INTRODUCTION ○​ the smaller ones fine aggregate

(sand).
Aggregates are the materials basically used as ○​ The coarse aggregate form the
filler with binding material in the production of ■​ main matrix of concrete and
mortar and concrete. ○​ the fine aggregate from the
●​ They are derived from igneous, ■​ filler matrix between the
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks or coarse aggregate.
manufactured from blast furnace slag, etc.
●​ Aggregates form the CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES
○​ body of the concrete, ●​ On the Basis of Geological Origin
○​ reduce the shrinkage and ●​ On the Basis of Size
○​ effect economy. ●​ On the Basis of Shape
●​ They occupy 70-80 percent of the volume ●​ Based on Unit Weight
and have considerable influence on the
properties of the concrete. On the Basis of Geological Origin
●​ It is therefore significantly important to The aggregates may be classified into
obtain right type and quality of ●​ natural aggregates and
aggregates at site. ●​ artificial aggregates.
●​ to achieve utmost economy from the
paste, they should be Natural Aggregates:
○​ clean, hard, strong. durable and ●​ These are obtained by crushing from
graded in size quarries of igneous, sedimentary or
●​ Earlier aggregates were considered to be metamorphic rocks.
chemically inert ●​ Gravels and sand reduced to their present
○​ but the latest research has revealed size by the natural agencies also fall in this
that category.
■​ some of them are chemically ●​ The most widely used aggregate are from
active and igneous origin.
■​ also that certain types exhibit ●​ Aggregates obtained from pits or dredged
chemical bond at the from river, creek or sea are most often not
interface of aggregates and clean enough or well graded to suit the
cement paste. quality requirement.
●​ To increase the bulk density of concrete, ○​ They therefore require sieving and
aggregates are used in two markedly washing before they can be used in
different sizes concrete.
○​ the bigger ones known to be
coarse aggregate (grit) and
Artificial Aggregates:
●​ Broken bricks, blast furnace slag and Coarse Aggregate:
synthetic aggregates are artificial ●​ Aggregate retained on 4.75 mm sieve are
aggregates. identified as coarse. They are obtained by
natural disintegration or by artificial
●​ Broken bricks known as brick bats are crushing of rocks.
suitable for mass concreting, for example, ●​ The maximum size of aggregate can be
in foundation bases. 80 mm.
○​ They are not used for reinforced ●​ The size is governed by the
concrete works. ○​ thickness of section,
○​ spacing of reinforcement,
●​ Blast furnace slag aggregate is obtained ○​ clear cover,
from slow cooling of the slag followed by ○​ mixing,
crushing. ○​ handling and
○​ The dense and strong particles as ○​ placing methods.
obtained are used for making ●​ For economy the maximum size should
precast concrete products. be as large as possible
○​ The sp. gr. of these range between ○​ but not more than one-fourth of
2-2.8 and bulk density 1120-1300 the minimum thickness of the
kg/m³. member.
○​ The blast furnace slag aggregate ●​ For reinforced sections the maximum
has good fire resisting properties size
but are responsible for corrosion of ○​ should be at least 5 mm less than
reinforcement due to sulphure the clear spacing between the
content of slag. reinforcement and
○​ also at least 5 mm less than the
●​ Synthetic aggregates are produced by clear cover.
thermally processed materials such as ●​ Aggregate more than 20 mm size are
expanded clay and shale seldom used for reinforced cement
○​ used for making light weight concrete structural members.
concrete.
All-in-aggregate:
On the Basis of Size ●​ Naturally available aggregates of
According to size aggregates are classified as different fractions of fine and coarse
●​ coarse aggregate, sizes are known as all-in-aggregate.
●​ fine aggregate and ●​ The deficiency of any particular fraction
●​ all-in-aggregate. can be corrected for use in the mix but
 they are not recommended for quality Rounded Aggregates:
concrete. ●​ These are generally obtained from river or
sea shore and produce minimum voids
Graded Aggregate: (about 32 per cent) in the concrete.
●​ Aggregate most of which passes through ●​ They have minimum ratio of surface area
a particular size of sieve are known as to the volume,
graded aggregate. ○​ and the cement paste required is
○​ For example, a graded aggregate of minimum.
nominal size 20 mm means an ●​ Poor interlocking bond makes it
aggregate most of which passes IS unsuitable for high strength concrete
sieve 20 mm. and pavements.

