mobile devices are becoming more and more common. These devices
typically have modest internal storage, but enough power to serve as a workstation for users on
the go. These machines nearly always have a wireless adapter to allow quick network
connections without cumbersome cabling. In a school environment with good wireless coverage,
a mobile device user can move about the campus freely, and remain continuously connected to
the network.

Network Interface Cards

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The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection between the network and the
computer workstation. Most NICs are internal, and they are included in the purchase of most
computers. Network interface cards are a major factor in determining the speed and performance
of a network. It is a good idea to use the fastest network card available for the type of
workstation you are using.

The most common network interface connections are Ethernet cards and wireless adapters.

Ethernet Cards

Ethernet cards are usually included with a computer, although additional ethernet cards can be
purchased and installed on most computers,. Ethernet cards can contain connections for either
coaxial or twisted pair cables (or both) (See fig. 1). If it is designed for coaxial cable, the
connection will be BNC. If it is designed for twisted pair, it will have a RJ-45 connection. Some
Ethernet cards also contain an AUI connector. This can be used to attach coaxial, twisted pair, or
fiber optics cable to an Ethernet card. When this method is used there is always an external
transceiver attached to the workstation. Only the RJ-45 connector is found on most modern
ethernet cards (See the Cabling section for more information on connectors.)

Fig. 1. Ethernet card.

From top to bottom:

RJ-45, AUI, and BNC connectors

Wireless Adapters

Wireless adapters are found in most portable devices, such as laptops, smart phones, and tablet
devices. External wireless adapters can be purchased and installed on most computers having an
open USB (Universal Serial Bus) port, or unused expansion slot. (See the Cabling section for
more information on connectors.)

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Switches

An ethernet switch is a device that provides a central connection point for cables from
workstations, servers, and peripherals. In a star topology, twisted-pair wire is run from each
workstation to a central switch/hub. Most switches are active, that is they electrically amplify the
signal as it moves from one device to another. The predecessor of the switch was the hub, which
broadcasted all inbound packets out all ports of the device, creating huge amounts of
unnecessary network traffic. Modern switches build a port map of all IP address which respond
on each port, and only broadcasts on all ports when it doesn't have a packet's target IP address
already in its port map. Switches are:

 Usually configured with 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports

 Often used in a star or tree topology
 Available as "managed" or "unmanaged", with the later less expensive, but adequate for
smaller networks
 direct replacements for hubs, immediately reducing network traffic in most networks
 Usually installed in a standardized metal rack that also may store network servers,
bridges, or routers

Repeaters

Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often necessary to boost the signal
with a device called a repeater. The repeater electrically amplifies the signal it receives and
rebroadcasts it. Repeaters can be separate devices or they can be incorporated into a
concentrator. They are used when the total length of your network cable exceeds the standards
set for the type of cable being used.

A good example of the use of repeaters would be in a local area network using a star topology
with unshielded twisted-pair cabling. The length limit for unshielded twisted-pair cable is 100
meters. The most common configuration is for each workstation to be connected by twisted-pair
cable to a multi-port active concentrator. The concentrator amplifies all the signals that pass
through it allowing for the total length of cable on the network to exceed the 100 meter limit.

Bridges

A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two smaller, more efficient
networks. If you are adding to an older wiring scheme and want the new network to be up-to-
date, a bridge can connect the two.

A bridge monitors the information traffic on both sides of the network so that it can pass packets
of information to the correct location. Most bridges can "listen" to the network and automatically
figure out the address of each computer on both sides of the bridge. The bridge can inspect each
message and, if necessary, broadcast it on the other side of the network.

The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on both sides of the network.
You might say that the bridge is like a traffic cop at a busy intersection during rush hour. It keeps

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information flowing on both sides of the network, but it does not allow unnecessary traffic
through. Bridges can be used to connect different types of cabling, or physical topologies. They
must, however, be used between networks with the same protocol.

