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 50+ Apps with Raspberry Pi, ESP32 and Arduino 50+ Apps with Raspberry Pi, ESP32 and Arduino
MIT App Inventor

Dogan Ibrahim
Projects
MIT App Inventor Projects
This book is about developing apps for Android and iOS compatible
mobile devices using the MIT App Inventor online development
environment. MIT App Inventor projects can be in either standalone

●
mode or use an external processor. In standalone mode, the
developed application runs only on the mobile device (e.g. Android
or iOS). In external processor-based applications, the mobile device

MIT App Inventor Projects

communicates with an external microcontroller-based processor,
such as Raspberry Pi, Arduino, ESP8266, ESP32, etc.
Prof. Dr. Dogan
Ibrahim has a BSc. in In this book, many tested and fully working projects are given both
Electronic Engineering, in standalone mode and using an external processor. Full design
an MSc. in Automatic steps, block programs, circuit diagrams, QR codes and full program
Control Engineering, listings are given for all projects.
and a Ph.D. in Digital
The projects developed in this book include:
Signal Processing.
He worked in many • Using the text-to-speech component
industrial organisations • Intonating a received SMS message
before returning to • Sending SMS messages
academia. Prof. Ibrahim • Making telephone calls using a contacts list
is the author of over 60 • Using the GPS and Pin-pointing our location on a map
technical books and over • Speech recognition and speech translation to another
200 technical articles language
on microcontrollers,
• Controlling multiple relays by speech commands
microprocessors, and
• Projects for the Raspberry Pi, ESP32 and Arduino using
related fields. He is a
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi
Chartered Electrical
Engineer and a Fellow • MIT APP Inventor and Node-RED projects for the
of the Institution of Raspberry Pi
Engineering Technology. The book is unique in that it is currently the only book that teaches
how to develop projects using Wi-Fi and Node-RED with MIT App
Inventor. The book is aimed at students, hobbyists, and anyone
ISBN 978-1-907920-89-9
interested in developing apps for mobile devices.

All projects presented in this book have been developed using the
MIT App Inventor visual programming language. There is no need
to write any text-based programs. All projects are compatible with
Android and iOS-based mobile devices. Full program listings for
all projects as well as detailed program descriptions are given in
Elektor International Media the book. Users should be able to use the projects as they are
presented, modifying them to suit their own needs.

Dogan Ibrahim
www.elektor.com

LEARN DESIGN SHARE LEARN DESIGN SHARE

LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE
RN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ●
SIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ●
LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHAR
RN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ● LEARN ● DESIGN ● SHARE ●

Cover MIT App Inventer UK 200311.indd Alle pagina's 03-04-20 10:25

 MIT App Inventor Projects
50+ Android and iOS Apps with
Rasberry Pi, ESP32 and Arduino

Dogan Ibrahim

LEARN DESIGN SHARE

MIT App Inventer UK 200311.indd 3 03-04-20 10:37

 ● This is an Elektor Publication. Elektor is the media brand of
Elektor International Media B.V.
78 York Street, London W1H 1DP, UK
Phone: (+44) (0)20 7692 8344

● All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any material form, including
photocopying, or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally
to some other sue of this publication, without the written permission of the copyright holder except in
accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a
licence issued by the Copyright Licencing Agency Ltd., 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1P
9HE. Applications for the copyright holder's permission to reproduce any part of the publication should be
addressed to the publishers.

● Declaration
The author and publisher have used their best efforts in ensuring the correctness of the information
contained in this book. They do not assume, or hereby disclaim, any liability to any party for any loss or
damage caused by errors or omissions in this book, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence,
accident or any other cause..

● British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

● ISBN 978-1-907920-89-9

© Copyright 2020: Elektor International Media b.v.

Prepress Production: D-Vision, Julian van den Berg
First published in the United Kingdom 2020

Elektor is part of EIM, the world's leading source of essential technical information and electronics products for pro
engineers, electronics designers, and the companies seeking to engage them. Each day, our international team develops
and delivers high-quality content - via a variety of media channels (including magazines, video, digital media, and social
media) in several languages - relating to electronics design and DIY electronics. www.elektormagazine.com

LEARN DESIGN SHARE

MIT App Inventer UK 200311.indd 4 03-04-20 10:37

 Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Chapter 1 • Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.1 Text-Based Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.2 Block-Based Visual Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Chapter 2 • Setting up the MIT App Inventor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.2 Setting Up the App Inventor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Chapter 3 • Simple MIT App Inventor projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.2 Starting App Inventor and the Startup Screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.3 Project 1 – Using a Button to Generate Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3.4 Saving the Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3.5 Deleting a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3.6 Sharing a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.7 Project 2 – Using a Button, a Label, and Text Boxes – Language Translation . . . . . 32

3.8 Project 3 – Formatting the Layout of the Components –

Language Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.9 Project 4 – Text to Speech – Fixed Text Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.10 Project 5 – Text to Speech – Any Text Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.11 Project 6 – Text to Speech – English to German . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.12 Project 7 – Using Images – Learning Elementary English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.13 Project 8 – Speaking a Received SMS Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.14 Project 9 – Sending SMS Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.15 Project 10 – R
 eading a Message and Sending a Reply Message
Automatically when Busy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3.16 Project 11 – Display the Received SMS Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.17 Project 12 – Calling a Fixed Telephone Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.18 Project 13 – Calling to Several Fixed Telephone Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

3.19 Project 14 – Calling from the Contacts List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3.20 Project 15 – Taking Pictures with the Camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

●5

MIT App Inventer UK 200311.indd 5 03-04-20 10:37

 MIT App Inventor Projects

3.21 Project 16 – A Basic Piano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3.22 Project 17 – Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3.23 Project 18 – Light Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

3.24 Project 19 – Global Positioning System – Latitude, Longitude, Altitude, and Speed 70

3.25 Project 20 – Pinpointing Your Location on a Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

3.26 Project 21 – Display/Set Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

3.27 Project 22 – Record/Play Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

3.28 Project 23 – Speech Recognizer – Translate Speech to Another Language . . . . . . 79

3.29 Project 24 – Chronograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

3.30 Project 25 – Seconds Down Counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

3.31 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Chapter 4 • M
 IT App Inventor projects using mathematical &
logical operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

4.2 Project 1 – Area of a Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

4.3 Project 2 – Areas of Various Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

4.4 Project 3 – Roots of a Quadratic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

4.5 Project 4 – Random Numbers – Dice Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

4.6 Project 5 – Quiz - Learning Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

4.7 Project 6 – Table of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

4.8 Project 7 – Multiplication Time Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

4.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Chapter 5 • R
 aspberry Pi 4 – specifications – setup –
installing the operating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

5.2 Parts of Raspberry Pi 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

5.3 Requirements of Raspberry Pi 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

5.3.1 Setup Option 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.3.2 Setup Option 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

5.4 Installing the Raspberry Pi Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

5.4.1 Raspbian Buster Installation Steps on Raspberry Pi 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

5.5 Remote Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

●6

MIT App Inventer UK 200311.indd 6 03-04-20 10:37

 

5.6 Using Putty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

5.6.1 Configuring the Putty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

5.7 Remote Access of the Desktop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

5.8 Using the Python Programming Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

5.8.1 Method 1 – Interactively from Command Prompt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

5.8.2 Method 2 – Create a Python File in Command Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

5.8.3 Method 3 – Create a Python File in GUI mode – Using the Thonny . . . . . . . . . . 119

5.9 Which Method? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

5.10 Accessing Raspberry Pi 4 Hardware and Peripheral Devices from Python . . . . . . 121

5.10.1 GPIO – Parallel Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

5.10.2 The GPIO Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

5.11 Example Project Accessing the External World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Chapter 6• Raspberry Pi Bluetooth based projects using the

MIT App Inventor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

6.2 Project 1 – Controlling an LED from Android Mobile Phone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

6.3 Project 2 – Sound Output while Controlling an LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

6.4 Project 3 – Controlling an LED with Speech Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

6.5 Project 4 – Controlling Multiple LEDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

6.7 Project 6 – DC Motor Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

6.8 Project 7 – Sending Temperature and Humidity to Android Device . . . . . . . . . . . 160

6.9 Project 8 – Password Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

6.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Chapter 7 • Raspberry Pi Wi-Fi based projects using the

MIT App Inventor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

7.2 Project 1 – Getting and Displaying the Local Wi-Fi Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

7.3 Project 2 – Web Server to Control an LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

7.4 Project 3 – Web Server to Control Multiple Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

7.5 Project 4 – Sending Ambient Temperature and Humidity to

Android Mobile Phone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

7.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

●7

MIT App Inventer UK 200311.indd 7 03-04-20 10:37

 MIT App Inventor Projects

Chapter 8 • R
 aspberry Pi Node-Red based projects using
MIT App Inventor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

8.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

8.2 Project 1 – Controlling an LED – Web Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

8.3 Project 2 – Controlling 4 Relays – Web Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

8.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Chapter 9 • A
 rduino Uno Bluetooth based projects using
MIT App Inventor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

9.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

9.2 Arduino Uno Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

9.3 Arduino Uno Program Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

9.4 Bluetooth for Arduino Uno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

9.5 Project 1 - Controlling an LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

9.6 Project 2 - Controlling a 4 Channel Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

9.7 Project 3 - Controlling a 4 Channel Relay with Sound Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

9.8 Project 4 - Controlling a 4 Channel Relay with Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

9.9 Project 5 – Sending Text to Arduino UNO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

9.10 Project 6 – Sending the Ambient Temperature to Android Mobile Phone . . . . . . . 228

9.11 Project 7 – Weather Watch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

9.12 Project 8 – ON-OFF Temperature Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

9.13 Project 9 – Modified ON-OFF Temperature Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

9.14 Project 10 – Controlling a Stepper Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

9.15 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

Chapter 10 • Arduino Wi-Fi based projects using MIT App Inventor . . . . . . . . . . 259

10.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

10.2 Arduino Uno Wi-Fi Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

10.3 Project 1 – Controlling an LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

10.4 Project 2 – Controlling a 4 Channel Relay Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

10.5 Project 3 – Speech Control of a 4 Channel Relay Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

10.6 Project 4 – UDP Based Control – LED Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

10.7 Project 5 – UDP Based Control – Digital Thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

10.8 Project 6 – UDP Based Control – Speaking Thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

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10.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

Chapter 11 • ESP32 based projects using the MIT App Inventor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

11.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

11.2 ESP32 DevKitC Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

11.3 Arduino IDE for The ESP32 DevKitC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

11.3.1 Installing the Arduino IDE for the ESP32 DevKitC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

11.4 Project 1 – Controlling an LED – Bluetooth Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

11.5 Project 2 – Speech Control of an LED – Bluetooth Communication . . . . . . . . . . 297

11.7 Project 4 – Controlling a 4 Channel Relay Module using Switch

Components - Bluetooth Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

11.9 Project 6 – Displaying the Ambient Light Level on LCD –

Bluetooth Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

11.10 Project 7 – Controlling an LED – Wi-Fi Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

11.11 Project 8 – Speaking Thermometer – Wi-Fi Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

11.12 Project 9 – Saving the Temperature Data – Wi-Fi Communication . . . . . . . . . . 318

11.13 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

Appendix A • Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

Appendix B • Using the MIT App Inventor offline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

B.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

B.2 Installing the App Inventor Ultimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

Appendix C • Loading the programs from the book website . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

C.1 File Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

C.2 Loading MIT App Inventor Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

C.3 Loading Android UNO Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

C.4 Loading ESP32 DevKitC Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

Appendix D • MIT App Inventor extension components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

Appendix E • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

List of components used in the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Processors used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

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 Preface

Preface

Statistics show that the number of smartphones sold to end-users in the last decade from
2007 to 2017 has been steadily increasing. In 2016, around 1.5 billion smartphones were
sold to end-users worldwide. In 2017 this number increased to around 1.54 billion, which is
a significant increase over just one year. In the fourth quarter of 2016, 81.7% of all smart-
phones sold to end users were phones with operating Android. This number increased to
85.9% in the first quarter of 2018, 85.9% (source: https://www.statista.com).

Developing apps for mobile phones is not an easy task and can require extensive knowl-
edge of programming. Program development also takes a considerable amount of time.
Android-based apps are available in the Google Play Store. Most of these apps are free
of charge and can easily be downloaded to your mobile device. The problem with most of
these apps is that they are not tested by any authority and therefore are available as you
find them. Also, most of these applications contain advertisements which can be annoying
for their users. It is however, possible to purchase more professional apps without any
built-in advertisements.

This book is about developing apps for Android and iOS compatible mobile phones and tab-
lets using MIT App Inventor. MIT App Inventor is a visual graphical programming language
based on blocks. Users drag and drop visual objects (called blocks) to create applications
that can run on mobile devices. MIT App Inventor was developed as an educational tool to
teach visual programming skills to newcomers, especially children in primary and second-
ary education. Moreover, it is used in higher education institutions as well as by professional
programmers. MIT App Inventor enables users to quickly create complex programs to run
on mobile devices. For example, an application program can easily and quickly be devel-
oped on a mobile device to display ambient temperature and humidity readings. The de-
velopment of such a program using classical text-based programming languages requires
significant programming skills and will take much longer time to develop.

MIT App Inventor projects can be in standalone mode, or use an external processor. In
standalone mode, the developed application runs on the mobile device only (e.g. Android
or iOS). In external processor-based applications, the mobile device communicates with
an external microcontroller-based processor, such as a Raspberry Pi, Arduino, ESP8266,
ESP32, etc.

In this book, many tested and fully working projects have been developed both in stan-
dalone mode and using an external processor. Full design steps, block programs, and QR
codes are given for all projects. In external processor-based applications (for example
using the Raspberry Pi), block diagrams, circuit diagrams, and full program listings are
provided with complete documentation for all projects.

Users will find all program listings on the Web site of this book. The MIT App Inventor pro-
grams can easily be imported to your MIT App Inventor projects. Additionally, the programs
of the external processor-based projects can be uploaded to the appropriate external pro-
cessors to save you the time of typing them.

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 MIT App Inventor Projects

Although all of the projects have been tested using an Android mobile phone, they should
equally work on Android tablets and iOS compatible mobile phones and tablets without any
changes.
I hope you like reading the book and find it useful for your next Android-based apps project.

Prof Dr Dogan Ibrahim

London, 2020

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 Chapter 1 • Introduction

Chapter 1 • Introduction

1.1 Text-Based Programming

Traditionally computer programming has been text-based where the programmer writes
sets of instructions in text form. These instructions are then compiled and turned into a bi-
nary form that can be understood by a computer. There are many text-based programming
languages in use today, such as Basic, C, Pascal, etc. Text-based coding has traditionally
been used in teaching the concepts of programming. When we look at the text-based pro-
gramming languages, we notice that they are designed by engineers, for engineers. This
makes coding difficult and learners have to spend many long times of training to learn to
program efficiently. For several decades many people have tried to address this problem
and designed various programming languages to make the task of programming easier.
Most of these programming languages have been text-based. In the last decade, pro-
gramming languages such as Visual Basic, Visual C++, and Visual C# have been popular.
Although these languages are text-based they provide a graphical user interface (GUI) type
interface where users can place boxes, labels, buttons, sliders, etc on the screen to make
the end product more user-friendly. The code under these programming languages is still
text-based where the user is expected to write the code to control the components placed
on the screen.

1.2 Block-Based Visual Programming

In recent years there has been an increase in the development and use of block-based
visual programming tools as the solution to the above problem. The idea here is that the
programmer is given a set of visual blocks and all that is required is to connect these build-
ing blocks in a logical way to create the required application program. Block-based pro-
gramming has been introduced to children event at the primary education level and recent
surveys show that children at an early age develop interesting applications. Block-based
programming is currently used all over the world and it is estimated that over 50 million
users actively use block coding.