Fine Aggregate: Irregular Aggregates:

●​ Aggregate passing through 4.75 mm ●​ They have voids about 36 per cent and
sieve are defined as fine. They may be require more cement paste as compared
○​ natural sand-deposited by rivers, to rounded aggregate.
○​ crushed stone sand - obtained by ○​ Because of irregularity in shape
crushing stones and they develop good bond and are
○​ crushed gravel sand. suitable for making ordinary
●​ The smallest size of fine aggregate (sand) concrete.
is 0.06 mm.
●​ Depending upon the particle size, fine Angular Aggregate:
aggregates are described as fine, medium ●​ They have sharp, angular and rough
and coarse sands. particles having maximum voids (about
●​ On the basis of particle size distribution, 40 per cent).
the fine aggregates are classed into four ●​ Angular aggregate provide very good
zones, the grading zones being bond than the earlier two,
progressively finer from grading zone I to ○​ are most suitable for high strength
grading zone IV (IS: 383). concrete and pavements,
○​ the requirement of cement paste is
On the Basis of Shape relatively more.
Aggregates are classified as
●​ rounded, Flaky Aggregate:
●​ irregular, ●​ These are sometimes wrongly called as
●​ angular, and elongated aggregate.
●​ flaky. ●​ However, both of these influence the
concrete properties adversely.
 ●​ The least lateral dimension of flaky ●​ heavy-weight and
aggregate (thickness) should be less than ●​ light-weight aggregate
0.6 times the mean dimension. depending on weight and specific gravity as
○​ For example, the mean sieve size given in Table 6.1
for an aggregate piece passing
through 50 mm and retained on 40
mm sieve is (50 + 40) / 2 = 45.0 mm.
○​ If the least lateral dimension is less
than 0.6 * 45 = 27 mm, the
aggregate is classified as flaky.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGGREGATE
●​ Elongated aggregate are those aggregate
The properties to be considered while selecting
whose length is 1.8 times its mean
aggregate for concrete are
dimension.
●​ strength,
●​ Flaky aggregate generally orient in one
●​ particle shape,
plane with water and air voids underneath.
●​ specific gravity,
○​ They adversely affect durability and
●​ bulk density,
are restricted to maximum of 15 per
●​ voids,
cent.
●​ porosity,
●​ moisture content and
Notes:
●​ bulking.
1.​ Very sharp and rough aggregate
particles or flaky and elongated particles
Strength:
require more fine material to produce a
●​ The strength should be at least equal to
workable concrete.
that of the concrete.
●​ Accordingly, the water requirement
●​ Rocks commonly used as aggregates have
and, therefore, the cement content
a compressive strength much higher
increases.
than the usual range of concrete
●​ Excellent concrete is made by
strength.
using crushed stone, but the
●​ A typical stress-strain curve for aggregate
particles should be roughly cubical
is shown in Fig. 6.1.
in shape.
2.​ The flakiness and elongation tests are
described in IS: 2386 (Part I).