Routers

Routers are the traffic directors of the global internet. All routers maintain complex routing
tables which allow them to determine appropriate paths for packets destined for any address.
Routers communicate with each other, and forward network packets out of or into a network.
Here's an example:

You want to search for something on the internet using a search engine. You open a browser on
your workstation. The browser opens to a blank page (not usually the default, but appropriate for
this example). You type "http://www.google.com" into the URL (Universal Resource Locator)
address line of the browser. The browser software packages up the URL you typed, and sends it
with a request for an IP address to the DNS (Domain Name Server) that has been set in your
network adapter's configuration. The domain server returns an IP, such as 74.125.67.103 (actual
address returned by DNS for google.com on June 7th, 2011). The browser ships the request for
that IP address off to the network card, which bundles the request into an ethernet packet,
destined for 74.125.67.103. The network card sends the packet to the gateway of your network,
which opens the header of the packet, and makes a determination that the packet is traveling out
of your network, in search of 74.125.67.103. Your network's router has routing tables which it
has been building from communicating with other routers, and potentially augmented with "static
routes", which are specific paths added by your network's administrators to make the task of
accessing certain networks easier, or faster, or in some cases, not possible. In this case, I find that
my router knows about another router at my ISP(Internet Service Provider), which in turn has
several more routers that are all on networks of which I am just a small node, much like finding
an atom of a molecule of a piece of dust on a rock on a moon of a planet of a sun of a galaxy of
the universe. In any case, the packet gets passed from router to router, each time moving out of
the subnets of the packet sender, towards a router that will know where the desired server is. The
packet finally reaches the router of the network at 74.125.67.103, which dutifully delivers the
packet to the server at that IP address. The server carefully crafts a response, and sends a reply
back, which follows the same process to get the response "Yes. Go ahead" back to the requester.
Whew. And that's just the initial request.

While bridges know the addresses of all computers on each side of the network, routers know the
addresses other routers which in turn know about their own networks. Routers can even "listen"
to entire networks to determine which sections are busiest -- they can then redirect data around
those sections until traffic congestion clears.

So, routers are network gateways. They move network packets from one network to another, and
many can convert from one network protocol to another as necessary. Routers select the best
path to route a message, based on the destination address of the packet. The router can direct
traffic to prevent head-on collisions, and is smart enough to know when to direct traffic along
back roads and shortcuts.

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If you have a school LAN that you want to connect to the Internet, you will need to purchase a
router. In this case, the router serves as the forwarder between the information on your LAN and
the Internet. It also determines the best route to send the data over the Internet.

Firewalls

A firewall is a networking device that is installed at the entrance to a LAN when connecting a
networks together, particularly when connecting a private network to a public network, such as
the internet. The firewall uses rules to filter traffic into and out of the private network, to protect
the private network users and data from malevolent hackers.

Firewalls are either hardware or software, depending on their intended use. A firewall used to
protect a network is a hardware device that should be installed in the network between the router
and the network. Almost all hardware firewalls will have at least two ports, labeled "Trusted"
and "Untrusted". These terms imply the true nature of the firewall's responsibility to the private
network. The public network is connected to the untrusted network port, and the private network
is connected to the trusted port.

Firewall rules are usually simple, consisting of a verb, either allow or deny, the direction of the
traffic, either inbound or outbound, and an address or other network traffic identifier. Firewall
rules are cumulative, so general rules may be specified, and exceptions added as necessary.
Some examples are:

 Allow outbound all (all private network users can do anything on the public network)
 Deny inbound all (default setting to prevent all traffic from the public or untrusted port,
to the private port)
 Allow inbound port 80 (allow internet web traffic to come into network to find web
servers)
 Allow inbound port 80 destined to 170.200.201.25 (allow inbound web traffic to a
specific web server on your private network)
 Deny inbound from 201.202.1.1/24 (deny all inbound traffic from a specific IP address or
range of addresses)

Software firewalls are commonly included in modern workstation and server operating systems.
They operate in a similar way as hardware firewalls, except that they filter traffic in and out of
the machine itself. These software firewalls are typically unnoticed by machine users, and only
need attention occasionslly when an internet-connected application don't work as expected. The
software firewall should always be considered a "suspect" in such cases. The problem is easily
resolved, by setting an exception rule in the firewall for the software that is attempting to
communicate.

What is Network Cabling?

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to
another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a
network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable types. The

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type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size.
Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and how they relate to other aspects
of a network is necessary for the development of a successful network.