Scratch was one of the early block-based programming languages which are currently
used by children of all ages. It is an online tool where children can create projects by join-
ing blocks. Figure 1.1 shows the online screen of Scratch. Using Scratch, children can mix
various tools in their programs, such as music, sound effects, graphics, etc. Scratch pro-
gramming environment consists of three main sections: a stage area, blocks of palettes,
and a coding area. Users bring the required palettes into the coding area and join them
to make the final code. The stage area shows the results, such as the animation. Scratch
is very popular in the United Kingdom and the United States and there are several coding
clubs that children join to share their projects with others. Many children create interesting
applications including simple but interesting games as well. Scratch is used as the introduc-
tory computer programming language in many primary and secondary schools. After gain-
ing experience with Scratch, children are introduced to Python (and Java) as their second
language. Scratch is also used in some higher education institutes, such as it is used in the
first week of the Harvard University introductory computer science course.

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 MIT App Inventor Projects

Figure 1.1 Scratch development environment

Many people claim that the block-based visual programming tool does not teach the prin-
ciples of programming. This is not true since children at an early stage understand the
principles of programming and it becomes easier for them to develop complex text-based
programs in later life. When people hear of block-based programming, they tend to associ-
ate it with teaching children or beginners to programming languages. Although block-based
programming is popular among children, it can also be used by adults and professional
programmers to develop projects quickly and with little effort.

Block-based programming has the advantage that it is easy to modify a program because
all that is required is to manipulate the blocks. Another very important advantage of block-
based programming is that complex programs can be developed in a few seconds instead
of hours required with text-based languages. For example, consider the project where it
may be required to read the ambient temperature and send it to someone's mobile phone
as an SMS message. This project will probably take less than 30 minutes to develop us-
ing a block-based programming language, assuming that there is a block to handle SMS
messages. The same program, when written using text-based programming, can easily
take several days to develop and test. This is because the SMS block hides away all of the
complexities of establishing communication with the receiver and sending packets of data.
Another advantage of block-based programming is that the users do not have to memorize
the syntax of the language. For example, in a text-based programming language missing
a semicolon in a program can result in errors which sometimes can take some time to find
out the cause of the error.

This book is about using the MIT App Inventor to develop projects. This is a block-based
web programming language that is currently very popular all over the world. MIT App
Inventor is an online tool and it is free of charge (there is also an offline version). It was
developed originally by Google, but now it is maintained by the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT). App Inventor allows people of all ages to use to develop programs for
mobile phones. It supports both the Android and the iOS operating systems (iOS support

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 Chapter 1 • Introduction

started by the 8th of July, 2019). The final program is compatible with both operating sys-
tems and can be installed and used on both Android and iOS compatible mobile phones and
tablets. In this book, only the Android operating system is considered since the developed
programs can be uploaded to both operating systems and they are fully compatible and will
work without any modifications.

MIT App Inventor is GUI based and is similar to Scratch and StarLogo, where developers
drag and drop and join visual blocks to create an application. Many blocks are offered in
the MIT App Inventor that enable users to create projects using components such as text
boxes, labels, buttons, sliders, checkboxes, switches, notifiers, camcorders, cameras, text
to speech components, speech recognizer, drawing and animation components, web tools,
sensors, maps, storage components, Bluetooth connectivity and so on. These components
are organized under the heading Palette and are placed at the left-hand side of the MIT
App Inventor startup screen as shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 MIT App Inventor components

When a new application is started, a mobile phone image is shown in the middle part of
the screen. The development of a project is in two stages: Designer and Blocks. A pro-
ject starts in the Designer stage where the user places the required components onto the
mobile phone image to build the view of the final application. Some components are hidden
and are only shown outside at the bottom of the phone image. After designing the screen
layout, the user clicks the Blocks menu where the second stage of the development starts.
Here, the block program is constructed by clicking, dragging, dropping and joining the re-
quired blocks on the mobile phone image.

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When the design is complete it is required to test the project. Here, the user has the option
of either using a built-in Emulator, to connect to the mobile phone using a USB cable, or to
upload the developed application to the mobile phone using a wireless Wi-Fi link. Emulator
option is useful if the user has no mobile phone at the time of the development, or if an
Android or iOS compatible mobile phone is not available. The second option is useful if there
is no Wi-Fi connection where the developed application is uploaded to the mobile phone via
a USB cable. The third option is the preferred option where the developed block program
is uploaded to the mobile phone using a Wi-Fi link. In this book, we will be using this third
option to upload the program.

Perhaps the easiest way to understand how to use the MIT App Inventor is to look at a very
simple example. In the example below the stages of the development are summarized.

1.3 Example
This is perhaps the simplest example one can build. This example aims to show the stages
of developing a project using the MIT App Inventor.

In this example, we will insert a button and a textbox on the mobile phone screen. Pressing
the button will display the message Hello there! in the textbox.

Design: Click menu option Designer. Figure 1.3 shows the mobile phone screen where a
button and a textbox are placed on the mobile phone screen.

Figure 1.3 Design of the project

Block Program: Click menu option Blocks. Figure 1.4 shows the block program. It is
clear from these blocks that when the button is clicked the message Hello there! will be
displayed in the textbox.

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 Chapter 1 • Introduction

Figure 1.4 Block program of the example

Build the program: Click menu option Build in the top menu and select App (provide
QR code for .apk). Wait until the QR code of the application is generated as shown in
Figure 1.5

Figure 1.5 QR code of the application

Upload the program to your mobile phone: Start apps MIT AI2 Companion (we will
see in later chapters) on your mobile phone and scan the QR code. Click to install the ap-
plication on your mobile phone

Testing: Start the application on your mobile device to test it. The output in this example
is shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6 Testing the application

MIT App Inventor projects can either be in standalone mode, or they use an external pro-
cessor. In standalone mode, the developed application runs only on the mobile device (e.g.
Android or iOS). In external processor-based applications, the mobile device communicates

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 MIT App Inventor Projects

with an external microcontroller-based processor, such as Raspberry Pi, Arduino, ESP8266,

ESP32, etc.

In this book, many tested and fully working projects have been developed both in stan-
dalone mode and also using an external processor. Full design steps, block programs, and
QR codes are given for all projects. In external processor-based applications (for example
using the Raspberry Pi), block diagrams, circuit diagrams, and full program listings are
given with complete documentation for all projects.

Users will find all the program listing on the Web site of the book. The MIT App Inventor
programs can easily be imported to your MIT App Inventor projects. Additionally, the pro-
grams of the external processor-based projects can be uploaded to the appropriate exter-
nal processor to save you the time of typing them.

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 Chapter 2 • Setting up the MIT App Inventor

Chapter 2 • Setting up the MIT App Inventor

2.1 Overview
In this chapter, we will look at the various ways MIT App Inventor can be used to create
projects. The nice thing about MIT App Inventor (called the App Inventor in this book for
short) is that the PC software is cloud-based and there is no need to install it before use.
Note that in this and future chapters, all references to the Android operating system are
also valid for iOS.

The following are required to create applications using the App Inventor:

A Computer and Operating System:

• Macintosh (with Intel processor): Mac OS X 10.5 or higher

• Windows: Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7 or higher
• GNU/Linux: Ubuntu 8 or higher, Debian 5 or higher (Note: GNU/Linux live devel-
opment is only supported for WiFi connections between computer and Android
device.)

Internet Access and Internet Browser:

• Mozilla Firefox 3.6 or higher

• Apple Safari 5.0 or higher
• Google Chrome 4.0 or higher
• Microsoft Internet Explorer is not supported

Android Compatible Phone or Tablet:

• Android Operating System 2.3 ("Gingerbread") or higher

Optionally:

• You can use the Emulator if you do not have an Android compatible phone or
tablet
• You will need to connect the Android device to a PC using a USB cable if you do
not have a Wi-Fi link.

There are 3 options for setting up and using App Inventor. These are described in the next
section briefly.

2.2 Setting Up the App Inventor

Option 1 - Using an Android Device with Wi-Fi

This is the recommended option where software is developed on a PC and then uploaded
(installed) to an Android device using Wi-Fi for testing (see Figure 2.1).

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Figure 2.1 Option 1 – Using the Android device with Wi-Fi link

This option requires the apps MIT AI2 Companion to be installed from the Play Store to
your Android device as shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Install the MIT AI2 Companion to your Android device

After you create your project, the next step is to upload (install) it to your Android device
for testing. The steps to upload your project to the Android device are as follows (these
steps will become clearer when we look at the steps to create a simple project in the next
section):

• After the project is complete, click Connect and then AI Companion as shown
in Figure 2.3, or, choose Build and then App (provide QR code for .apk) to
install the project permanently on your Android device.

Figure 2.3 Click Connect and then AI Companion

• Wait until the project is compiled.

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 Chapter 2 • Setting up the MIT App Inventor

• A dialog with a QR code will be displayed on your PC screen as shown in Figure

2.4

Figure 2.4 The QR code

• Start the apps MIT AI2 Companion on your Android device and click the scan
the displayed QR code (note that the QR code is only valid for 2 hours) and
hold your device to scan the displayed QR code

• After a few seconds, the project will be uploaded to your device. Follow the in-
structions to install the project.

• You can now test your project on the Android device

Alternatively, you can enter the 6-character code displayed next to the QR code (Figure
2.4) to your Android device to upload the project.

Option 2 - Using an Android Device With Direct Connection to the PC

In this option, it is assumed that there is no Wi-Fi link. The Android device is connected to
the PC using a suitable USB cable as shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5 Option 2 – Connect the Android device to the PC

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 MIT App Inventor Projects

Here, the application is built on the computer and is uploaded to the Android device through
a USB cable. This option requires a driver to be loaded to the Windows-based PCs (there
is no need to load a driver for the Mac or Linux machines). The steps are as follows (you
must install from an account that has administrator privileges). See also the following link:

https://appinventor.mit.edu/explore/ai2/setup-device-usb

• Download the installer from the link:

appinv.us/aisetup_windows

• Locate the file MIT_Appinventor_Tools_2.3.0_win_setup.exe in your Down-

loads file

• Open the file and click through the steps to install the file. It is recommenda-
ble to not change the installation directory. You will find the path to the file is:
C:\Program Files\Appinventor\commands-for-Appinventor

• Download and install the apps MIT AI2 Companion from the Play Store to your
Android device (see Figure 2.2)

• Using the USB cable (also the emulator) requires the use of the program named
aiStarter. There should be a shortcut on your Windows-based computer to this
program (On a Mac, aiStarter runs automatically when you log in), or you should
be able to locate it in your Start menu. Start the aiStarter, you should see the
aiStarter icon in your taskbar. You should see a window as shown in Figure 2.6
(On GNU/Linux, aiStarter will be in the folder /usr/google/commands-for-Appin-
ventor and you'll need to launch it manually. You can launch it from the command
line with /usr/google/appinventor/commands-for-Appinventor/aiStart-
er)

Figure 2.6 aiStarter startup window

• We now have to enable USB Debugging on the Android device. Go to Settings,

then System, and enable both the Developer options and USB debugging
(see Figure 2.7). USB debugging is normally on the same page but under the
heading DEBUGGING. You may find that the Developer Options are hidden (es-
pecially on Android 4.2 and newer) by default. If this is the case, go to Settings
and About phone, and tap Build number 7 times. Then return to the previous
screen to find and enable Developer options, including USB Debugging.

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 Chapter 2 • Setting up the MIT App Inventor

Figure 2.7 Enable the Developer options

• Connect your Android device to your computer using a USB cable, and make
sure that it is not mounted as a drive on your computer. You may have to go to
My Computer (on Windows) and right-click to disconnect any drives (e.g. eject)
that were mounted when you connected your Android device. The device should
be connected as a mass storage device (not as a media device, i.e. as trans-
ferring files, but not as sending pictures). You may get the message saying Allow
USB Debugging?. Press OK.

• Go to the Connection Test Page (appinventor.mit.edu/test.html) to make sure

that the connection is ok. You should see the window as in Figure 2.8 after a
successful connection.

Figure 2.8 Successful connection between Android and the PC

• Once you complete your project and there is a successful USB connection be-
tween the computer and Android device, you should click Connect and then USB
to upload your project to the Android device.

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 MIT App Inventor Projects

Option 3 - Using the Emulator Without an Android Device

In this option, it is assumed that the user has no Android devices. The application is built
on a computer and then emulated using a virtual Android mobile phone which is displayed
on the screen, as shown in Figure 2.9 (see link: https://appinventor.mit.edu/explore/ai2/
setup-emulator)

Figure 2.9 Using the Emulator without an Android device

You will have to install software on your computer before the emulator can be used. The
steps are:

• Download the installer from the link:

appinv.us/aisetup_windows

• Locate the file MIT_Appinventor_Tools_2.3.0_win_setup.exe in your Down-

loads file

• Open the file and click through the steps to install the file. You are recommended
not to change the installation directory. You will find that the path to the file is:
C:\Program Files\Appinventor\commands-for-Appinventor

• Using the emulator (as with the direct link) requires the aiStarter program to run.
This program was installed in the previous step and you should run it manually
(On a Mac, aiStarter will start automatically when you log in to your account and
it will run in the background). You should see a screen similar to Figure 2.6.

• After you complete your project on the computer, click Connect and then Emula-
tor as shown in Figure 2.10

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 Chapter 2 • Setting up the MIT App Inventor

Figure 2.10 Start the emulator

• You should see a message saying the emulator is connecting (see Figure 2.11).
You might have to wait a few minutes for the connection to complete.

Figure 2.11 Emulator connecting message

• You should see a virtual Android mobile phone displayed with the screen chang-
ing until the project screen is displayed, as shown in Figure 2.12.

Figure 2.12 Displaying the virtual Android phone

Note: if you get aiStarter not available messages even though the software has already
been started, you should click to run the program adbrestart in directory C:\Program Files
(x86)\AppInventor\commands-for-appinventor\adbrestart.

2.3 Summary
In this chapter, we learned how to set up the MIT App Inventor software. There are 3 differ-
ent methods we can test our developed project with, depending on whether or not we have
an Android device and Wi-Fi. Method 1 is the most commonly used and it assumes that the
user has an Android device and also the device is assumed to be connected to the same
Wi-Fi network as the computer where the software has been developed. Method 2 assumes
that there is an Android device but no Wi-Fi link. Here, the Android device is connected to
the computer using a USB cable. In method 3 it is assumed the user has no Android device
and the developed program is emulated on a virtual Android phone on a computer screen.
In the next chapter, we will develop some simple projects using MIT App Inventor.

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Chapter 3 • Simple MIT App Inventor projects

3.1 Overview
In the last chapter, we learned how to set up MIT App Inventor (it will simply be called App
Inventor in this chapter). In this chapter, we will develop simple projects to make readers
familiar with the various features of App Inventor. Note that the QR codes given in the pro-
jects were valid only for 2 hours at the time they were created, and they cannot be used to
install the apps to your mobile phone. They are only given here for completeness.

3.2 Starting App Inventor and the Startup Screen

You should use Firefox or Google Chrome for App Inventor project development since Micro-
soft Internet Explorer is not currently supported. You should create a google email account
if you do not already have one. There are several ways that you can start App Inventor:

• Enter the words MIT App Inventor to the Google search engine and click to
start the project

• Enter the following link to your web browser:

https://appinventor.mit.edu/explore/get-started

• You should be presented with the startup screen: Getting Started with MIT
App Inventor screen

• Click Create Apps! On the top left-hand side of the screen to start App Inventor.

The Startup Screen

Figure 3.1 shows the App Inventor startup screen. The middle part of the screen is the
Viewer section which is the working space and it shows the layout of a mobile phone. On
the left-hand side, you will see a Palette with many components that you can drag to the
Viewer. The Palettes are under different categories, such as User Interface, Layout, Media,
Drawing, and Animation, etc. On the right-hand side of the screen, we have the Properties
section, where the properties of the components (e.g. colour, shape, behaviour, etc) can
be configured. On the top part of the screen, we have several menu options. File is used to
create a new file, Connect is used to connect to the MIT AI2 Companion apps, or the Em-
ulator, or an Android device using a USB cable. A list of the user projects can be displayed
by clicking My Projects. Two very important menu options are the Designer and Blocks.
Option Designer is selected when we wish to develop a new project by placing various com-
ponents onto the Viewer. The default screen when App Inventor is started is the Designer
screen. Option Blocks is selected when we wish to develop visual programs to control the
components laid on the Viewer. App Inventor programs are in the form of visual blocks that
are interconnected (e.g. snapped together) to accomplish a task. The user does not need
to have any text-based programming skills to use App Inventor. This will become clearer
when we develop projects.