Based on Unit Weight

Aggregates are classified as
●​ normal-weight,
 ●​ The test conducted for strength modulus of the coarse aggregate has an
evaluation are important influence on the stiffness of
○​ crushing test, concrete.
○​ impact-test and ●​ A high value reduces the dimensional
○​ ten per cent fines test. changes due to creep and shrinkage of
●​ Of these the first one (crushing test) is the cement paste, but at the cost of higher
most reliable. internal stresses.
○​ Generally the specifications ●​ In concrete that is to be subjected to wide
prescribe limit for the crushing variations of temperature and humidity,
value, internal cracking is reduced by the use of
■​ 45 per cent for aggregate a more compressible aggregate, but in
used for concrete other than practice this effect is rarely of sufficient
wearing surface importance to determine the choice of
■​ and 30 per cent for concrete aggregate.
for wearing surfaces, such as
runways, roads etc. Bond Strength:
●​ The toughness of aggregate is measured ●​ Due to difference between the
by impact test. coefficients of thermal expansion of paste
○​ The impact value should not and aggregate and to the shrinkage of
exceed cement paste during hardening, concrete
■​ 30 per cent for wearing is in a state of internal stress even if no
surface and external forces are present.
■​ 45 per cent for remaining ●​ It is reported that the stresses are likely to
concretes. be greatest at the paste-aggregate
●​ Hardness of aggregate is tested by interfaces where minute cracks exist,
abrasion test. even in concrete that has never been
○​ The abrasion value is restricted to loaded.
■​ 30 per cent for wearing ●​ Under increasing external load, these
surfaces and cracks spread along the interfaces before
■​ 50 per cent for concrete for extending into the paste or aggregate
other purposes. particles.
●​ The strength of the bond between
Stiffness: aggregate and cement paste thus has an
●​ The modulus of elasticity of concrete is important influence on the strength of
approximately equal to the weighted concrete.
average of the moduli of the cement ●​ There is no standard test for bond but it is
paste and the aggregate, as such the known that the rougher the surface
 texture of the particles, the better the ●​ Specific gravity of aggregates generally is
bond. indicative of its quality.
●​ The role of particle shape is less well ○​ A low specific gravity may indicate
understood; high porosity and therefore poor
○​ the greater specific surface of durability and low strength. The
angular particles should enable concrete density will greatly depend
greater adhesive force to be on specific gravity.
developed,
○​ but the angular shape probably Bulk Density:
causes more severe ●​ The bulk density of aggregate depends
concentrations of internal stress. upon their packing, the particles shape
and size, the grading and the moisture
Shape and Texture: content.
●​ The shape influences the properties of ●​ For coarse aggregate a higher bulk
fresh concrete more than when it has density is an indication of fewer voids to
hardened. be filled by sand and cement.
●​ Rounded aggregate are highly workable ●​ Voids: The void ratio is calculated as
but yield low strength concrete. Same is
the case with irregular shaped aggregate.
●​ Flaky aggregate require more cement
paste, produce maximum voids and are If the voids in the concrete are more the

not desirable. strength will be low.

●​ Angular shape is the best.

●​ Crushed and uncrushed aggregates Porosity:

generally give essentially the same ●​ The entrapped air bubbles in the rocks

strength for the same cement content. during their formation lead to minute

●​ The shape and surface texure of fine holes or cavities known as pores.

aggregate govern its void ratio and ●​ The porosity of rocks is generally less than

significantly affect the water 20 per cent;

requirement. ○​ the concrete becomes permeable

and ultimately affects the bond

Specific Gravity. between aggregate and cement

●​ The specific gravity of most of the natural paste,

aggregates lies between 2.6-2.7. ○​ resistance to freezing and thawing

●​ The specific gravity and porosity of of concrete and

aggregates greatly influence the strength ○​ resistance to abrasion of aggregate.

and absorption of concrete.

 ●​ The porous aggregate absorb more that prepared by the dry sand and
moisture, resulting in loss of workability of consequently the mix will be richer. This
concrete at a much faster rate. will cause, less quantity of concrete per bag
of cement. For example, if the bulking of
Moisture Content: sand is 10% and if mix ratio is 1:2:4, the
●​ The surface moisture expressed as a actual volume of sand used will be 1.1
percentage of the weight of the saturated x2=2.2 instead of 2 per unit volume of
surface dry aggregate is known as cement. If this correction is not applied the
moisture content. actual dry sand in the concrete will
●​ A high moisture content increases the be-x2=1.82, instead of 2 per unit volume of
effective water/cement ratio to an cement. The mix 1.1 proportion then would
appreciable extent and may render the be 1:1.82:4 rather than 1: 2: 4. Which
concrete weak. indicates lesser production of concrete.
Also, there will be chances of segregation,
Bulking: honeycombing and reduced yield of
●​ The increase in the volume of a given concrete.
mass of fine aggregate caused by the ●​ Bulking of sand can be determined, in
presence of water is known as bulking. field, by filling a container of known
●​ The water forms a film over the fine volume (A) with damp sand in the manner
aggregate particles, exerts force of surface in which the mixer hopper will be filled.
tension and pushes them apart increasing ●​ The height of sand in the container is
the volume. measured. The sand is then taken out of
●​ The extent of bulking depends upon the container carefully, ensuring no sand is lost
percentage of moisture present in the during this transaction.
sand and its fineness. ●​ The sand is then either dried and filled
●​ With ordinary sand bulking varies from back into the gauge box, or the container is
15-30 percent. It increases with moisture filled with water and the damp sand is
content up to a certain point (4-6%), poured in to displace the water. Whichever
reaches maximum, the film of water on the method is adopted, the new depth of
sand surface breaks, and then it starts aggregate in the container gives the
decreasing. unbulked volume (B).
●​ Figure 6.2 shows the bulking of sand with ●​ Then percentage bulking expressed as a
moisture content. percentage of the dry volume = A-B B x100
●​ In preparing concrete mixes if sand is
measured by volume and no allowance is Note: The dry and fully saturated (flooded) sand
made for bulking, the moist sand will occupy almost same volume
occupy considerably larger volume than
 ●​ The object of finding F.M. is to grade the
given aggregate for the required strength
and workability of concrete mix with
minimum cement.
●​ Higher F.M. aggregate result in harsh
concrete mixes and lower F.M. result in
uneconomical concrete mixes.