The following sections discuss the types of cables used in networks and other related topics.

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Coaxial Cable
 Fiber Optic Cable
 Cable Installation Guides
 Wireless LANs
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair
(UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school networks (See fig. 1).

Fig.1. Unshielded twisted pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The
cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of
twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices.
The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per
foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry Association)
has established standards of UTP and rated six categories of wire (additional categories are
emerging).

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Category Speed Use

1 1 Mbps Voice Only (Telephone Wire)
2 4 Mbps LocalTalk & Telephone (Rarely used)
3 16 Mbps 10BaseT Ethernet
4 20 Mbps Token Ring (Rarely used)
100 Mbps (2 pair) 100BaseT Ethernet
5
1000 Mbps (4 pair) Gigabit Ethernet

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5e 1,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet
6 10,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a
plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector (See fig. 2). A slot allows the
RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector
follows a standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard designates which wire
goes with each pin inside the connector.

Fig. 2. RJ-45 connector

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Although UTP cable is the least expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and electrical
frequency interference (it should not be too close to electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc.). If
you must place cable in environments with lots of potential interference, or if you must place
cable in extremely sensitive environments that may be susceptible to the electrical current in the
UTP, shielded twisted pair may be the solution. Shielded cables can also help to extend the
maximum distance of the cables.

Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different configurations:

1. Each pair of wires is individually shielded with foil.

2. There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group).
3. There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around the entire group of wires
(referred to as double shield twisted pair).

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation
between the center conductor and a braided metal shield (See fig. 3). The metal shield helps to
block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.

17
Fig. 3. Coaxial cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In

addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable.
The two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.

Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment
length being 200 meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial
cable has been popular in school networks, especially linear bus networks.

Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500
meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away
from the center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths
in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is
difficult to install.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman
(BNC) connector (See fig. 4). Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors,
including a T-connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the
weakest points in any network. To help avoid problems with your network, always use the BNC
connectors that crimp, rather screw, onto the cable.

Fig. 4. BNC connector

Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective
materials (See fig. 5). It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of
electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount
of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between
buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.

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Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and
twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity
broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and
interactive services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it
is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber optic cable
carrying Ethernet signals.

The center core of fiber cables is made from glass or plastic fibers (see fig 5). A plastic coating
then cushions the fiber center, and kevlar fibers help to strengthen the cables and prevent
breakage. The outer insulating jacket made of teflon or PVC.

Fig. 5. Fiber optic cable

There are two common types of fiber cables -- single mode and multimode. Multimode cable has
a larger diameter; however, both cables provide high bandwidth at high speeds. Single mode can
provide more distance, but it is more expensive.

Specification Cable Type

10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair
10Base2 Thin Coaxial
10Base5 Thick Coaxial
100BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair
100BaseFX Fiber Optic
100BaseBX Single mode Fiber
100BaseSX Multimode Fiber
1000BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair
1000BaseFX Fiber Optic
1000BaseBX Single mode Fiber
1000BaseSX Multimode Fiber

Installing Cable - Some Guidelines

When running cable, it is best to follow a few simple rules:

 Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of slack.
 Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it is brand new, it may have
problems that will be difficult to isolate later.

19
  Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes and other sources of electrical
interference.
 If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable with cable protectors.
 Label both ends of each cable.
 Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same location together.

Wireless LANs

More and more networks are operating without cables, in the wireless mode. Wireless LANs use
high frequency radio signals, infrared light beams, or lasers to communicate between the
workstations, servers, or hubs. Each workstation and file server on a wireless network has some
sort of transceiver/antenna to send and receive the data. Information is relayed between
transceivers as if they were physically connected. For longer distance, wireless communications
can also take place through cellular telephone technology, microwave transmission, or by
satellite.

Wireless networks are great for allowing laptop computers, portable devices, or remote
computers to connect to the LAN. Wireless networks are also beneficial in older buildings where
it may be difficult or impossible to install cables.