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Figure 3.1 The Designer startup screen (taken from the MIT App Inventor web site)

The Blocks screen is shown in Figure 3.2. The middle part is the Viewer where the visual
programming components are selected from the component-specific drawers on the left-
hand side of the screen.

Figure 3.2 The Blocks screen (taken from the MIT App Inventor web site)

In the projects in this book an Android mobile phone is used to test the developed projects.
Additionally, a Windows 10 based laptop is used to develop the projects using the App In-
ventor. It is assumed that the mobile phone is connected to the same Wi-Fi router as the
laptop.

3.3 Project 1 – Using a Button to Generate Sound

Description: In this project, we will have a button on our Android screen. When the button
is clicked a bell sound will be generated by the Android phone which can be heard on the
speakers.

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Aim: This project aims to show how a button can be used together with a sound clip.

Steps: The steps to develop the project are given below:

• Start App Inventor and click Create Apps!

• Login by entering your email address and password

• Click Start new project

• Give a name to your project, e.g. BellSound and click OK

• You will be presented with the Designer menu

• Click and drag a Button from the User Interface to the Viewer

• Set the properties of the button on the right-hand side as follows (only the re-
quired changes are shown):

FontBold: tick
Text: Click to sound

• Figure 3.3 shows the screen so far

Figure 3.3 Place a button onto the Viewer

• Click Media in the Palette and drag and drop Sound onto the Viewer. Notice
that the sound icon is displayed outside the mobile phone.

• Now we have to upload our sound file. There are many free of charge MP3 sound
files that can be used in projects. In this project, the telephone bell sound file

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named 96521_kleinhirn2000_reception-bell1.mp3 is used from the site

https://freesound.org/people/Werra/sounds/78565/. This generates a short bell
sound. Click to download the file in a folder.

• Make sure that Sound1 is highlighted on the right-hand side and click Upload
File. Browse and select the sound file you have downloaded. You should see the
filename displayed just above Upload File

This completes the visual design of the project in the Designer menu. Now, we have to
select the Blocks menu and do the visual programming part of the project. The steps are:

• Click Blocks

• Click Button1 from the Palette on the left-hand side

• Click on block when Button1.Click do as shown in Figure 3.4. You should now
see that this block is displayed in the Viewer

Figure 3.4 Click on when Button1 Click do

• Click Sound1 on the left-hand side and select call Sound1.Play

• Join call Sound1.Play with the when Button1.Click do as shown in Figure 3.5

Figure 3.5 Join the two blocks

This completes the design of the visual program. As can be seen from Figure 3.5, when the
button is pressed, we are telling the program to play sound1.

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We should now compile and upload our project to the Android mobile phone. The steps are:

• Click Build and then App (provide QR code for .apk) and wait until the project
is compiled

• You should be presented with the QR code as shown in Figure 3.6 (this code is
valid only for 2 hours and is given here for completeness). Start the apps MIT
AI2 Companion on your mobile phone and click scan QR code. Hold the phone
to view the QR code on the screen

• Accept to download the project to your Android device and then click Install to
install it.

• You might see the message Blocked by Play Protect. Click INSTALL ANYWAY
and then click Open to run the project as an app on your Android device

• You should see that the app with the name BellSound is installed on your An-
droid device

• You should hear the bell sound when you click the button on your mobile phone.

Figure 3.6 The QR code of the project

You may want to use the emulator if you do not have an Android device. The steps are as
follows:

• Click to start program aiStarter o your computer

• Click Connect followed by Emulator and wait until the emulator is connected as
shown in Figure 3.7

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Figure 3.7 Running the emulator

• Make sure that the sound volume of your computer is turned ON. Click the button
in the emulator and you should hear the bell sound on your computer

3.4 Saving the Project

Although the projects are automatically saved by App Inventor, there are many cases
where we may want to save the project files externally, for example on different computers
or flash drives. Projects have extensions .aia. For example, Project 1 developed in the pre-
vious section has the name BellSensor.aia. A project can be saved as follows:

• Click My Projects

• Click Export selected project (.aia) to my computer

• The project will be stored in the Download folder of your computer and it can be
copied to other places if required

• The option Export all projects can be used to save all of your projects

• Option Import project (.aia) from my computer imports a saved project to

App Inventor

3.5 Deleting a Project

You can delete a project by first moving it to the Trash and then deleting the Trash:

• Click My Projects and then Move to Trash

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• Click View Trash, select the project and click Delete From Trash

3.6 Sharing a Project

You can share your project in an executable form (.apk) that can be installed on an Android
device, or in source code form (.aia) that can be loaded into App Inventor.

Sharing the Executable Form

The steps to share a project are as follows:

• Click Build and then App (save .apk to my computer)

• A window will pop up to show that the download has begun

• After the download is complete, you can share the project with your friends by
sending them the .apk file so that they can install it on their mobile devices

Sharing the Source Code

The source code of the project can be saved as described in section 3.4 above. You can
send the .aia file to your friends so that they can import it to their App Inventor programs

3.7 Project 2 – Using a Button, a Label, and Text Boxes – Language Translation

Description: This project translates words from English to German. The English word to
be translated is written and the button is clicked. The translation of the word is German is
displayed in another text box.

Aim: This project aims to show how a button, a label, and text boxes can be used in a
project. The project also shows how words can be translated into other languages using
App Inventor.

Steps: The steps to develop the project are given below:

• Start App Inventor and click Create Apps!

• Login by entering your email address and password

• Click Start new project and give it a name, e.g. Translate

• Click and drag a Label to the Viewer, and configure the label as follows:

FontBold: ticked
Fontsize: 20
Text: Word to be translated

• Click and drag a TextBox to the Viewer under the label, rename it as SourceT-
ext, and tick box FontBold. Clear box Hint

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• Click and drag a Button to the Viewer, and configure it as follows:

FontBold: ticked
Text: Click to Translate

• Click and drag a TextBox to the Viewer, rename it as DestText and tick box
FontBold. Clear box Hint

• Click and drag a YandexTranslate to the Viewer. This will only be visible under
the mobile phone image

This completes the visual design of the project in the Designer, which is shown in Figure
3.8.

Figure 3.8 Design of the project

Now, we have to select the Blocks menu and do the visual programming part of the pro-
ject. The steps are:

• Click Blocks

• Click Button1 from the Palette on the left-hand side and select block when
Button1.Click do

• Click YandexTranslate1 from the Palette on the left-hand side and select call
YandexTranslate1.RequestTranslation. Join the two blocks as shown in Fig-
ure 3.9

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Figure 3.9 Join the two blocks

• Click Text under Built-in and join it to the two blocks. This text will define that
the translation will be from English to German. Enter en-de inside this text.

• Click SourceText on the left-hand side and select SourceText.Text (see Figure
3.10)

Figure 3.10 Enter en-de inside the Text

So far we have translated the word in textbox SourceText, but have not told the program
where to put the translated word. This can be done as follows:

• Click YandexTranslate1 from the left-hand side and select when Yandex-
Translate1.GotTranslation do

• Click DestText from the left-hand side and select set DestText.Text to

• Click on translation on the block when YandexTranslate1.GotTranslation

do and select get translation

• Join the blocks as shown in Figure 3.11

Figure 3.11 Join the blocks

This completes the design of the visual program. We should now compile and upload our
project to the Android mobile phone. The steps are as in the previous project. i.e. Click
Build and scan the QR code (Figure 3.12).

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Figure 3.12 The QR code of the project

Figure 3.13 shows an example run of the program on an Android mobile phone where the
English word large is translated into German.

Figure 3.13 Translating English word large into German

3.8 Project 3 – F
 ormatting the Layout of the Components –
Language Translation

Description: In Project 2 the components were placed under each other and there was
no way to change this layout. In this project, we will learn how to format the layout of the
components on the screen of the Android device. The project translates English words to
German as in the previous project.

Aim: This project aims to show how the layout of the components on the screen can be
formatted.

Steps: The steps to develop the project are given below:

• Click Start new project and give it a name, e.g. Translate2

• Click Layout on the left-hand side and click, drag and drop HorizontalArrange-
ment to the Viewer, and configure it as follows:

AlignHorizontal: Center:3
AlignVertical: Center:2
Height: 5 percent
Width: Fill parent

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• Place a Label on the HorizontalArrangement and configure it as follows:

FontBold: ticked
FontSize: 20
Text: English to German

• You should now see the Label at the center of HorizontalArrangement as

shown in Figure 3.14.

Figure 3.14 Label at the center of HorizontalArrangement

• Place another HorizontalArrangement under the first one and configure it as

follows:

AlignHorizontal: Center:3
AlignVertical: Center:2
Height: 10 percent
Width: Fill parent

• Place a Label on the second HorizontalArrangement and set its FontSize to

14, and Text to Word to be translated:

• Place a TextBox named SourceText next to the Label and configure it as in

the previous project (i.e. FontBold ticked, FontSize 14, Hint and Text fields
cleared). Figure 3.15 shows the layout so far

Figure 3.15 The layout so far

• Place another HorizontalArrangement onto the Viewer with the following con-
figuration:

AlignHorizontal: Center:3
AlignVertical: Center:2
Height: 10 percent
Width: Fill parent

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• Place a Button with its Text set to Click to Translate and a TextBox named
DestText on the HorizontalArrangement. Configure them as in the previous
project.

This completes the design of the project. The Block program of this project is the same as
the previous one and therefore is not repeated here. Compile the program and upload to
your Arduino device. The QR code of the project is shown in Figure 3.16.

Figure 3.16 The QR code of the project

Figure 3.17 shows an example run of the program on an Android mobile phone where the
English word book is translated into German.

Figure 3.17 Translating English word large into German

3.9 Project 4 – Text to Speech – Fixed Text Message

Description: This is a simple text to speech project. When a button is clicked, the text
message Hello from the App Inventor is spoken on the Android device speaker.

Aim: This project aims to show how a text to speech program can be developed.

Steps: The steps to develop the project are given below:

• Start a new project and name it as TTS

• Place a HorizontalArrangement onto the Viewer and configure it as follows:

AlignHorizontal: Center:3
AlignVertical: Center:2
Height: 5 percent
Width: Fill parent

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• Place a Label on the HorizontalArrangement and configure it as follows:

FontBold: ticked
Text: Text To Speech

• Place another HorizontalArrangement onto the Viewer and configure as fol-

lows:

AlignHorizontal: Center:3
AlignVertical: Center:2
Height: 10 percent
Width: Fill parent

• Place a Button on the HorizontalArrangement and configure it as follows:

FontBold: ticked
FontSize: 20
Text: Click to Listen

• Click Media and click, drag and drop the TextToSpeech onto the Viewer. This is
a hidden component and is only shown outside the phone image

Figure 3.18 shows the completed design of the project.

Figure 3.18 Design of the project

Now we have to do the Block programming. The steps are as follows:

• Click Blocks

• Click Button1 on the left-hand side and select when Button1.Click do

• Click TextToSpeech on the left-hand side and select call TextToSpeech.Speak

and join the two blocks

• Click Text under Built-in and select Text String. Join this block to the end of
the previous block

• Enter the text Hello from the App Inventor inside the Text String

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The final Block program is shown in Figure 3.19

Figure 3.19 Block program of the project

Build the program to get the QR code as shown in Figure 3.20. Scan and install the program
on your Android device. Click the button to listen to the text. Figure 3.21 shows the Android
screen for the project.

Figure 3.20 The QR code of the project

Figure 3.21 The Android screen

3.10 Project 5 – Text to Speech – Any Text Message

Description: This project is similar to the previous project. Here, the user enters text into
a textbox. When a button is clicked, the contents of the textbox is spoken on the Android
device speaker.

Aim: This project aims to show how any text message can be spoken on the Android device
speaker.

Steps: The steps to develop the project are given below:

• Start a new project and name it as TTS2

• Place a HorizontalArrangement onto the Viewer and configure it as follows:

AlignHorizontal: Center:3
AlignVertical: Center:2

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Height: 5 percent
Width: Fill parent

• Place a Label on the HorizontalArrangement and configure it as follows:

FontBold: ticked
Text: Text To Speech

• Place another HorizontalArrangement onto the Viewer and configure as fol-

lows:

AlignHorizontal: Left:1
AlignVertical: Center:2
Height: 10 percent
Width: Fill parent

• Place a Label on the HorizontalArrangement and configure it as follows:

FontBold: ticked
FontSize: 20
Text: Text:

• Place a TextBox on the HorizontalArrangement and configure it as follows:

FontBold: ticked
Hint: cleared
Text: cleared

• Place another HorizontalArrangement onto the Viewer and configure as fol-

lows:

AlignHorizontal: Center:3
AlignVertical: Center:2
Height: 10 percent
Width: Fill parent

• Place a Button on the HorizontalArrangement and configure it as follows:

FontBold: ticked
FontSize: 20
Text: Click to Listen

• Place a TextToSpeech on the previous HorizontalArrangement

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Figure 3.22 shows the final design of the phone image.

Figure 3.22 Final design on the phone image

Now we have to do the Block programming. The steps are as follows:

• Click Blocks

• Click Button1 on the left-hand side and select when Button1.Click do

• Click TextToSpeech on the left-hand side and select call TextToSpeech.Speak

and join the two blocks

• Click TextBox1 on the left-hand side and select TextBox1.Text. Join this block
to the end of the previous block

• The final Block program is shown in Figure 3.23

Figure 3.23 Block program of the project

Build the program to get the QR code as shown in Figure 3.24. Scan and install the program
on your Android device. Enter a text and click the button to listen to the text. Figure 3.25
shows the Android screen for the project.

Figure 3.24 The QR code of the project

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Figure 3.25 The Android screen

3.11 Project 6 – Text to Speech – English to German

Description: This project is similar to the previous project. Here, the user enters text in
English into a textbox. When a button is clicked, the contents of the textbox is translated
into German and is spoken on the Android device speaker.

Aim: This project aims to show how text to speech and translation can be combined in a
project.

Steps: The Designer of the project is the same as in Project 4 (see Figure 3.22), except
that here a YandexTranslate is placed onto the Viewer. This project is named as TTS3.
The steps for the design of the Block program are as follows:

• Click Blocks

• Click Button1 from the Palette on the left-hand side and select block when
Button1.Click do

• Click YandexTranslate1 from the Palette on the left-hand side and select call
YandexTranslate1.RequestTranslation. Join the two blocks as shown in Fig-
ure 3.9

• Click Text under Built-in and join it to the two blocks. This text will define that
the translation will be from English to German. Enter en-de inside this text.

• Click TextBox1 at the left hand side and select TextBox1.Text.

So far we have translated the contents of TextBox1, but have not told the program to
speak the translated text. This can be done as follows:

• Click YandexTranslate1 from the left-hand side and select when Yandex-
Translate1.GotTranslation do

• Click TextToSpeech1 at the left hand side and select call TextToSpeech1.
Speak message

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• Click on translation block when YandexTranslate1.GotTranslation do and

select get translation

• Join the blocks as shown in Figure 3.26

Figure 3.26 Join the blocks

Build the program to get the QR code as shown in Figure 3.27. Scan and install the pro-
gram on your Android device. Enter a text in English, click the button to listen to the text
in German.

Figure 3.27 The QR code of the project

3.12 Project 7 – Using Images – Learning Elementary English

Description: In this project, the images of some objects are displayed on the Android
screen. The names of the objects are spoken when the user clicks on the objects.

Aim: This project aims to show how images can be displayed on the screen and how ac-
tions can be taken when these images are clicked.