DELETERIOUS MATERIALS AND ORGANIC

IMPURITIES
●​ Substances such as organic matters, clay,

Fineness Modulus: shale, coal, iron pyrites, etc. which are

●​ It is a numerical index of fineness, giving weak, soft, fine or may have harmful

some idea about the mean size of the physical or chemical effects on the

particles in the aggregates. aggregates are considered to be

●​ The fineness modulus (F.M.) varies deleterious materials.

○​ between 2.0 and 3.5 for fine ●​ They affect the properties of concrete in

aggregate, green as well as in hardened state and

○​ between 5.5 and 8.0 for coarse are undesirable.

aggregate, and ●​ They may be classified as those

○​ from 3.5 to 6.5 for all-in aggregate. interfering with the process of hydration,

●​ Aggregate, whose F.M. is required, is i.e.

placed on a standard set of sieves (80, 63, ○​ organic matters,

40, 20, 12.5, 10, 4.75, 2.36, 1.18 mm and 600, ○​ coatings such as clay, etc. affecting

300, 150 µm) and the set vibrated. the development of bond between

●​ The material retained on each sieve after aggregate and the cement paste,

sieving represent the fraction of aggregate and,

coarser than the sieve in question but finer ○​ unsound particles which are weak

than the sieve above. or bring about chemical reaction

●​ The sum of the cumulative percentages between aggregate and cement

retained on the sieves divided by 100 gives paste.

the F.M. ●​ The surface coated impurities in

●​ A fineness modulus of 3.0 can be aggregate can be removed by adequate

interpreted to mean that the third sieve ie., washing.

600 µm is the average size. The test ●​ However, chemically-bonded stable

procedure is given IS: 2386 (Part I). coating which cannot be so removed may
increase shrinkage cracks.
 ●​ The salts present in the sea-shore sand ○​ specific heat,
should be washed out otherwise ○​ thermal conductivity and
efflorescence is caused afterwards. ○​ coefficient of expansion.
●​ Mica, if present in sand, reduces the ●​ The first two (specific heat, thermal
strength of concrete. conductivity) are detrimental in case of
●​ Iron pyrites and sulphides produce mass concrete.
surface staining and pop-outs. ○​ Also these properties are of concern
in case of light weight concrete
SOUNDNESS used for thermal insulation
●​ Soundness is defined as the ability of purposes.
aggregate to resist changes in volume as ●​ The third one (coefficient of expansion)
a result of changes in physical conditions. affects the concrete in general since the
●​ The conditions affecting this property are coefficient of thermal expansion of
○​ freezing and thawing concrete increases with that of coarse
○​ temperature changes aggregate.
○​ and alternate wetting and drying. ●​ Any appreciable difference in the
●​ Porous and weak aggregates containing coefficients of coarse aggregate and
undesirable extraneous matter undergo cement paste may break the bond
excessive volume changes under between the two.
favourable conditions. ○​ Freezing and thawing effect may
●​ The freeze-thaw resistance of aggregate be prominent if the difference in
is related to its porosity, absorption, and the two is more than 5.4 x 10 per
pore structure. °C.
○​ This may cause local scaling to
surface cracking consequently FINE AGGREGATE
leading to impaired appearance and ●​ Sand (> 0.07 mm) is used as a fine
sometimes structural failure. aggregate in mortar and concrete.
●​ Aggregates may also be chemically ○​ It is a granular form of silica.
unstable. ●​ Sand used for mix design is known as
●​ Some of the aggregate with certain standard sand (IS: 650).
chemical constituents react with alkalis ○​ In India, Ennore Sand is standard
in cement which may cause abnormal sand and in U.K. it is
expansion and map cracking of concrete. Leighton-Burrard Sand.
○​ The standard sand should be
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATE obtained from Ennore, Tamil Nadu.
●​ The thermal properties of coarse
aggregate are
 ○​ It should be quartz, light grey or ●​ Based on mineralogical composition,
whitish variety and should be free sand is divided into
from silt. ○​ quartz, felspar and carbonaceous
○​ It should (100%) pass through varieties.
2-mm IS sieve and should be (100%) ●​ Depending upon its size sand is classified
retained on 90-micron IS sieve as
with the following distribution,
Sand Fineness Modulus