The two most common types of infrared communications used in schools are line-of-sight and
scattered broadcast. Line-of-sight communication means that there must be an unblocked direct
line between the workstation and the transceiver. If a person walks within the line-of-sight while
there is a transmission, the information would need to be sent again. This kind of obstruction can
slow down the wireless network. Scattered infrared communication is a broadcast of infrared
transmissions sent out in multiple directions that bounces off walls and ceilings until it
eventually hits the receiver. Networking communications with laser are virtually the same as
line-of-sight infrared networks.

Wireless standards and speeds

The Wi-Fi Alliance is a global, non-profit organization that helps to ensure standards and
interoperability for wireless networks, and wireless networks are often referred to as WiFi
(Wireless Fidelity). The original Wi-Fi standard (IEEE 802.11) was adopted in 1997. Since then
many variations have emerged (and will continue to emerge). Wi-Fi networks use the Ethernet
protocol.

Standard Max Speed Typical Range

802.11a 54 Mbps 150 feet

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 802.11b 11 Mbps 300 feet
802.11g 54 Mbps 300 feet
802.11n 100 Mbps 300+ feet

Wireless Security

Wireless networks are much more susceptible to unauthorized use than cabled networks.
Wireless network devices use radio waves to communicate with each other. The greatest
vulnerability to the network is that rogue machines can "eves-drop" on the radio wave
communications. Unencrypted information transmitted can be monitored by a third-party, which,
with the right tools (free to download), could quickly gain access to your entire network, steal
valuable passwords to local servers and online services, alter or destroy data, and/or access
personal and confidential information stored in your network servers. To minimize the
possibility of this, all modern access points and devices have configuration options to encrypt
transmissions. These encryption methodologies are still evolving, as are the tools used by
malicious hackers, so always use the strongest encryption available in your access point and
connecting devices.

A NOTE ON ENCRYPTION: As of this writing WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) encryption

can be easily hacked with readily-available free tools which circulate the internet. WPA and
WPA2 (WiFi Protected Access versions 1 and 2) are much better at protecting information, but
using weak passwords or passphrases when enabling these encryptions may allow them to be
easily hacked. If your network is running WEP, you must be very careful about your use of
sensitive passwords or other data.

Three basic techniques are used to protect networks from unauthorized wireless use. Use any and
all of these techniques when setting up your wireless access points:

Encryption.
Enable the strongest encryption supported by the devices you will be connecting to the
network. Use strong passwords (strong passwords are generally defined as passwords
containing symbols, numbers, and mixed case letters, at least 14 characters long).
Isolation.
Use a wireless router that places all wireless connections on a subnet independent of the
primary private network. This protects your private network data from pass-through
internet traffic.
Hidden SSID.
Every access point has a Service Set IDentifier (SSID) that by default is broadcast to
client devices so that the access point can be found. By disabling this feature, standard
client connection software won't be able to "see" the access point. However, the eves-
dropping programs discussed previously can easily find these access points, so this alone
does little more than keep the access point name out of sight for casual wireless users.

Advantages of wireless networks:

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  Mobility - With a laptop computer or mobile device, access can be available throughout a
school, at the mall, on an airplane, etc. More and more businesses are also offering free
WiFi access ("Hot spots").
 Fast setup - If your computer has a wireless adapter, locating a wireless network can be
as simple as clicking "Connect to a Network" -- in some cases, you will connect
automatically to networks within range.
 Cost - Setting up a wireless network can be much more cost effective than buying and
installing cables.
 Expandability - Adding new computers to a wireless network is as easy as turning the
computer on (as long as you do not exceed the maximum number of devices).

Disadvantages of wireless networks:

 Security - Be careful. Be vigilant. Protect your sensitive data with backups, isolated
private networks, strong encryption and passwords, and monitor network access traffic to
and from your wireless network.
 Interference - Because wireless networks use radio signals and similar techniques for
transmission, they are susceptible to interference from lights and electronic devices.
 Inconsistent connections - How many times have you hears "Wait a minute, I just lost my
connection?" Because of the interference caused by electrical devices and/or items
blocking the path of transmission, wireless connections are not nearly as stable as those
through a dedicated cable.
 Speed - The transmission speed of wireless networks is improving; however, faster
options (such as gigabit Ethernet) are available via cables. If you are only using wireless
for internet access, the actual internet connection for your home or school is generally
slower than the wireless network devices, so that connection is the bottleneck. If you are
also moving large amounts of data around a private network, a cabled connection will
enable that work to proceed much faster.