In this project, we will be using images of 4 objects for demonstration purposes. The num-
ber of images can easily be extended if required. These images are icons in the form of JPG
files and are taken from the Internet. The following images are used in the project: car,
balloon, banana, apple.

Steps: The steps to develop the project are given below:

• Start a new project and name it as Images

• Place a HorizontalArrangement onto the Viewer and configure it as follows:

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AlignHorizontal: Center: 3
AlignVertical: Center: 2
Height: 20 percent
Width: Fill parent

• Place a Button (Button1) on the HorizontalArrangement and configure as

follows:

Height: 15 percent
Width: 20 percent
Text: clear

• Click Upload File and browse and click on the apple image. Go to the Proper-
ties on the right-hand side for Button1, click Image, and select apple.jpg. You
should see an apple image displayed on the screen

• Place a Button (Button2) on the HorizontalArrangement and configure as

follows:

Height: 15 percent
Width: 20 percent
Text: clear

• Click Upload File and browse and click on the banana image. Go to the Proper-
ties on the right-hand side for Button2, click Image, and select banana.jpg.
You should see a banana image displayed on the screen

• Place a Button (Button3) on the HorizontalArrangement and configure as

follows:

Height: 15 percent
Width: 20 percent
Text: clear

• Click Upload File and browse and click on the balloon image. Go to the Prop-
erties on the right-hand side for Button3, click Image, and select baloon.jpg.
You should see a balloon image displayed on the screen

• Place a Button (Button4) on the HorizontalArrangement and configure as

follows:

Height: 15 percent
Width: 25 percent
Text: clear

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• Click Upload File and browse and click on the car image. Go to the Properties
on the right-hand side for Button4, click Image, and select car.jpg. You should
see a car image displayed on the screen

• Click, drag and drop a TextToSpeech onto the Viewer from the Media on the
left-hand side. This is hidden and will not show on the screen

This completes the design of the project as shown in Figure 3.28.

Figure 3.28 Design of the project

Now we have to do the Block programming. The steps are as follows:

• Click Blocks

• Click Button1 on the left-hand side and select when Button1.Click do

• Click TextToSpeech on the left-hand side and select call TextToSpeech.Speak

and join the two blocks

• Click Text under Built-in and join it to the blocks. Set the text inside this block
to This is an apple

• Click Button2 on the left-hand side and select when Button2.Click do

• Click TextToSpeech on the left-hand side and select call TextToSpeech.Speak

and join the two blocks

• Click Text under Built-in and join it to the blocks. Set the text inside this block
to This is a banana

• Click Button3 on the left-hand side and select when Button3.Click do

• Click TextToSpeech on the left-hand side and select call TextToSpeech.Speak

and join the two blocks

• Click Text under Built-in and join it to the blocks. Set the text inside this block
to This is a balloon

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• Click Button4 on the left-hand side and select when Button4.Click do

• Click TextToSpeech on the left-hand side and select call TextToSpeech.Speak

and join the two blocks

• Click Text under Built-in and join it to the blocks. Set the text inside this block
to This is a car

Figure 3.29 shows the completed Block program of the project.

Figure 3.29 Block program of the project

Build the program to get the QR code as shown in Figure 3.30. Scan and install the program
on your Android device. Click on an image and you should hear the description of the image
through the speaker.

Figure 3.30 The QR code of the project

Figure 3.31 shows the images displayed on an Android mobile phone.

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Figure 3.31 Images displayed on an Android phone

3 .13 Project 8 – Speaking a Received SMS Message

Description: In this project, the SMS messages received by the Android device are spoken
on the speaker.

Aim: This project aims to show how SMS messages can be received by the Android device
and also how these emails can be sent to the text-to-speech component of App Inventor.
The component Texting under the Social tab on the left-hand side of the screen is used
to send and receive SMS messages. When the SendMessage method is called, a text
message specified in the Message property will be sent to the phone number specified in
the PhoneNumber property. If the ReceivingEnabled property is set to 1, messages will
not be received. If ReceivingEnabled is set to 2 messages will be received only when the
application is running. Finally, if ReceivingEnabled is set to 3, messages will be received
when the application is running and when the application is not running they will be queued
and a notification displayed to the user. When a message arrives, the MessageReceived
event is raised and this provides both the phone number of the sender and the message
itself.

An app that includes the Texting component will receive messages even when it is in the
background (i.e. when it's not visible on the screen) and, even if the app is not running, so
long as it is installed on the phone. If the phone receives a text message when the app is
not in the foreground, the phone will show a notification in the notification bar. Selecting
the notification will bring up the app. An option can be given to the user such that receiving
an SMS message can be ignored.

Steps: The steps to develop the project are given below:

• Start a new project and name it as MyMails

• Place a HorizontalArrangement onto the Viewer and insert a Label onto this,
set the Title of this label to Speak the received Emails

• Place another HorizontalArrangement onto the Viewer and insert a Button onto
this, set the button Title to Click to Start, click the FontBold, and set the TextColor
to Red

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• Drag and drop a Texting component from the Social tab. This will not be visible
on the phone image

• Drag and drop a TxtToSpeech component from the Media tab. This will not be
visible on the phone image

This completes the design of the project as shown in Figure 3.32.

Figure 3.32 Design of the project

Now we have to do the Block programming. First of all, we have to initialize components
Texting and TextToSpeech. The Texting component must be enabled so that we can
receive emails. In this project, we will be setting the ReceivingEnabled parameter to 2.
We are also going to set the speech rate of the TextToSpeech component. Valid values
are 0, 1, 2. 0 is the slowest rate while 2 is the fastest rate. We will choose the speech rate
as 1 in this project.

The steps are as follows:

• Click Blocks

• Click Button1 on the left-hand side and select when Button1.Click do

• Click Texting1 on the left-hand side and select set Texting1.ReceivingEna-

bled to

• Click Math under Built-in and select the first block (the number block). Enter
number 2 into this block and join the blocks

• Click TextToSpeech1 and select set TextToSpeech1.Speechrate to

• Click Math under Built-in and select the number block as before. Enter number
1 into this block and join the blocks as shown in Figure 3.33.

Figure 3.33 Initializing components Texting and TextToSpeech

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 Chapter 3 • Simple MIT App Inventor projects

We now have to create the blocks to receive SMS messages and then to speak them on the
Android device's speaker. The steps are as follows:

• Click Texting1 and select when Texting1.MessageReceived

• Click TextToSpeech1 and select call TextToSpeech1.Speak Message. Join

the two blocks

• Click and drag block Join in Text under Built-in

• Click and drag the first block in Text under Built-in so that we can insert a text
message. Join this block to block Join and enter text Email received from

• Insert another Join block, click on number in when Texting1.MessageRe-

ceived and join the block get number to block Join

• Insert another Join block, click on messageText in when Texting1.Messag-

eReceived and join the block get messageText to block Join

The block program of the project is complete as shown in Figure 3.34. When a new mes-
sage arrives, block when Texting1.MessageReceived will be activated. This block will
call the TextToSpeech block. The phone number of the sender and the received message
will be extracted from block Texting. The message Email received from will be spoken,
followed by the phone number of the sender and the received message.

Figure 3.34 Complete block program of the project

Build the program to get the QR code as shown in Figure 3.35. Scan and install the program
on your Android device. Click the button to start the program. When the program is started,
you might be asked to allow the phone to send and view SMS messages, just click Allow.
The program can easily be tested by sending an SMS message from another phone.

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 MIT App Inventor Projects

Figure 3.35 The QR code of the project

3.14 Project 9 – Sending SMS Messages

Description: In this project, we will learn how to send an SMS message to another device.

Aim: This project aims to show how an SMS message can be sent using App Inventor.
The steps are as follows:

• Start a new project and name it as SendSMS

• Place a HorizontalArrangement onto the Viewer and insert a Label onto this,
set the Text of this label to SEND SMS

• Insert another HorizontalArrangement and drop a Label and a TextBox. Set

the Text of the Label to Number:, and the name of the TextBox to TxtNum-
ber. Clear the Hint field of the TextBox. This text box will receive the phone
number of the person where we wish to send the SMS to

• Insert another HorizontalArrangement and drop a Label and a TextBox. Set

the Text of the Label to Message:, and the name of the TextBox to TxtMes-
sage. Clear the Hint field of the TextBox. This text box will receive the message
we wish to send

• Insert another HorizontalArrangement and drop a Button. Set the Text of the
Button to Click to Send, and its FontColor to Red

• Drag and drop a Texting component from the Social tab

This completes the design of the project as shown in Figure 3.36.

Figure 3.36 Design of the project

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 The Project Gutenberg eBook of Hieroglyfic: or, a
Grammatical Introduction to an Universal Hieroglyfic
Language
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other
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located before using this eBook.

Title: Hieroglyfic: or, a Grammatical Introduction to an Universal Hieroglyfic Language

Author: Rowland Jones

Release date: May 13, 2019 [eBook #59501]

Language: English

Credits: Produced by David Starner and the Online Distributed

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HIEROGLYFIC: OR, A GRAMMATICAL

INTRODUCTION TO AN UNIVERSAL HIEROGLYFIC LANGUAGE ***
 H I E R O G L Y F I C:
OR,
A Grammatical Introduction
TO
An Universal Hieroglyfic Language;
CONSISTING OF
E n g l i s h SIGNS and VOICES.
WITH
A Definition of all the Parts of the English, Welsh, Greek, and Latin Languages;
Some Physical, Metaphysical, and Moral cursory Remarks on the Nature, Properties, and Rights of Men and
Things.
And Rules and Specimens for composing an Hieroglyfic Vocabulary of the Signs or Figures, as well as the
Sounds of Things, upon rational and philosophical Principles, and the primitive Meaning of Names.
By R O W. J O N E S.

“Expatiate free o’er all this Scene of Man,

A mighty Maze! yet not without a Plan.”