Course Sand 2.90 - 3.20

Medium Sand 2.60 - 2.90

Fine sand 2.20 - 2.60

●​ Sand used in mortars for construction
purposes should posses
●​ Based on particle size distribution fine
○​ at least 85 per cent of the strength
aggregate have been divided in four
of standard sand mortars of like
grades from grading zone I to grading
proportions and consistency.
zone IV as given in Table 6.2.

Note:
●​ The standard sand should be free from
organic impurities.
●​ The loss of mass on extraction with hot
hydrochloric acid of rd 1.16 should not be
more than 0.25%.

Functions of Sand:
Classification:
●​ The functions of sand are to
Sand may be classified on the basis of source,
○​ achieve economy by its use as
mineralogical composition, size of the particles
adulterant in mortar,
and particle size distribution.
○​ prevent shrinkage and
development of cracks in mortar,
●​ Depending upon the source sand may be
○​ furnish strength to mortar against
classed as
crushing and
○​ natural sand - resulting from
○​ allow carbon dioxide from the
natural disintegration of rocks or
atmosphere to penetrate the fat
deposited by streams;
lime mortars necessary for its air
○​ crushed stone sand - produced by
hardening.
crushing hard stones and,
○​ crushed gravel sand - produced by
Effect of Gradation:
crushing natural gravel.
 ●​ The grading of fine aggregate has a great properties of the cement reducing the
influence on workability of mortar. strength and durability.
●​ Very fine sand and very coarse sand have
been found to be unsatisfactory for Effect by Entraining Air in Concrete:
making mortar and concrete. ●​ The quantity of fine aggregate required
○​ Very fine sand results in a poor for making concrete mix can be reduced
mortar and is uneconomical, by entraining air.
○​ whereas very coarse sand
produces a harsh mix affecting COARSE AGGREGATE
workability. ●​ These may be uncrushed, crushed or
●​ When well graded (consisting of particles partially crushed gravel or stone most of
of different sizes) the voids are minimised. which is retained on 4.75 mm IS sieve.
●​ They should be hard, strong, dense,
Effect of Impurities: durable, clear and free from veins and
●​ The impurities such as clay, dust and adherent coatings;
organic materials are harmful for mortar ○​ and free from injurious amounts of
and concrete and in any case should not disintegrated pieces, alkali,
exceed 4 per cent. organic matter and other
●​ Of these, clay is most harmful since it deleterious substances.
coats individual sand particles and ●​ Flaky, scoriaceous and elongated
○​ prevents their bonding with aggregate should be avoided.
cement consequently diminishing ●​ Functions: The functions of coarse
the strength of mortar which is aggregate are almost same as that of fine
further reduced by the enhanced aggregate.
water requirement of mortar.
●​ The clay and dust impurities can be
removed by careful washing.
●​ Addition of finely ground clay to clean
coarse sand may improve its grading and
reduce voids.
●​ Hence, a lean mortar deficient in fines
may be improved both in density and
workability by
○​ addition of small percentages of
such clays.
●​ The organic matters, shell and
vegetables injure the hardening