What is a Topology?
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other
peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method
used to pass information between workstations. Logical topology was discussed in the Protocol
chapter.

Main Types of Physical Topologies

The following sections discuss the physical topologies used in networks and other related topics.

 Linear Bus
 Star
 Tree (Expanded Star)
 Considerations When Choosing a Topology
 Summary Chart

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Linear Bus
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end (See fig. 1).
All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.

Fig. 1. Linear Bus topology

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

 Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Star
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected
directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator (See fig. 2).

Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its
destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network.
It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common with twisted pair cable;
however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.

23
Fig. 2. Star topology

Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.

 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

 If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.

Tree or Expanded Star

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups
of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable (See fig. 3). Tree
topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a
network to meet their needs.

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Fig. 3. Tree topology

Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

 Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

5-4-3 Rule

A consideration in setting up a tree topology using Ethernet protocol is the 5-4-3 rule. One aspect
of the Ethernet protocol requires that a signal sent out on the network cable reach every part of
the network within a specified length of time. Each concentrator or repeater that a signal goes
through adds a small amount of time. This leads to the rule that between any two nodes on the
network there can only be a maximum of 5 segments, connected through 4
repeaters/concentrators. In addition, only 3 of the segments may be populated (trunk) segments if
they are made of coaxial cable. A populated segment is one that has one or more nodes attached
to it . In Figure 4, the 5-4-3 rule is adhered to. The furthest two nodes on the network have 4
segments and 3 repeaters/concentrators between them.

25
NOTE: This rule does not apply to other network protocols or Ethernet networks where all fiber
optic cabling or a combination of a fiber backbone with UTP cabling is used. If there is a
combination of fiber optic backbone and UTP cabling, the rule would translate to a 7-6-5
rule.The speed of networking switches is vastly improved over older technologies, and while
every effort should be made to limit network segment traversal, efficient switching can allow
much larger numbers of segments to be traversed with little or no impact to the network.

Considerations When Choosing a Topology

 Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do
not have to purchase concentrators.
 Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
 Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding
another concentrator.
 Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most
often used with star topologies.

Summary Chart

Physical Topology Common Cable Common Protocol

Twisted Pair
Linear Bus Coaxial Ethernet
Fiber
Twisted Pair
Star Ethernet
Fiber
Twisted Pair
Tree Coaxial Ethernet
Fiber

Internet
Internet is defined as an Information super Highway, to access information over the web.
However, It can be defined in many ways as follows:

 Internet is a world-wide global system of interconnected computer networks.

 Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
 Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
 IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a
computer location.
 A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP Address
so that user can locate a computer by a name.

26
  For example, a DNS server will resolve a name http://www.tutorialspoint.com to a
particular IP address to uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted.
 Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

Evolution
The concept of Internet was originated in 1969 and has undergone several technological &
Infrastructural changes as discussed below:

 The origin of Internet devised from the concept of Advanced Research Project Agency
Network (ARPANET).
 ARPANET was developed by United States Department of Defense.
 Basic purpose of ARPANET was to provide communication among the various bodies of
government.
 Initially, there were only four nodes, formally called Hosts.
 In 1972, the ARPANET spread over the globe with 23 nodes located at different
countries and thus became known as Internet.
 By the time, with invention of new technologies such as TCP/IP protocols, DNS, WWW,
browsers, scripting languages etc.,Internet provided a medium to publish and access
information over the web.

Advantages

27
Internet covers almost every aspect of life, one can think of. Here, we will discuss some of the
advantages of Internet:

 Internet allows us to communicate with the people sitting at remote locations. There are
various apps available on the wed that uses Internet as a medium for communication. One
can find various social networking sites such as:
o Facebook
o Twitter
o Yahoo
o Google+
o Flickr
o Orkut
 One can surf for any kind of information over the internet. Information regarding various
topics such as Technology, Health & Science, Social Studies, Geographical Information,
Information Technology, Products etc can be surfed with help of a search engine.
 Apart from communication and source of information, internet also serves a medium for
entertainment. Following are the various modes for entertainment over internet.
o Online Television
o Online Games
o Songs
o Videos
o Social Networking Apps
 Internet allows us to use many services like:

28
 o Internet Banking
o Matrimonial Services
o Online Shopping
o Online Ticket Booking
o Online Bill Payment
o Data Sharing
o E-mail
 Internet provides concept of electronic commerce, that allows the business deals to be
conducted on electronic systems

Disadvantages
However, Internet has prooved to be a powerful source of information in almost every field, yet
there exists many disadvanatges discussed below:

 There are always chances to loose personal information such as name, address, credit
card number. Therefore, one should be very careful while sharing such information. One
should use credit cards only through authenticated sites.
 Another disadvantage is the Spamming.Spamming corresponds to the unwanted e-mails
in bulk. These e-mails serve no purpose and lead to obstruction of entire system.
 Virus can easily be spread to the computers connected to internet. Such virus attacks may
cause your system to crash or your important data may get deleted.

29
  Also a biggest threat on internet is pornography. There are many pornographic sites that
can be found, letting your children to use internet which indirectly affects the children
healthy mental life.
 There are various websites that do not provide the authenticated information. This leads
to misconception among many people.

TERMS USED ON THE INETRNET

Domain

While every computer has its own unique address, every user using the Internet has a unique
address called a domain. A domain recognizes one or more IP addresses. An example of a
domain is weather.com and is part of the URL such as https://www.weather.com. The standard
top-level domains are:

 com - Commercial business

 edu - Educational institutions
 gov - Government agencies
 mil - Military
 net - Networks organization
 org - Organizations (nonprofit)

There are additional top-level domains that are now recognized on the Internet. They include:

 aero - Air-transport industry

 biz - Businesses
 coop - Cooperatives
 info - Unrestricted use
 museum - museums
 pro - Accountants, lawyers, physicians, and other professionals
 tv - Television

Some countries use a sub-domain or geographical domain as part of their address. Fox example,
an academic institution such as Oxford University in the United Kingdom can use ac.uk. An
example of a URL with this domain is http://www.ox.ac.uk/.

Browser

A piece of software such as Mozilla Firefox and Internet Explorer that allows a computer to
access and display documents, view pictures, hear sound, and view video clips from the World
Wide Web.

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E-mail

Mail that's electronically transmitted by your computer. As opposed to snail mail, e-mail sends
your messages instantaneously, anywhere in the world. It has the capability to send messages at
any time and to anyone.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

The standard method for downloading and uploading files over the Internet. With FTP, you can
login to a server and transfer files (meaning you can "send" or "receive" files).

Homepage

The first page that is viewed when the browser starts. It is also the page of a Web site that
provides the introduction or content with links.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

The abbreviation for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. It is the set of rules by which Web pages are
transferred across the Internet.

Internet Protocol (IP) Address

The Internet is composed of local, regional, national, and worldwide computer networks. Each
computer on the Internet can be identified by a set of unique numbers that is called an internet
protocol (IP) address. The IP address is composed of four different numbers separated by periods
such as 205.134.120.60.

Link or Hypertext Link

An underlined word(s), phrase(s), or graphics on a Web page that transports the reader to
additional or related information on the Internet.

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TelNet

A terminal emulation protocol (or Internet program) used to connect a computer to a remote host
or server. Telnet is one of the oldest Internet activities and is primarily used to access online
databases or to read articles stored on university servers.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

An addressing scheme that is used on the Internet to locate resources and/or services on the
World Wide Web. Basically the URL is the address of a computer file that has been put on a
computer server to access the Internet.

Web Page

A single hypertext file or a page that is part of a Web site.

Website

A collection of World Wide Web pages or files.

Wide World Web (WWW)

A hypermedia information storage system which links computer-based resources around the
world. Computer programs called Browsers enable words or icons called hyperlinks to display,
text, video, graphics and sound on a computer screen. The source of the material is at a different
location - a different file in the same directory, a file in another computer, which can be located
anywhere in the world.

E-MAIL

Short for electronic mail, e-mail or email is information stored on a computer that is exchanged
between two users over telecommunications. More plainly, e-mail is a message that may contain
text, files, images, or other attachments sent through a network to a specified individual or group
of individuals.