L O N D O N:
Printed by John Hughs, near Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields;
And sold by Messrs. Dodsley, in Pall-Mall; Davis, in Piccadilly; Shropshire, in Bond-Street; Elmsley, late
Vaillant, in the Strand; Owen, at Temple-Bar; and Crowder, in Pater-Noster-Row. Of whom may be had,
the Origin of Language and Nations, by the same Author; Price 5s. and his Postscript 1s. in Sheets.
1768.
 PREFACE.
The subject of this inquiry, tho’ of that importance as to demand the care and attention
of the ablest writers, is perhaps the least understood of any branch of science. This being
in a great measure owing to the present corrupt state of languages, and the wrong course
and direction of lexicographers in the investigation of them, the Writer of this essay,
therefore, without presuming to instruct his readers in any common track of literature,
only submits to their perusal some discoveries, which perhaps may be of service towards
the restoration of language and primitive knowledge, and excite the curiosity of those of
greater learning and penetration, and engage them, if possible, in a research worthy of
their contemplation, the restoration of the first universal language of mankind. For
although the ground-work, which chiefly depends on the author’s own discoveries, may be
sketched out by himself, without the parts and learning of an Aristotle, yet it must be
confessed that the finishing strokes in any new abstruse branches of literature deserve a
more masterly hand. However, since we are here indiscriminately permitted a decent
exercise of our faculties upon the most serious subjects, it is to be hoped no unpardonable
offence has been committed, in submitting the following sheets to the judgment and
decision of men of candor and learning. If they should in any degree approve of the
writer’s labours, he will then be justified this intrusion into the province of the literati, with
all his defects and inaccuracies. But should the contrary happen after an impartial and
candid examination, he must then acquiesce with the common fate of his fellow-labourers,
and impute his errors or mistakes to the intensity of his zeal for the service of mankind,
more particularly Britons of all denominations. But to be condemned unheard, in a country
that boasts so much of its liberties, especially those of the press, must be without a
precedent.
However customary it has been for writers to take notice of the performances of former
authors upon the like subjects, in order to shew the necessity or utility of their own; yet,
as no person ever treated this subject upon the present plan, and the author is not so vain
as to imagine that any thing he could have advanced might have been sufficient to attract
those that have been long accustomed to the clod-cutting traces, and the voice of
prejudice or mere sounds, and he presumes not to teach any particular language or
doctrine, it shall be declined as useless in the present case; and we shall proceed here to
what seems to be more proper and necessary for the illustration of the subject in hand,
namely, to transcribe some notes taken in the course of these inquiries, introductory to a
rational grammar. And first of the nature and state of man.
Man, in the sense of language, is to be considered as a compound of all beings, a
microcosm in his form, and a general intelligent echo of the divine fiat by his speech; a
vegetable, by his manner of growth and nourishment; an animal by his motion,
respiration, and feeling; and a spiritual being from his thinking or intelligent faculties; his
animal part being probably formed with the other animals, out of the dust of the earth,
and his intelligence in its first state, that tree of life, breath, or superaddition breathed into
his nostrils by the creator, by which he became a living soul. The essence of this celestial
and terrestrial system or compound being will probably remain indefinable, until man shall
recover his primitive existence, as the tree of life; tho’ the tree of knowledge of good and
evil in the mean time furnish him with sufficient means for his happiness here, and
existence hereafter as the tree of life; for his organs of sensation, in contact with external
objects and impressions, form in the sensory the various modes of feeling, and those
images are perceived by the will; which has not only a nilling power of permitting those
images to remain without any additional light, as the mere images of sensation fit only for
the government of animal bodies; but also of willing or presenting them to the reflecting
faculty of the soul for the formation of sentimental ideas, to be registered in the memory,
and employed by the mind in its intelligent, rational, wise and virtuous operations, for the
illumination and conduct of a reasonable being, appointed by Providence lord of the
creation.
The human will being the sole energy of all voluntary motions in man, and motions
continuing in direct lines or courses, if not diverted therefrom, most probably would have
continued its pure intuitive course and direction towards goodness, virtue, and true
happiness, without the power of nilling or depravely contradicting its original nature, as
the tree of life, had not the serpent interposed and put the fruit of the tree of knowledge
of good and evil in its way. And as man in his state of innocence, before his fall, must, as
the tree or breath of life, have been furnished with the knowledge of good, so it seems
probable that Moses by the tree of knowledge of good and evil, meant the generative
powers, or certain characters or letters representing them, engraved on the bark of the
tree of knowledge of good and evil, furnishing the first pair, in their state of innocence,
with two sorts of ideas or knowledge, and the means of gratifying their lust, as well as
pride or curiosity of knowing good and evil, like their superiors; mankind before their fall
being probably capable of seeing each others ideas, without the use of sounds; and of
propagation after the manner of the second Adam.
Since those animals, which are endued with the organs of speech, are incapable of
articulating any conceptions, it is reasonable to suppose that the animal part of man
alone, without the assistance of the intelligent or rational, must be so likewise. It is
therefore probable that the human will, agreeable to the notes or ideas impressed on the
memory, plays upon the fibres, the simple tones of articulation; which in their passage,
with respiration, thro’ the lungs, stomach, windpipe, larynx, and mouth, are by the glotis,
tongue, lips, muscles, and other organical powers, which assume literal figures, modulated
into articulate sounds, both simple and compound, agreeable to the nature of things and
their ideas, as impressed in the human sensory. And as man is furnished with ideas chiefly
by the means of speech, the tree of knowledge of good and evil seems to be no improper
metaphor of the human voice or person, or the Dryades and Hamadryades, nor the tree of
life, of man’s intuitive state of knowledge and virtue.
It is yet the general opinion that human speech derives its origin solely from the
arbitrary composition or invention of man, without any connexion with nature or the
intervention of Providence. However true such bold and presumptuous doctrines may be
with respect to some of the corrupt compounded parts, which chiefly occasioned the great
variety and confusion of languages, yet articulate sounds, the materials of speech, clearly
appear to have been the gift of Providence, and always the same in all countries; as for
instance, an Indian, as well as an European, in expressing the idea of length, will contract
and lengthen the organs of articulation, so as to form an acute sound, and the shape of
the letter i; and to express breadth they will alike extend them, like the letter o, to express
a broad or grave sound; and so in other cases, though they differ as to the manner of
compounding those sounds; more especially on account of the great loss of primitives
amongst the Indians. And it cannot be otherwise, since the scripture proves that Adam
named things agreeable to their nature, under the inspection and direction of Providence.
Again, to suppose man of himself, without the intervention of Providence, capable of
forming the materials of his own speech, must be as absurd as to imagine that he formed
the materials of his own ideas or himself, since speech depends on the original frame of
man, and the shape of his organs, and abstract and complex ideas on names, as the
means of forming and registering them in the memory. Nor does it appear to be less so, to
imagine dumb men, without inspiration, capable of fixing upon arbitrary signs of language,
or advancing in knowledge, or at least, of forming so perfect a system, without being
previously taught the use of letters and characters, the elements and principles of
languages; more especially such of the sounds and figures, as were not to be met with in
any other parts of nature, and the unintuitive, vicious, privative, and negative parts both
of knowledge and language, which depend on the hieroglyfic, sacred, or secret characters.
And, whatever may be the disguise of arbitrary or corrupt dialects, they will all appear
upon due examination to derive their origin from the original tree of knowledge; and was
it not for the difference of climates, constitutions, habits, manners, and other accidents,
which demand the aid of grammar, it seems probable, since characters represent the
figures of things, and letters, or natural articulate sounds subsist in the very frame of
man, the very ideas causing vibrations in the speaker, are felt by the hearer, and the
elements of speech are universally the same, that languages would naturally fall, or at
least, like the English, incline to their primitive universal state, and the same combination
and construction of particles into words and sentences, if the particles of all languages
were precisely defined according to their primitive meaning; there being in man an innate
potency of recurring to, as well as an impotency of erring or deviating from the original
modes of speech, as well as perceptions, and of becoming virtuous and vicious by turns.
Languages, it is true, have been fluctuating, and in particular the English; which was
originally the Celtic or Phrygian, brought by our ancestors, the Titans, in the first
westward migration, from the lesser Asia, thro’ Greece and Italy into ancient Celtica; and
which on the arrival of the Romans in Italy partook of the Greek dialects, and furnished
the Romans with a considerable part of the Latin tongue. Some of the Aborigines of Italy,
Spain, and Gaul, having afterwards fled from the Roman yoke into Germany, without their
priests and druids, who had before retired into Britain, their language as well as
knowledge received an ebb, though no foreign admixture. But their priests and bards
denominated in the writings of the British poets, the Luchlin colony, and in Germany and
Italy, by the names of Longobards, and Lombards, the great bard nation, and speaking
the British language in Germany, being drove by the Romans out of Britain, into Germany
and Denmark, their language as well as knowledge received some increase from the
mother tongue; which then in its turn began to sink in Britain. And thus all the dialects of
ancient Celtica are but different dialects of the old Celtic language, which first made its
way into Europe, and so they ought to be deemed by lexicographers in their definition of
vocables. But of all those dialects, the English in respect to the copiousness, strength, and
simplicity both of its vocables and construction, seems to be the best fund for an universal
language of any upon earth.
It may not perhaps seem improper here to explain some other abstruse principles in
physics and metaphysics, from the meaning of vocables, as they too seem to explain the
principles of rational grammar. There are, it seems, in physics, discoverable by the
signification of words, three universal principles or genusses of things, namely, space,
matter, and motion; which, as to their essences, if essence, nature, and quality differ in
ought but form, are indefinable. But with respect to their modes, properties, and forms,
space is distance every way, whether with or without body; with it, it is extension or
capacity; without it, a vacuum; quantity, mensuration, number, place or matter extended,
a continent, an island, length, breadth, figure, thickness, an inch, a foot, a yard and such
things being its modes. Matter, whatever its essence may be, is an indivisible impenetrable
atom or corpuscule; of which two or more assembled or cohered, form a particle, and
larger cohesions or combinations of those form sensible bodies, which are chiefly
distinguishable in language by their forms; though they have such properties and modes,
as length, breadth, and thickness, or extension, solidity, or an assemblage excluding all
other bodies from its place, divisibility or the separation of its quantity, mobility,
passiveness, and figure, or that length and breadth without thickness, which present
themselves to the eye. And as to the active qualities of matter, they seem to be all
intentional, as fluidity, softness, rarity, heat, and other modes of motion; all the rest being
passive, and arising merely from the different texture, disposition, and combination of
bodies; or a privation of the former; as, firmness, hardness, density, coldness, dryness,
and rest. Motion is the successive passage or change from once place or state to another.
Of which there are three sorts expressible by language, viz. the energic, generative, and
local; which with their various modes or actions are expressible by verbs.
The metaphysical part of man, which derives its origin from the Creator’s impression, or
the essence of the thinking soul, altho’ it has no more consciousness or knowledge of its
own essence, than those of other beings; nor perhaps the means of its present modes of
conception, without the use of those bodily organs, to which the all-wise Creator was
pleased to confine it for a time, and the presence of internal objects, any more than the
organs of sensation feel the touch without the contact of external objects, is still in the
fool, as well as philosopher, when furnished with proper organs, equally capable of that
innate potency of expressing its own qualities and actions, as is evident from our universal
acknowledgement of a creator, and the different powers of those fools who are capable of
lucid intervals. And however different our reasonings may be concerning the attributes of
the infinite Creator, from the variousness of objects and different degrees of volition, there
can be nothing more absurd than to affirm that the human soul cannot be impressed with
the image of its Creator, because at times it expresses or affects no consciousness of it;
consciousness being rather an energic affirmation or quality of the soul, than its essence,
as an involuntary animal or vegetable motion is an act, rather than the cause of motion.
Such perceptions however as it does express of spiritual beings, have privative, energic, or
moral names; which are formed by the symmetry, and just measures and proportions of
parts and modes of motion; from whence moral notions also derive their origin, as shall be
shewn in the course of the following work, as shall also as to our mistaking infinite
duration for time.
 Tho’ metaphysics aid the moral plan,
“The proper study of mankind is man;”
His language part we now presume to scan,
A mighty maze to be without a plan;
‘A wild where weeds promiscuous shoot,
Or garden tempting with forbidden fruit;’
The tree of life, once, branches, stem, and root,
Of knowledge too, since vices on it shoot.
The garden cleared of the tares and weeds,
Gives willing force, and cogitation speeds.
‘Then, as life can little more supply,
Than just to look about us, and to die;
Expatiate free o’er all this scene of man,
A mighty maze! yet not without a plan.’
Plain truth, not person, is my utmost hope,
I tell you truly in the sense of Pope.

Wild signifies a wood, or the place of the higher growth, and is an emblematical
expression for the tree of knowledge of good and evil, the Υλη, matter or sound of human
speech, as ειδος seems to be of its ideal property.
Person is a compound of pêr-son, sweet sound; pêr also signifies any sweet ripe fruit,
as figs or figes, according to the Welsh; which perhaps resembles that which gave man
the denomination of person, the sound of the apple or afal, and to the fallen angel that
tempted Eve, the name of di-afal or devil, the apple God; and figes and vices signify the
same thing; the v consonant and digamma being the same, and g being an inflection of
the radical c. See person, wood, &c. in the vocabulary.
The fall of man has laid us under a sort of charm, which nothing can remove but a
thorough taste of the tree of knowledge, and avoiding its vicious branches as much as
possible. Had that great reasoner Mr. Lock been so happy as to attend a little more to the
tree of knowledge, instead of intirely rejecting the divine origin of human speech, and
innate principles of thinking, he might have reasoned well upon right principles, instead of
misleading and confirming us in our errors, as without doubt was his intention.
The learned Hermes, the very best of modern grammarians, whose ingenious
performance, had it sooner come to my perusal, might have charmed me out of my
present labours, to acquiesce with his opinions, seems to be a little affected by this fort of
charm, and perhaps is as much deluded from his subject by the language, learning, and
beauties of the Greeks and Romans, as the late author of the short introduction to the
English language, by some of our modern barbarisms, the very exceptionable parts of our
language.
 GRAMMAR.
Grammar is the right method of expressing the ideas of things by signs and sounds
adapted for the sensation of the eye and ear, according to their hieroglyfic nature, forms,
and modes, and that εντελεχεια or intelligent echo, with which man was originally endued
by his Creator.
It consists of three parts or sorts of names, viz. letters, considered as characters or the
figures of things, and as signs of articulate sounds; their combination into particles and
nouns; and their construction into phrases, propositions, and sentences. And, according to
the present state of languages, etymology may be admitted as a fourth division of
grammar.

LETTERS.
Letters, as γραμματα or characters, either really or emblematically personate, and
represent things and ideas; and as notes of articulate sounds signify internal conceptions,
and express them to others. They consist of various sorts, such as simple characters to
denote elements or principles; compounds to express complex ideas, and things; the
dividers of parts; actives, energies, and affirmatives; and privatives, and negatives. These
are the smallest or elementary parts of language, as atoms are of matter and action of
motion; an assemblage thereof form particles, as of atoms do those of matter; and a
combination of either form more sensible bodies, and so on to the construction of larger
forms, masses or sentences; letters having been formed in their shapes and sounds,
agreeable to ideas and things, and having a natural connection therewith; and length and
breadth affecting the eye in the same manner as their vibrations do the ear, and a
combination of both the human will and perception.
Characters, which consist of irregular lines, circles, or curves, are incapable of general
signs or meanings, or representing many things; but strait lines, and circles, and their
division and multiplication, like the Roman, only are capable of that hieroglyfic, universal
representation and meaning, which the first universal language must be supposed to
express, and as most other characters seem to be only deviations from the Roman, from
mere affectation, or for the conveniency of sculpture, there seems to be no great
absurdity in supposing that Adam was furnished with those characters, and instructed in
their sounds; that they continued in general use until the confusion of Babel, when
mankind began to make use of the noise or sounds of cattle instead of human voices; and
that the Romans were furnished with those characters by the Tuscans on their arrival in
Italy. Nor does it seem in the least probable that those nations which had been destined
by Providence to be the possessors of the most distant countries westward from Asia, who
made their way thither accordingly, along the Mediterranean coasts, through Crete,
Greece, Sicily, Egypt, Mauritania, Tuscany, Spain, Gaul, and Britain, were in Asia at the
time of the confusion. And as those characters are adapted only for the Celtic, Phrygian,
or British language, which resolves the names of places of the several countries through
which it passed, preferable to the more modern dialects thereof, and Cæsar thought that
Druidism began in Britain; it seems very probable that Mercury, Gomer, or Hermes, and
other Druids, leaders of the western colonies, were always possest of those secret
characters; it being certain that the Gauls before Cæsar’s time had the use of letters.
Besides, ancient history takes notice of the hieroglyfics, as consisting of the figures of
animals, parts of human bodies, and mechanical instruments invented by Thoth the first
Hermes, which were afterwards translated into Greek, and deposited in books in the
Egyptian temples, and which the learned supposed to be sacred characters.
The characters of the first language were without doubt simple, requiring but few rules
for their combination and construction; and yet must have been expressive of all the
natural signs and sounds of things; for such certainly ought to be the construction of a
language proposed for an universal assent; and such in my opinion is the English, whose
vocables are hieroglyfic; and their meaning agreeing with the picturesque combination.
These were the ancient characters, engravings, or γραμματα; and their sounds were the
στοιχα, the chief sounds; and which we shall here proceed to explain, together with the
Greek characters.

Eng. Welsh. and Greek. Greek names.

Roman.
a, ɑ. α. Alpha, the call upon parts.
b. β, ϐ. Beta, upon the beasts of the fields.
c, k, q. κ. Kappa, the action upon parts.
d, dd. δ. Delta, the division or race of things.
e, ɛ, h, ɜ. ε, η, ϶, Η. Epsilon and Heta, the clitoris, erectors, and all the
interjectory generative springs.
f, ff. φ. Phi, the penis in action and generative qualities.
g. γ, Γ. Gamma, the testicles, or an action about the mother.
i, j. ι. Jota, the rays of the sun upon things.
l, ll. λ. Lamda, things extended or place.
m. μ. Mv, man’s body, and things about as surrounding man.
n, ng. ν. Nv, in man, or betwixt his thighs, human will and the
negatives.
o. ο, ω, Ω. Omicron and Omega, the little and great circle of space,
place, and motion.
p. π, Ψ, ψ. Pe and Psi, the penis not in action, and animal and other
dead parts.
r. ϱ, ρ. Rho, the eccho or sound of animals, &c.
s, ſ, z. σ, Ζ, ζ. Zigma and Zeta, sounds in general.
t, T, th. τ, Θ. Tau and Theta, man’s possessions, properties, extension,
&c.
v, u, u, w. υ, Υ. Upsilon, the upper springs, as man’s face, &c.
x, ch, wh. Ξ, ξ, χ. Chi or χi, animal, gutteral, and sounds of superior actions.

Transcriber’s Note: This table is included as an image here, as some of the characters in it may have more than
one interpretation.

This alphabet consists of seven vowels or voices, which in their own nature, actively,
and without any super-addition, yield compleat articulate sounds, particles, or names, and
hieroglyfically represent the elementary or active parts of the human body, and nature, as
similar thereto, namely, a, e or h, i, o, u, w or ω, Υ; and of other characters or letters,
which are called consonants from their yielding articulate sounds only in company with
vowels. Of these b, c, d, f, g, l, m, p, t, are also hieroglyfic representations of the various
parts of the human body and other things as similar thereto; and they are mutable and
inflectory in the pronominal cases, from the less animate, slow, and almost silent radical
state, both as to the sense and sound, to the rougher, louder, and more animate and
active sounds and things; as for instance, c, p, τ, the most silent, as expressive of material
or passive substances or local inanimate actions inflect into g, b, d, which are somewhat
louder and rougher, as being expressive of the higher and more active things and actions
of men and animals; and those again into the still louder and rougher sounds of ch, ff, th,
as those are expressive of the most energic actions or modes of motion; but when g, b, d,
are the radicals of inflection, they again inflect into ng, f, m, dd, n, and in some dialects
the l and r have the aspirates ll and rh for the radicals, as has been shewn in my former
treatises. To the loss of these inflections may in a great measure be imputed the great
variety and confusion of languages; new dialects having been formed by changing the
radicals and misapplying the inflectories, as father for pater, brother for frater, and mother
for mater. b, c, d, j, k, p, q, t, as yielding little or no sounds, without the assistance of
vowels, are called mutes; l, m, n, r, f, s, as having imperfect obscure sounds without the
company of vowels, have been distinguished as semivowels; and l, m, n, r, also as liquids
from their flowing in particles, as in, îf, îl, îm, în, îr, the flow of the sun’s rays, light,
motion, liquid, and life or qualities upon the lower world of beings and things; but the
distinctions of mutes and semivowels seem trifling, as most letters seem to be vowels in
some degree.
Here, before we proceed to explain the figures and powers of letters, it may not
perhaps be improper to observe that the parts, affections, and ideas of the human pair,
incorporated, as in the figures at the end of this essay, were the archetypes or patterns of
the original characters, whose figures and sounds are descriptive of the universe; that
letters and particles have two sounds, the masculine and feminine, the active and passive,
or the short and long; that a particle or syllable cannot in the genuine sense of language
consist of more than two letters; and that there are not in fact any such things as
dipthongs; those now supposed to be such, being two or three particles of one vowel
each, which formerly was a common method of composition, as appears by the following
piece of ancient poetry; in which there is no consonant made use of, the r being only a
letter of sound.

Oer iu yr eira ar yr yri,

Oi riu or awyr i rewi;
Oer iu yr ia oi riu ri
Ar eira oer iu yr yri.

Thus Englished.

From its high hill cold is ice,

Cold is the snow on Snowden;
Its nature from the sky to freeze
On snow so cold is Snowden.

The letter o is an indefinite circle, signifying the universe, motion, space, the sun’s
figure and motion, and all or ol, extension of length, breadth, and thickness; and it is
expressible of parts only by a diminution of its general sense; as in b-ol, a ball or part of
all, or-b, a circle part, w-or-l-d, a man’s circle part or place of life, b-or-d-er the circle part
of the possessions and 10, one circle, which being repeated comprehends all numbers.
This, like all other original letters, has two sounds, the long and the short, as in on, one,
ton, tone; and its shape or figure was taken from the circumference of the human pair
close together, face to face, which is man’s chief circle place, signified by the term world.
The Greek ω is a double υ as has been explained in my former treatise.
The letter i is an indefinite line, representing man in his primitive state of innocence, as
it does still his body, as a line, without its extension, and his head and senses by its dot;
and in a secondary sense are expressed by this line and dot, length or heighth towards
the sun, the sun-beams, fire, heat, and other qualities both spiritual and animal, as still
flowing upon man, and other things as relative to him, and originally perhaps centering in
himself, and since his fall only relatively. But though man and nature have been impaired
by original sin, they still seem to be invested with certain springs, energies, or returns of
those ilations and qualities, as, thinking, willing, voice articulate, powers generative and
growth; whereby the human species may be extended, and acquire so much knowledge
and virtue, as, with the blessing of Providence, to be capable of being reinstated. The
chief of which springs is expressed by the letter u, a compound of two i’s signifying man’s
compound of male and female, and spirit and matter, with a c at their bottom, springing
them upwards; by y as to the generative and vegetative parts, which also is expressive of
woods and other growth; it being a compound of i j, and half of the spring c, as not being
expressive of the spirit of man. The i also expresses man as an upright line placed in the
centre of all worldly beings and substances, to whom they bear a relation, as shall be
shewn under adverbs. The u vowel seems to derive its figure from the human face, the
seat of the voice, and the heart, and the feminine or consonant v from the vagina, if it be
an original letter, but, from its sound, it seems to supply the place of the digamma. The y
or Υ resembles trees, plants and vegetables, and the j consonant is the half of it, and
sometimes made use of instead of g, to express some of the generative parts and
qualities. These vowels have each two sounds, the high and low, long and short, or grave
and acute, viz. i, as in, in, high, or i, go thou; the u vowel, as, in, unction, united; and the
y as the u in unction and y in hyssop; but the w has only one long sound, as in woman,
womb, wood, and it is mostly applicable to spirituals, man, and things belonging to him;
the wh has the gutteral sound of the Welsh ch, or the Greek χ as in where, why; the j
consonant has the sound of g in generation; and the v consonant that of the soft flowing f
of the Welsh, or as in verb, vice; thus supplying the softer sound and meaning of the
digamma.
The letters a, e, h, ε, η, Η, in their primary sense signify the male and female
posteriors, the clitoris, erectores, &c. the impulse and springs of generation, and the earth
and water place of man; whence a came to be an expression for the element earth or
matter and things hard, rough, or interjectory, and ε for the element of water and any
feminine, soft, or passive parts or things, but the interjectory aspirate e or he is
masculine, and the ε has one spring resembling that of rain. The a has properly two
sounds, as in animal, have, or name, but not that of o or the northern a in all; the
masculine e or he has an aspirate sound, as in hero, and a mute one, as in echo; and the
feminine ε was originally sounded soft, like the French cedill ç, as in fleece, vice, and the
use of this character and sound ought to be continued or the soft c should be marked with
a cedill to prevent the confusion of the hard and soft sounds of c; but more of this
elsewhere.
The letters c, k, q, g, γ, wh, ch, κ, χ, Ξ, ξ signify actions of different sorts and degrees,
viz. c as the half of o, signifying motion, and k and q, as significant of its sound, signify
the modes of common local motions or actions; and the hard c also represents half the
round of the posteriors, as o doth the whole of the male and female together, as the
feminine or soft c doth the other half; g or γ represent the testicles or half the gamma, f
being the other half, and the generative and growing parts of man and nature; and the
rest are their gutteral inflections expressive of animal sounds and actions. The palatals
should be sounded hard and short, as in quick, the soft c in some cases as the feminine ε
before explained, and s before the vowel i, the superlative gutteral sorts, as the wh in
where, why, and the Welsh chwa, chwant, and g or γ as in egg, edge. All these characters
are nothing more than compounds of c, h, s, as will be shewn hereafter.
The letters d and b put together, thus, db, as compounds of i and o, or length and
breadth, are expressive of man and woman’s body part, from the thigh to the part of the
body which the elbow reaches, and all other living beings so extended, as τ does the
extension of matter, but being again divided into d and b, they express living things, or
the qualities of parts and diminutives of bodies, and emblematically spirits and privatives,
as p does parts of matter, as divisor of τ. The d and b ought to be sounded alike in all
languages, as, de, be, and dd, as the, but letters are farther explained in the former
treatise.
T represents man’s legs together, with the feet upwards, and both toes turned outwards
as upright and traverse lines, extension and man in his temporal state, turned out of
paradise, under the sky, topsy turvy, and all things as relative to him, and the line upon
which time or the manner of reckoning the distances of actions are measured. T sounds
alike in all languages, and th and θ as in the, Thebes, and those are the inflections of T.
 The letters p, ph, ff, f, π, φ, ψ, signify material or dead parts, or their qualities, as p
divides T; ph is p high, up, or active; the digamma φ or f, the p inflecting the gamma; and
ψ actions of a lesser nature, as growth. The p and π sound alike in all languages, ph, ff as
φυω, fusee, or fun, ψ as in Psalms, it being only a compound of p, and f as the v
consonant in verb, but these letters are farther explained in the former treatise.
m represents a man’s body and arms or wings from the top of b and d, or the elbow
part of the body, up to the neck, and the world, forms, and things, as surrounding and
belonging to man, as shall be further explained amongst the particles. It sounds the same
in all languages. n is the thighs, with the parts above them, forming a traverse line, and
the vacancy betwixt the same when extended, signifying to be in, or in existence or
possession, having f and d for its auxiliaries, but before the vowels or springs it expresses
a negative or privative; and it has no particular sound.
Ỻ, L, λ, are T or man’s legs, once put together, separated, and as divisors of T, which
signifies space or extension, are expressive of particular lengths and breadths, and their
places, qualities, &c. The L or λ is sounded as eel or îl and Ỻ has an aspirate hissing
sound in the Welsh, Spanish, and some other dialects.
The letters r, ϱ, ρ, Ρ, R, represent animals and their parts, and their mouths as the place
of sound; S being added to P, as a sound, forms R, the sound as well as part of an animal;
and they are all to be sounded as in viper, except where they happen to be radical letters,
and then with an aspirate h as in rhyme. The S, σ, Z, are also letters of sound, but
express no part of man, and are rather the shape of some animal of the serpentine kind,
the waving of the breath or water, &c. They have two sounds, the hard and soft, as in
loss, zone. This explanation of letters, together with what has been given already in my
former treatises, and shall be added amongst the particles, will, it is to be hoped, be
deemed satisfactory, as to the sense and origin of letters, and the sacred characters;
notwithstanding the pretensions lately set up for those of irregular lines, curves, and
windings, which can express but few things, and the remarks of another ingenious
gentleman, as to the non-entity or insignificancy of the Hieroglyfics; his enquiry having
been confined to the vulgar sorts, or the paintings or engravings of animals, &c. when it
now appears the Hieroglyfics consisted only of those few sacred or secret characters. The
hints and specimens here given of the method of combining the hieroglyfic figures, being
as compleat as the press will admit of; and a process thereof, thro’ the whole of the
English language, considering the corrupt state of languages, tho’ the English is as
capable of an hieroglyfic combination as any, requiring much loss of time, trouble, and
expence, and perhaps the aid of a Hunter and a Hill, and some other reasons occurring,
the author hopes he shall be excused for proceeding no further at the present, in the
combination of characters.

Of Particles and Syllables.

A Particle is a simple articulate sound and sign of one or two characters or letters; but a
syllable sometimes by the cutting off of vowels, becomes a combination of more letters,
which is yet commonly pronounced as a simple articulate sound; there being a natural
relation and agreement betwixt the signs and sounds of letters, and ideas and things.
Particles and syllables were originally framed according to their hieroglyfic shape, the
natural sounds of ideas and things, and the sense and value of letters, as has been
already explained; and therein the quantity of the action of sound was measured and
proportioned to the motion, action, or energy of the thing to be expressed, as the high,
loud, acute, or short accent, for an active or energic particle, and the low, grave, and
long, for a passive, substantive, or a negative one.
And altho’ some letters, as a, e, y, p, t, and some particles in words are so fixed by the
addition of y, ty, ive, and other terminations, as of themselves to be always substantive
and long, as to quantity and accent; yet those passive and long letters and particles, by
the addition of an active vowel, consonant, or particle, will become active and short.
Hence the best way of spelling or pronouncing must be to divide the particles of
compound names according to the original manner of their combination, sense, and
sounds, and when a vowel is cut off, its consonant, with the remaining vowel, or with the
most valuable, if there should be any doubt, as in the following examples, ex-ec-ra-ble,
co-re-spond-ing, pro-ble-m-at-ic-al-ly, un-ec-spect-ed-ly, prin-ce, o-af, o-ther, o-ver, ub-
iqu-i-ty. Those sorts of names and their compounds according to their significations and
nature in language, are distinguishable into the following sorts, viz. Articles to substantive
and identify names; nouns substantive, or the names of substances; pronouns, which
collectively express nouns and antecedent parts of sentences; adjectives, which are added
to the names of substances, to express their qualities and accidents; actives, or the names
of actions, verbs, energies, and affirmatives of being, acting, and feeling; adverbs or
additional words, to express quantities, qualities, distances, modes, and energies of
actions and things, with their degrees; prepositions to denote and connect situations, and
conjunctions or connectives of names, proportions, and sentences.
As the right apprehension of the hieroglyfic primitive language very much depends on a
clear illustration of particles, which as sorts of compound letters, together with the
primitive hieroglyfic letters, comprehend all the materials of the first universal language,
the following addition is here made to what has been already published on the etymology
of particles; the radicals being placed in each class before their inflections and
transponents. Ab, eb, af, ef; ba, be, fa, fe. These express the generas and species, as well
as causes and effects of animal life, beings, and growth of the earth and water, both male
and female, as in ab-ba, eb-riety, af-ect, ef-ect, ba-by, be-an, fa-ther, fe-male, fa-ar-am-er,
ba-ar-en-ess.
Ib, if, bi, fi. These are expressive of the qualities flowing from above, like the sun’s rays
upon man and inferior beings, and their return of life, as in l-ib-eral, l-îf, bi-le, fi-eld.
Ub, uf, bu, fu. These are the springs or returns of the above qualities in man and other
beings, as in ub-erty, h-uf, bu-d, fu-el, ub or springing upwards.
Ob, of, bo, fo. These signify out of, or from the circle of life or sight, or dead, as in ob-
lation, ob-livion, of-fering, of, bo-dy, bo-ne, fo-reign.
Ac, ec, ag, eg, ach, ech, ang, eng, ca, ce, ga, ge, cha, che, nga, nge. The first sort of
particles denote the several motions and actions of earth and water or matter, both
animate and inanimate, and their transponents express their contraries, such as, rest,
confinement, shuts or inclosures, as in, ac-t, ec-stacy, ec-ho, ag-ain, eg-g, ach-ieve, ach-
os or cause, spe-ech, bre-ech, ech-uin or a loan, ang-er, eng-age, ca-ab-age, ca-ge, ce-
iling, ce-ll, ke-ep, ga-te, ge-ld, cha-os, che-st, che-fn or her back, gnad or gned, or
finished, kna-ve, kne-ad.
Ic, ig, ich, ing, ci, gi, chi, ngi. These are the principles, qualities, and beginning of
motion, the first or chief action, or creation of heat, man, and things, and their returns, as
in h-ic, or the man action, ig-menos or proceeded, ig-neous, h-igh, wh-ich, ich-od, ing or
acting, as a man in the line of possession, th-ing, k-ing or ci-ing, the chief in the line of
possession, the rest are the inflections of ci or chief inflected thus, ci, a chief, gi, his chief,
chi, her chief, ngi, my chief.
Uc, ug, uch, ung, cu, qu, chu, ngu. These are the springs or returns of those acts from
man and other beings upwards, and the species of generations, productions, and energies
therefrom, as in uc, uc’s-or, cl-uck, h-ung, ug-ly, ug-ies, uch-el, cu-san or kiss, cu-r or
care, cu-b, Cu-pid, gu-ide, gu-ilt, gu-st, gu-t, chuck, chu-rl, chu-ith or breath, know-ledge,
gnu-eid or making.
Oc, og, och, ong, co, go, cho, ngo. These are the most occult actions as proceeding
from the hind part of the human circle, or from the sight part of the circle, occurrences,
and coalescence of actions and motions circular, and their species and productions, as in
oc-ult, oc-currence, og-le, och-i-my or filth to me, och or oh fie, th-ong, co-alescence, co-
herence, go-re, cho-ler, ngo or my memory.
Ad, add, ed, edd, da, dda, de, dde. These are expressive of diminution, privation and
division of earth, water, matter, growth, parts, and other things; and as such an addition
to the goods and possessions of man, as in add, ad-eg or de-crease, had or seed, ed-ible,
da or goods, dda his goods, de-arth, de-ath, de, dde, the or a thing. Id, idd, di, ddi,
signify the division, qualities, and action of man, or the human intellect, spirits, and
privatives, as in, id-ea, idd-o, or the human properties, di-vision, di-minish, yn ddi-rgel or
secretly.
Ud, udd, du, ddu. These are the spring or return of human intelligence, as divided or
exercised, and their species and negatives, as in, h-ud or fascination, cy-h-udd-o, to
confess one’s crimes, du-bious, du-ll or judgment, du-tifull, i-ddu-n, to a man.
Od, odd, do, ddo. These signify the division of the circle of motion, or a circle of actions
called time, present and past, as in, oed or age, od or life, odd or the past action or age,
do or it has been done, or it is past, ddoe or yesterday.
Ah, eh, ih, oh, uh, ha, he, hi, ho, hu. These express the different impulse or energies of
the human passions and affections, and are explained amongst the adverbs; of which
species of names they seem to be.
Ai, ei, ii, oi, ui, and their transponents, signify motions local as of moving, walking, or
driving, actions and affections of generation and growth, man out of possession, man’s
visage, and affirmations of yea, and the sun’s motion darting its rays by io; but an h is
commonly added to the radical as an additional energy.
Al, el, la, le. The extension of earth and water, or place in general, and qualities and
animal sounds as extended, as al high in alps and altus, el low or in hell, el-egy, la-nd or
surface, le or p-la-ce, terresti-al, aquati-le, c-all, kn-ell, la-ment, le-gible.
 Il, li, signify an ilation and extension of the sun’s rays, so as to cause light, with its
returns, effects, or lights below; and all intentional qualities, and emblematically
intelligence as proceeding from the divine censory, as in îl-ation, îl-um-ine, ho-îl the sun or
the glorious light, h-îl, its flowing rays and the human race, li-ght, li-u or colou-r, li-ke, or
the action of light, îl-ustrate. Ul, lu, signify the return or spring of the human light as
extended by male and female in their rays and race, and in a more compounded manner
than li, as in v-ul-tus or visage, r-ule or the light, lu a family.
Ol, lo, signify all or place, or space extended, and the circle of motion, as in oll or all, b-
oll or ball, lo-cus place lo-st.
Am, em, ma, me. These express the existence, forms, and modes of man, earth, and
water, as material beings, as in, am, the about or existences, am-bit, am-ple, mam, mater
or mother, ma-es a field, ma-ith and ma-int, quantity, size, and extensiveness.
Im, mi, are expressive of man’s present existence or state in this world, with respect to
his superior and more excellent qualities, than his animal state, as in im-agination, im-
mense, im-mortal, im-pulse, im-pio to shoot upwards, im-adel to depart, mi, me, mi-di-le,
me in the divided place, that is, the line betwixt his superior and inferior beings, myn or
mi-in, by my life.
Um, mu, signify man’s spring of enlarging himself in his present state, and at last,
through death, of returning to an immortal one, as in um-pire, h-um-an, h-um-ble, n-um-
erous, mu-te, d-um-b, mu-af, the greatest, mu-ch, mu-l-tiply, mum, mu-my, mu-se.
Om, mo, signify all forms, modes, and species, as in om-in-is all in the lower parts,
ombredd or abundance, omnific, mo-on, mo-ns or mo-untain, mo-r the sea, mo-ral, mo-
re.
An, en, na, ne. These signify the existence of earth and water or matter, and the
negative, as in an-y, the earth in, an-au, natural growth, en the firmament, en-d, en-
crease, na no matter, ne-b, nobody, or being, ne-st.
In, ni, are affirmative of existence and non existences, generally as, in, include, in-
carnation, ni or not, ni-d-ulation, ni-ght, ni-m.
Un, nu, as in and ni are affirmations, relative to man, spirits, beings and things unseen,
as, un, one or the uni-verse, un-ite, un-i-versal, un-i-form, nu-gacity, nu-de, nun or nu-un.
Ap, ep, af, ef, pa, pe, pha, phe. These are the divisors of T, signifying the extension of
this system, into parts of earth and water, or material substances and things, as, ap, from,
ap-erture, pa what part, pe-th or pa-rt, ep, ef, or eph, privatives and used as terminations
as parts of water, as are op and oph; it being absurd to suppose O all to be a part, or ip,
up, or ub, which imply no extension and are springs upwards, to be divisible. See the
Postscript.
Ar, er, ra, re, signify earth and water or matter, as in ar-able, ac-ar, bran-ar, fallow-land,
e-ar-th, or the elements of both earth and water, ab-er, running water or harbour, go-er, a
rivulet or shore, ra-bet, ra-ble, er-uption, re-turn, re-flow, re-nt.
Ir, ri, are the sun beams or rays, heat and fire; also heighth, length, distance, and direct
motion, as in ir-a or ir-e, f-ir-e, h-ir or length, ri heighth, ri-ght, ri-fe, pelyd-ir the rays of
the sun.
 Ur, ru, signify man inclusive of all his energies, springs, and superior qualities, as ur-tue
or virtue, t-ru-th, ur-th, worth or value, ur-d or word, ur-dd, hon-ur, or honour, ur-ship or
worship, ru-in-wedd, divine property, ru-ler, rue.
Or, ro, are the circle of extension, place and distance from the line of possession, as in
b-or-der, or, a circle, f-or the things within the borders of possession, or-der, or from, or-b,
ro-me, from me, round.
As, es, is, os, us, sa, se, si, so, su. These are expressive of earth and water, men and
things seen and sounded, the earth’s surface, the place of rest or lowest place; sound and
sight in general, as is and si; os and so a greater extension thereof; us and iu, the human,
sweet, or persuasive sound or person.
At, et, ath, eth, ta, te, tha, the. These express entities, properties, extensions,
possessions, and limits of earth and water, and other things under the sky, as in at, ath-
wart, et-ernal, eth-icks, ta-me, ta-n or fire, ta-acs or tax, te-rm, te-mpest, te-mple, te-
mion, tha-n, tha-t, the, the-m, the-re, the-nce, the-ory.
It, ith, ti or ty, thy. These are expressive of entities, properties, extensions, and
existences in general under the firmament, as it, ith or thine, time, thi-ef, thy, thing, thi-s,
ti-ll, it-in-e-rant.
Ut, uth, tu, thu, are the return, spring or extension of man and things in growth,
generation, and volition by labor, industry, and wisdom, as in ut as, ut-most, ut-erus, ut-
ility, ut-terly, mo-uth, tu or thou, aber-thu, to sacrifice, tu a house or possessions, tu-tor,
tu-g. Ot, oth, to, tho, are the circle and extent of possessions, properties, motions, and
things, as in hot, oth, from thy possession, to, top, to-il, to-parch, tho, tho-rough, tho-
ught.
Ou is woe or a man out of the circle of life; and uu or w is the spring of springs.
Of those sorts of names are formed the more complex, such as those names, phrases,
or propositions called words merely by a combination of the proper sorts, either with or
without an elision of consonants. In the latter case, the less expressive, valuable, or
necessary may be cut off when two vowels occur in composition, as its consonant will in
some measure preserve its sound in company with a more worthy vowel; and all active
radical vowels ought to be dropped in the names of substances and things, as appears by
the following examples, viz. blackish or b-li-ack-ish, a thing without light; blessedness or
bi-il-ess-ed-in-ess, life flowing down upon the world; brutish, or ab-ru-ti-ish, he is from the
property of truth; clamorous or ac-al-am-or-us, a great calling action about us; cliverly, or
ci-liv-erly, like the water clan; creating or ac-ci-ir-at-ing, the chief or first motion to
extension and action; crocodile or ac-ir-oc-o-di-il, an angry acting, deceitful water animal;
dread or id-ir-ad, at the fire; flow or af-il-ow, a spring of the rays of the sun; frost or af-
oer-st, the lower parts at a stand from the cold; and cold is from ac-ol-id to be without
sun; glorifying or ag-lo-ri-fying, the doing of an high action in an extensive place; gnaw or
ag-in-w, the acting in of an animal; grass or ag-ar-as, the action upon the ground; place
or p-la-ce, a part of the earth’s extension; property or pe-or-pe-er-ty, entity or possession
of the parts of land and water or of this globe; scull or si-cau-al, the sight shut; sky or is-
kay, the covering of below; slack or is-al-ack, a low or slow action; small or is-am-il, the
rays of the sun about below; snail or si-in-na-il, it is in without light; speak or si-pe-ak, the
action of the sound part; spy or si-pe-y, the seeing thing; star or sta-ir, the standing fires;
trace or tir-race, the land race; and race or ir-ace, is a long action.