E-mail address breakdown

[email protected]

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  The first portion of all e-mail addresses, the part before the @ symbol, contains the alias,
user, group, or department of a company. In our above example, support is the Technical
Support department at Computer Hope.
 Next, the @ (at sign) is a divider in the e-mail address; it's required for all SMTP e-mail
addresses since the first message was sent by Ray Tomlinson.
 Finally, computerhope.com is the domain name to which the user belongs. The .com is
the TLD (top-level domain) for our domain.

How to send and receive e-mail

E-mail program

To send and receive e-mail messages, you can use an e-mail program, also known as an e-mail
client, such as Microsoft Outlook or Mozilla Thunderbird. When using an e-mail client, you
must have a server that stores and delivers your messages, hosted by your ISP or in some cases,
another company. An e-mail client needs to connect to a server to download new e-mail, whereas
e-mail stored online is always available to any Internet-connected device. For more information
about cloud e-mail service, see the difference between webmail and an e-mail client, below.

Online e-mail

An alternative way of sending and receiving e-mail (and the more popular solution for most
people) is an online e-mail service or webmail. Examples include Hotmail (now Outlook.com),
Gmail, and Yahoo Mail. Many of the online e-mail services, including the ones we mentioned,
are free or have a free account option.

How to create an e-mail account

E-mail is a great way to send and receive information over the Internet. However, as there are
many different e-mail and webmail clients, the steps used to start an account differ. To learn how
to create a new e-mail account in various programs, choose from the list below and follow the
instructions.

 Google Gmail
 Outlook.com (formerly Hotmail)
 Yahoo! Mail
 Microsoft Outlook
 Mozilla Thunderbird

Google Gmail

1. Go to the Gmail website.

2. At the bottom of the sign in screen, click the link.
3. On the account creation screen, fill out all the fields (A) and then click Next (B).

33
4. On the next screen, fill out your birth date and gender (A) as well as any other
information you are comfortable with, then click Next (B).

34
 5. Read Google's Privacy and Terms, then click the button.

6. Click the button until you've moved through the features menu.

7. Click the button and you'll be able to access your new account.

Outlook.com (formerly Hotmail)

1. Open an Internet browser and head to Outlook.com.

2. Click the button.

3. On the next screen, choose a username (A) and a domain (B), and then click Next (C).

35
 4. Choose a password, and then click the button.

5. Type in your name, and then click the button.

6. Choose a country, type in your birthdate, and then click the button.
7. Choose a country code, type in a phone number, and then click the

button.

8. Enter the access code and click the button.

9. Navigate through the rest of the prompts and your account will be opened.

Yahoo! Mail

To access Yahoo! mail, you'll need to create a Yahoo! account. Here's how.

1. Head over to the Yahoo! account sign up page.

2. Fill out the required fields (A) and then click the Continue (B) button.

36
 3. Click the button.
4. Enter the five-digit key, and then click the

button.

5. Click the button.

6. Click the icon.

Microsoft Outlook

Note

37
These instructions only work with Outlook 2007, 2010, and 2013.

1. Open Outlook.
2. In the Add Account Setup window, make sure the circle next to E-mail Account is filled
in.
3. Fill out the form and then click the button.
4. Once the setup process is done, check the box next to Change account settings, and
then click the button.
5. Click on More settings...
6. Click the Advanced tab.
7. Next to Root folder path: type Inbox.
8. Click OK, and then Finish.

Mozilla Thunderbird

1. Open Thunderbird.
2. Click Tools, and then select Account settings from the drop-down menu that appears.
3. Click the circle next to Email account and then click Next.
4. Enter your name and an e-mail address that you'd like to use.
5. Select POP or IMAP for your server.
6. Enter your e-mail address for the incoming and outgoing user names, and then click
Next.
7. Choose an Account Name.
8. Verify your account information and then click Finish.
9. Choose an Outgoing server.