ARTICLE.
The article, αρθρα, partakes of the nature of pronouns; and in apposition or concord
with another name, either active or substantive, determines it to be a substantive, or the
name of a substance, with its identity and number.
There are two sorts of articles, viz. the and an; an becomes a or any before a
consonant, and either of them being placed in apposition to an active convertible name,
convert it into a substantive, as to form into a form, to chase into a chase. And, names
being first formed in the plural number, both these then stood as signs of the singular
number; but since plural names have been taken as singular, and new signs have been
added thereto to form plurals, the is also put in apposition to plural names, to indentify
the person or thing meant or spoken of.
Example; Some may still imagine the signification of an article or a letter, and perhaps
more compound names to be indefinable, and the article to be useless; tho’ the definitions
here given thereof evidently shew the contrary; and the Greeks and Romans not only
made use of the genders ο, η, το, and hic, hæc, hoc, but also of a declining article at the
end of nouns, as the Welsh did un and yr, which last before a consonant sunk into y the,
inflecting with the following radical consonant; and other nations have made use of the
article. To dispute the utility of the article seems therefore absurd, but it may be a dispute,
whether either determine any particular individual, or only some third person alluded to,
pointed at, meant or spoken of in discourse, or in the line of possession; ο, η, το, hic,
hæc, hoc, this, that, yr, un, le, ein and der expressing as much.

Of Nouns Substantive.
A Noun Substantive denotes a substance, as a spirit, an animal, a vegetable, or any
other thing that may be conceived to subsist, as agreeableness, agility, acceleration;
which, tho’ their qualities, agreeable, agile, accelerate, are indefinite or indeterminate, yet
by the signs, ness, ty, ion, signifying substances, properties, and the sun’s motion, acquire
such a determinate meaning as to become substantives, and to shew their meaning
without being joined with any other word. And all names, whether of substances,
qualities, or other things, to which the articles an or the, or any other substantive signs
are joined or set in apposition, are nouns substantive.
There are in the English language more substantive names than seem to be necessary
for an universal language, besides the synonymas of various other dialects, which are
incongruous in sense, with the hieroglyfic signs, and tend to darken and confound the
natural sense and sounds of names and things. Tho’ the English vocables are explained
elsewhere, we shall here take notice of some peculiarities of that nature in the English
substantives.
Bl-ab, b-abe; ebb, gl-ebe; rib, tr-ibe; kn-ob, gl-obe; t-ub, t-ube; where the final e should
be dropped, and the remaining vowel marked with a grave accent, as tub, tùb.
B-ack, b-ake; b-eck, b-eke; l-ick, like, link; p-ock, p-oke, m-uck, p-uke. These might be
wrote as lic, lìc.
Ax, sex, ra-dix, ox, ux, as acs or ach as formerly. Ach, be-ach, spe-ech, st-ich, l-och, n-
och, touch.
M-atch, l-etch, itch, b-otch, sm-utch.
H-ac, ar-se, ace, dice, d-oce, d-uce.
H-ag, l-eg, g-ig, l-og, h-ug.
Age, b-adge, coll-ege, edge, se-ige, br-idge, d-oge, l-odge, subterf-uge, b-udge.
Aight, eight, f-ight, f-ought, o-ught. These eight last classes are made use of to express
the three subsisting sorts of actions, viz. the local or inanimate, the generative and
energic, when the first might be expressed by c, the second by g, and the third by ch, as,
ac, àc, and aç with a cedille, that is, the acute, the grave, and soft or feminine; ag, àg, āg
for the short, long, and soft of the generative species of motion; and ach, àch, and āch,
the last to be sounded like the Welsh ch or the English wh in what or where, for the acute,
grave, and gutteral of energies and animal motions; so that these three letters, which the
Welsh inflect so as to express the cases and genders by the difference of acute, grave,
and gutteral, might very well serve for all the uses of the eight last classes of names,
should the whole be deemed necessary. But, those of the third, fifth, eighth, and ninth
classes are compound sounds expressed by a combination of characters, which ought not
to be kept together but in terminations; they having been corruptly introduced into
languages by the Greeks and Romans, in order to express qualities and pleasant sounds
contrary to the nature of things.
Bre-ad, bl-ade, br-ed, br-eed, ma-id, si-de, c-od, c-ode, b-ud, pr-ude, should be wrote
and accented as ud, ùd.
St-af, st-ave, be-ef, be-eve, l-ife, ol-ive, beho-of, beho-ove, c-ave, might be made staff
and stàf, as formerly.
An-im-al, male, h-ell, h-eel, circ-le, Apr-il, v-ill, b-ile, car-ol, par-ole, c-ull, b-ull, m-ule,
might be wrote and accented al, àl, el, èl, il, ìl, not eel, ol, òl, ul, ùl; or as the Welsh and
Spanish aspirate ll.
H-am, l-ame, sarc-asm, anth-em, th-eme, apoth-egm, cla-im, cl-ime, quiet-ism, wisd-
om, h-ome, mikrocosm, ch-um, h-ume, usm. Here the final e might be dropped, and the
Greek compounds have no particular meaning; all being alike expressive of the forms of
substances and things.
Me-an, m-ane, g-ang, p-en, obsc-ene, chall-enge, p-in, p-ine, th-ing, mo-ti-on, t-ong, b-
un, b-ung. These signify various existences and things, and are properly accented; but the
final e might be exchanged in writing, for the grave accent, màn.
 Attend-ance, abstin-ence, prov-ince, sc-once, d-unce. These may do as to orthography
and accent, and signify the ens or essence of various things, as, ance of earthly
substances, ens those of water, ince of things in general, once of motion, and unce of
man, as in dunce or di-unce a privative of the human essence.
Ant, ag-ent, m-int, f-ont, h-unt, signify the possession of the earth and water or
property, properties in general, the property of motion and human property, that is of
hunting or driving to and fro in the possessions.
G-ap, g-ape, sle-ep, p-eep, tr-ip, tr-ipe, h-op, h-ope, s-up, d-upe, shap, ship, shop. Here
the grave accent might serve for the final e; the meaning thereof being the division
generally of matter into substances or parts, except the terminations shap, ship, and shop,
signifying from high or high.
Cell-ar, c-are, be-er, p-er, or pear, f-ir, fire, clam-or, st-ore, c-ur, cens-ure, am-our or am-
ur, here the final e might be dropped; and ar signifies upon, àr earth, er since, èr water, ir
high or to, ìr fire, or from, òr an extension of possession, or a circle, ur or wr a man.
Lam-as, ass, g-aze, ash, be-ast, actr-ess, sque-ese, fl-esh, ap-ish-ness, apt-ness, ch-est,
bl-iss, s-ize, f-ish, l-ist, m-oss, d-oze, osh, c-ost, b-uss, f-uze, bush, b-ust, might be all
expressed and accented as, as, às, ash, ast to express the affirmations and energies of
affections, properties, and things.
P-at, p-ate, p-et, def-ete, b-it, b-ite, kn-ot, m-ote, c-ut, mute, p-ath, t-eeth, fa-ith, m-
oth, mo-uth. These express the identity and property of different parts or things, and the
final e might be exchanged for the grave accent.
Abili-ty, agili-ty, ami-ty, du-ty, antipa-thy, apa-thy, sympa-thy. These signify different
general properties and qualities of things.
Aristocra-cy, oligar-chy, ordina-ry, mason-ry, orator-y, lecher-y, grocer-y, orthodox-y, ha-
y, ho-y. The cy and chy signify different qualities, and the y is the Welsh the.
Ma-w, me-w, mo-w, and s or es for substantives of a plural nature. This w signifies
different springs.
Substantives are distinguished by grammarians into appellatives or general names of
things common to many individuals, as man, river, month, wind; and proper names,
appropriated only to individuals, as, George, Britain, London, October, Libs, which admit
of neither articles or plurality of numbers. But all words, excepting one or an, according to
their natural meaning seem to me to be appellative and capable of being applied to things
of a plural nature, were their primitive sense understood, as for instance, George, which
originally signified a chief of the circle nation, as an appellative name of a magistrate, in
the same manner as King, Prince, Duke, or any other; but when its original meaning was
lost, and it came to be adopted as a Christian name by different families, it was thence
supposed to be a mere arbitrary term, imposed as the name of an individual; and so as to
Britain, London, October, Libs, Thames, Avon, which were originally appellatives or
common expressions for the sea coast, long towns, the eighth month from the spring, the
west south-west, or Libian wind, the limits of the Iceni, and Rivers. So that these names,
so long as their original meanings were understood, were as much appellative or common
expressions, as man, river, month, wind, or any other common names, and as capable too
of a plural or singular sense, in concord with the articles or demonstrative pronouns; as, a,
the, this, or that, chief of the circle nation or long town, &c. Hence the distinction of
common and proper names seems to be frivolous and unnecessary.
All substantives were originally appellative and plural, and the articles and
demonstrative pronouns were set in apposition or as terminations thereto, to determine
their singular nature as well as the identity of the individual. But as they are now mostly
understood as the signs of single things, the English method of adding s or es as a plural
termination, should be generally followed as the best method; unless substantives and
their articles should be restored to their original sense and use; but in either case the
particles, an or en, as terminations of plural names, when the sense will admit of their
being singular, and en does not express the male and female of the same kind, as men
does both man and woman, seem to be improper. Nor is it best so to continue the use of
such plurals, as mice, lice, teeth, feet, geese, but rather mus, lus, toth, fot, gus, which are
so in their nature, as expressing the little eaters, the little family, the grinders, the movers
and the water nation. It is however certain that the numbers of nouns are in their nature
but two, singular and plural, one and two or many, but whether they are expressed by one
or an, and two or as and es seems not to be very material, tho’ as and es were the
primitive signs, as, as signified the masculine gender, and es the feminine. And numbers
and genders ought to be the same.
There were originally no other distinction of genders of nouns than the masculine and
feminine, and which were distinguishable only by the signification of vocables; and
whatever other arbitrary modes and distinctions as to genders of nouns and their
declensions or inflections have been arbitrarily made by other nations, the English still in
fact adhere to the original masculine and feminine genders, the only distinction of nature,
as and es; for were the meaning of substantives precisely understood, they would all
appear to be either masculine or feminine, at least, as relative to man and woman, or
according to their active and passive, or hard and soft sounds. Nor do the English
adjectives or pronouns vary as to genders, numbers, or cases, as has been supposed; but
naturally agree in concord, without any variation or inflection thereof, from their primitive
state.
Indeed if the Welsh modes of inflection derive their origin from the original language,
which was musical, and vocables could be reduced to their true primitive state, perhaps it
might be the best way, but as that might be impracticable or too arduous a task, we may
as well stick to our old English voices, which deviate so very little from the primitive
language.
And, as to any variation of cases or the declension of nouns, the English still remains in
the primitive state of language without any; their prepositions being fully expressive of the
situation and direction of actions and things, and those of other nations being altogether
arbitrary and calculated more for the sake of variety and preservation of vocables, than
from any necessity, as their prepositions and vocables might in their primitive state be as
expressive, and agree in concord, like the English, which has no other state or case, than
that in which names were originally formed, or the nominative, as will appear to any one,
that will be at the trouble of a deliberate consideration of the origin, frame, and
construction of the English language, whatever may have been advanced by our modern
grammarians, as to the variation of the genitive or possessive case.
 Of Pronouns or general Personates.
Pronouns, so called from their being supposed to be mere substitutes of nouns, ought
according to their signification to be deemed either substantives or adjectives; for as
general signs they serve to personate, demonstrate, relate, and interrogate persons,
things, and parts of discourses; and being all demonstrative and interrogative, they are
properly distinguishable only into the following sorts, viz.