Writing an e-mail
When writing an e-mail message, it should look something like the example window below. As
you can see, several fields are required when sending an e-mail:

 The To field is where you type the e-mail address of the person who is the recipient of
your message.
 The From field should contain your e-mail address.
 If you are replying to a message, the To: and From: fields are automatically filled out. If
it's a new message, you'll need to specify the recipients in the To: field, either by
selecting them from your contact list, or manually typing the full email addresses. If you
are manually specify more than one recipient (as in a group e-mail), the addresses should
be separated by a comma and a space, or by pressing the Tab key.
 The Subject should consist of a few words describing the e-mail's contents. The subject
lets the recipient see what the e-mail is about, without opening and reading the full e-
mail. This field is optional.
 The CC ("Carbon Copy") field allows you to specify recipients who are not direct
addressees (listed in the "To" field). For instance, you can address an e-mail to Jeff and

38
 CC Linda and Steven. Although the e-mail is addressed to Jeff, Linda and Steven also
receive a copy and everyone can see who received the e-mail. This field is optional.
 The BCC ("blind carbon copy") field is similar to CC, except the recipients are secret.
Each BCC recipient will receive the e-mail, but will not see who else received a copy.
The addressees (anyone listed in the "To" field) remain visible to all recipients. This field
is optional.
 Finally, the Message Body is the location you type your main message. It often contains
your signature at the bottom; similar to a handwritten letter.

What makes a valid e-mail address?

The following rules make an e-mail address valid:

 As mentioned earlier, an e-mail must have a username followed by @ (the at sign) which
is followed by the domain name with a domain suffix.
 The username cannot be longer than 64 characters long, and the domain name cannot be
longer than 254 characters.
 There should be only one @ sign in an e-mail address.
 The space and special characters: ( ) , : ; < > \ [ ] are allowed. Occasionally, a space,
backslash, and quotation mark work but must be preceded with a forward slash. Although
valid, some e-mail providers do not allow these characters.

39
  The username and e-mail addresses as a whole cannot begin or end with a period.
 The e-mail must not have two or more consecutive periods.

Advantages of e-mail
There are many advantages of e-mail and the usage of e-mail versus postal mail. Some of the
main advantages are listed below.

 Free delivery - Sending an e-mail is virtually free, outside the cost of Internet service.
There is no need to buy a postage stamp to send a letter.
 Global delivery - E-mail can be sent to nearly anywhere around the world, to any
country.
 Instant delivery - An e-mail can be instantly sent and received by the recipient over the
Internet.
 File attachment - An e-mail can include one or more file attachments, allowing a person
to send documents, pictures, or other files with an e-mail.
 Long-term storage - E-mails are stored electronically, which allows for storage and
archival over long periods of time.
 Environmentally friendly - Sending an e-mail does not require paper (paperless),
cardboard, or packing tape, conserving paper resources.

What's the difference between webmail and an e-mail client?

Both webmail and an e-mail client perform the same function: they allow the user to send and
receive e-mail. However, an e-mail client requires the user to install software directly onto their
computer; if the software is not installed, e-mail may not be accessed. Also, many e-mail clients
cost money, but are generally more secure. Webmail, on the other hand, is a free service, hosted
in the cloud. The cloud service will automatically synchronize your e-mail to all your devices,
including your desktop computer, tablet, or smartphone.

What are some of the popular e-mail clients?

There are many e-mail clients (those that are software-based, not online) available for users
today. The following list contains some of the most popular clients, and some of these are free to
use.

 Mozilla Thunderbird
 DreamMail
 Microsoft Outlook
 Mail for Windows 10
 Mailbird
 eM Client

What can be sent in an e-mail?

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In addition to text messages being sent over e-mail, it is also possible to attach a file or other data
in an e-mail. For example, an attachment could be a picture, PDF, word processor document,
movie, program, or any file stored on your computer. However, because of some security issues,
it may not be possible to send certain types of files without additional steps. For example, many
companies block .exe files from being sent over e-mail and would require you to compress the
file into a .zip file. Also, most e-mail providers have file size restrictions that would prevent any
large files or programs from being sent over e-mail.

 How to compress or make files into one file.

 How to send an attachment or photo through e-mail.

Should I use "e-mail" or "email" in my writing?

Both "e-mail" and "email" are valid words and what you decide to use should be determined by
the style guide you're following. Computer Hope chooses to use a hyphen in "e-mail" because it
is a compound noun that is made of the words "electronic" and "mail."

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