Personals. Possessives. Relatives.

1. I, me, myself; my - own, mine; one, any, none.
2. Thou or you, thee, thyself; thy - thine; this, each, every, either.
3. He, she, it, him, her, himself, herself; her, its - hers; that, some, another, such.
4. We, us, ourselves; our - ours; who, whose, whom.
5. Ye or you, yourselves; your - yours; which.
6. They, them, themselves; their - theirs; what.

Tho’ the English, Welsh, Greek, and Latin pronouns are, with the other parts of speech,
all defined in the vocabulary at the end of this essay, it may not be improper here to
observe in general, as to their signification, that the first personal pronoun substantively,
and not substitutionally signifies man as an indefinite line placed alone or by himself in the
centre of things before his extension or division into u the male and female spring; the 2d,
the-o-u or y-o-u, the off man or woman; 3d, man extended into T, or in his race and
possessions; and hi and shi, the male and female forms and existences; 4th, mankind;
5th, the first and second female persons; 6th, all mankind, persons, and things, except
the first second and third persons singular. The possessives express all things to be in
man, as one universal possessor; and to relate to his descendents as their qualities and
properties. The relative and interrogative which is a compound of wch-ich signifying the
above action, as ich means the first act of motion or creation, and uch man’s utmost
return of that act or spring upwards. And so used as a general relative and interrogative of
all actions, as who is of persons, and what of things, and as to the rest they are
particularly explained in the vocabulary.
The personal pronouns and such of the possessives and relatives as will not join with
substantives in construction, are substantives, and the rest are adjectives; and pronouns
like other English nouns, have no variation or declension of person, number, gender, or
case, but each is an original, distinct name. So that to attempt any further distinction of
pronouns, like all other unnecessary distinctions, would tend to the confusion, rather than
the illustration of language, and they perhaps might be better distinguished by 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, or their original signification of 1st, 2d, 3d, persons singular and plural; tho’ such
names as have no foundation in nature, may require more arbitrary rules towards their
explanation.
 Of Nouns Adjective and Participle.
Adjective and participle nouns are added to substantives and propositions, as expressive
of the attributes or qualities, affections, and accidents of things, as in the following
example; The preying beast was daring; the astonished guese are fled, lost, or stolen; and
he is still pursuing a fled, lost, or stolen gus, in order to make a sweet morsel of its
garbage; but all such sensations are nauseous to human nature. But qualities were
originally expressed by the verbal actives, with few particles, and the compounded sorts
were adjected thereto.
And qualities being the effects of light, heat, and motion, flowing upon, warming or
penetrating bodies differently modified in various degrees, and the sensations thence
produced in us, as those of colours, tastes, sounds and feeling, rather than any internal
offences or properties of matter or substances, adjectives assert or express their
subsistence as the attributes of various substances and things, as the following specimen
of English adjectives shews.
There are no adjectives terminating in b except ib, which signifies life to beings, as in
glib liquid, and bib to drink; for ab, eb, ob, ub, signifying from or out of life, would be
improper to express life to things, as descending upon, and penetrating them, so as to
give them motion, growth, generation, and sensation. Nor is there any adjective
terminating in the letter p, it being expressive only of the parts of matter, as divisor of a,
e, o, and t.
Ac, ec, ic, oc, uc, and their softer inflections, are expressive of the different modes of
motion, as local, generative, and energic actions and their contraries, as in, weak, our
action, black, shut from the light, slack and lag, a low or earthly action, meek, a feminine
action, epic, an action past, like the first action of light, high, man acting, light, its active
property, coasting, acting along the edge or lower part of the possessions, big, a thing
swoln with heat, nigh, acting in, mock, the motion of the cheek, strong, the property of
the sun’s motion below, much, the upper parts.
Ad, ed, id, od, ud, signify an addition and division of qualities emanating on men,
animals, and substances of earth and water, as in bad, an earthly life, broad, an addition
of country, dead, matter without the addition of quality, sad, a low addition or quality,
glad, that of being high, mad, the addition of being dumb, or, a brute, red, a diminution of
the colour of light, aged, a past or diminished action, cold, the passive quality of being
deprived of the sun’s action, blind, deprived of animal light, mid, dividing the center of
existence, insipid, a thing deprived of the internal taste, arid, the earth deprived, calid,
deprived of a covering from the heat, tid, property diminished, acid, deprived of action,
acrid, depraved action of fire, wild, deprived of volition, odd, deprived of or out of the
circle of possession, ward, the spring or the division of man and woman, rude, the
privation of truth, crude, a rude action.
Af, ef, if, uf, with the inflections ave and ive, affirm the various state and situation of
men and things in life, as, deaf, he is deprived of sense, safe, he is standing, slavish, he is
low, brave, he is a warm or spirited being, chief, he is the first, active, it is the property of
action, dative, he or it is giving to, accusative, it is acting at us, abusive, he is from us,
captive, he is taken, abortive, he is from the border of possessions, adjective, it is cast to,
gruff, he is an angry man, bluff, he is an hairy man.
Al, el, il, ol, ul, express the qualities of earth and water, as to the parts of extension and
place, the ilation of the sun’s light thereon, all extension and human intelligence, as in,
actual, upon or in the state of action, aerial, in the state of air, adverbial, in the state of
an adverb, real, upon the return of matter, usual, upon the state of us, genial, in the state
of generation, bestial, upon the property of the lower beings, annual, upon the return of
the year, able, from hell, or being deprived of light, ample, an extensive place, genteel,
the first race, level, the place of the female extension, single, acting in a place, little, an
extension of the rays of light, agile, the acting light, chill, without light, civil, a race living
together, evil, privation of light, idle, about a place, oll or all, a circle extended, whole,
man’s place of action, full, man enlightened, artful, the light of man upon properties, dull,
without human light.
Am, im, om, um, are expressive of the different forms, modes, and existences of the
circumambient bodies, as lame, the mode of crawling, warm, man covered about, dim,
without extension, firm, the fire about, some, the things seen and sounded, dumb, an
earthly being.
An, en, in, on, un, signify existences of earth, water, and motion in general, and of man,
as, mean, me in earth, human, an earthly one, sane, sound one, profane, from purity,
clean, an action of light upon matter, ashen, the lower one, oak being the higher, even,
springing, serene, the stars in, divine, God in, supine, the low and up in, benign, being in,
twain, two in, one or un, the spring or man in, alone, in the state of one, none, no one in,
boon, the food one, wrong, a man from acting upright, dun, the daily one, young, the
growing one.
Ar, er, ir, or, ur, are properties of earth, water, fire, extension, and human nature, as in
clear, the action of light upon, dear, upon thee, near, the not upon, bitter, the biting water,
eager, water from action, tender, thin water, dire, he is hot, intire, in possession, sore,
from the lower, future, the man in embrio to be born, pure, a man’s part, immature, too
soon at man.
As, es, is, os, us, affirm the different qualities of mankind and things, as, base, a low or
earthy thing, adverse, a spring downwards, diverse, a divided spring, worse, a low man,
aguish, it is from a spring, apeish, he is a son, wise, he is man, actuose, it is all active,
close, it is all shut, globose, it is all round as a ball, jocose, it is all joy, noise, it is all nose,
as voice is all vocal, or the sound of the cheeks, upish, he is up, abstruse, from our
property, astonish, it is the tone of an ass or brutes, babish, that of a baby, copious, a
copy of man, ingenious, internally generated in us.
At, et, it, ot, ut, with their inflections and compounds signify property or in possession
and existence, as, great, the action of fire at or upon the possessions, last, upon the
lowest possession, agast, acting upon the lowest possession, past, a thing in the lowest
possession or existence, vacant, a thing without possession or property, radiant, a division
of rays upon the possessions, sweet and secret, female properties, absent, without
possession or property, agent, acting in possession, fit, it is property, apt, a proper thing,
first, the fire of life to the lower possessions, instinct, in action within, white, the upper
property, or the firmament, hot, the action of the sun on things, absorpt, without a part of
the circle of possession, both, man and woman, moist and most, things on the ground,
abrupt, from the earth up into the possessions, just, the property of mankind, curst, a
man’s action of the lower property, occult, actions without the property of light, ancient,
one first in possession, decent, fair in possession, acute, a springing property.
Y, ly, ty, thy, are expressive of properties, existences, and qualities generally, as in, any
the one in action or possession, many, the more in action or possession, dry, the thing
without water, airy, the air, ashy, the ash, barrenly, the barren race, brotherly, the brother
race, happy, the hap, holy, the high all, sappy, the sap, forty, the four tyes, times, rounds
or tens, swarthy, the men of lower property, wry, from upright; and thus are definable all
other English, Greek, Welsh, and Latin adjectives. These have been taken at random, and
the Greek and Latin terminations of adjectives being all in as, es, eis, os, òs, oos, ous, us,
on, and er, are mere affirmatives, by the sight, sound, spring, and motion of things.
So that adjectives and participles are names, which imply assertions and attributes, as
those of qualities, affections, and properties of substances and things generally; but
making no compleat sense, nor determining any particular thing without being joined to
another word as a daring, a daring man. In the English language they are not varied in
respect to genders, numbers, cases, or otherwise, except as to the degrees of
comparison.
The three degrees of comparison mentioned by grammarians, are the positive,
comparative, and superlative; the positive is the state in which the name was originally
put; the comparative is formed by adding er, a spring beyond the original state, to the
quality, where they will agree in concord, as, deep, deeper, deepest, high, higher, highest,
sweet, sweeter, sweetest; est signifying a spring beyond the limits of the possessions;
forming the superlative degree; but where those syllables will not so agree with the
names and in participles, as in aerial, ingenious, copious, daring, loving, loved, the
comparative must be formed, by setting more, that is, mo-er a great spring, in apposition
to the name; and the superlative by the addition of most, signifying a spring beyond the
limits of the possessions.

Of Prepositions
A Preposition is a substantive part of speech set before other names, most commonly
substantives, either in apposition, as, before a noun, or in composition, as, preposition, to
denote the situation or place of action, or rest of the things, to which they are joined; at
the same time implying their similar relations or kindred; and connecting the names of
substances, as, from this book, with the pen of the writer; or from thence, it may be
inferred that prepositions are of themselves significant of things. But the use of
prepositions or the names of cases are best understood from the following explanation
thereof.
It is observable that O is an universal expression for the circle of motion and extension;
that i signifies a perpendicular line or man placed in its center; and that this line, with a
traverse one, expressed by t or ⊥ and signifying mankind and other beings and things as
extended, and the properties of man denote the nominative case, or that in which they
were first named; and all the other cases, as they happen upon, up or down, or to or from
either of these lines, are distinguished as in the following example.

These prepositions are definable as follows.

In, with, within, to, into, unto, at, towards. In, signifies man placed in the center of
existences, as a middle being, partaking of, and connecting matter with spirit; with is the
spring of i into male and female, and t their possessions inflected; within is the same in
the circle of possession: to is t-o, the property of motion from t to the circle of motion;
into the same within the possessions; unto, at, and towards, the same towards man or the
line of possession; afore, before, against, signify things or parts in and out of the borders
of possession.
After, behind, since, according to. After is off t or the border of possession; behind is to
be after man in possession; since, having been in possession; according to, agreeing
together in acting; between, betwixt, among, amongst, for, from, about; for, the parts or
things of the circle of possession; about and from the parts or things within the circle of
possessions of men; between and betwixt, the line i dividing the possessions; among and
amongst, the things about the circle of possession. Above, up, on, upon; above, the upper
spring of the human sight; up, the spring part, on and upon the sky.
Under, below, beneath, down. Under, not sprung within or up the possessions; down,
not sprung in; below, from being up; beneath, to be not in possession.
Out, of, from, out of, without. Out, from the possessions of men and things; of, the
things within the borders; from, the surrounding parts therein; without, out of possession.
By, through, over, over and above, besides, beyond, except, until. By, the part; besides,
below the part; beyond, by the upper covering; thro’, from the possessions; over, from the
spring of sight; except, acting out of the possession part; until, during the spring or
possession of light; the two last names serve also for conjunctions.
 CONJUNCTIONS.
A Conjunction is an active part of speech, that connectively or disjunctively joins
together words and sentences, as the names of actions, as prepositions do those of
substances. They have been divided by grammarians into various sorts; tho’ the only
significant distinction seems to be into copulatives, connectives, and disjunctives, as the
two former sorts absolutely connect and coalesce both the sentences and their meaning,
or when the expression is only of mere local or inanimate motion, barely move on,
connect, and continue the sentence or discourse, without any compatibility of meaning;
and the latter sorts conditionally, exceptionably, or interrogatively do the same. Of the first
class are, and or ond, on in division or discourse, but, be it as or by man and things soon,
yet, it is or springs, also, on so, likewise, the same way, still, light on things, altho’, upon
to, notwithstanding, not opposing the former action, however, be the spring of action as it
may, nevertheless, without any spring, as, the earth seen, as well as, its surface or under
it out of sight, for, the part in the circle, therefore, the parts and spring within the circle,
wherefore, the parts in which circle, because, by our own actions, that, towards
possession. And the disjunctives are the following; or, the promiscuous things within the
circle of possession, either, action or matter, nor, not the things promiscuously within the
circle of possession, neither, no action or rest, till or untill, during the spring of light on the
possessions, whilst or while, the action of the upper light on the possessions, if, life or is it
life? unless, my spring out, except, acting from the parts of possession, besides, by the
side; and with which sense the Welsh, Greek and Latin conjunctions correspond, as
appears by an analysis thereof at the end of this essay.
An example of their use and construction.—Was it pride and folly, or avarice and envy,
that caused the confusion of human speech? It was neither the one or the other, but the
effect of some supernatural cause, as, the scripture informs us. Nor is it probable, that so
great a deviation could have naturally happened; unless there was some very great wilful
perversion of the original language, whilst mankind were contending for possessions as
well as power. Nevertheless the first language is still recoverable, notwithstanding its
many divisions and great disguise, if the subject be adverted, after a right method. And
altho’ it may be also attended with some labor to mankind, except those already skilled in
languages, yet it may be attained by any English reader, that will endeavour it, for,
however languages may differ, as to the manner of combination or construction of names
and sentences, they are certainly one and the same in their principles, and likewise in
their particles; because the letters and particles of all languages appear by this essay to
be still the same. Besides, as human speech derives its origin from a supernatural cause,
its various dialects cannot differ as to their materials. Wherefore then so many different
opinions concerning these matters, but from our own remissness? Let us therefore exert
our faculties in the laudable undertaking of recovering the first universal language, that
we may be thereby restored to our senses, which seem to be equally perverted.

VERBS.
 Verbs are either simple or compound. The simple are those springs or energic signs in
human speech, which, mark the relation and connection of the subject and attribute of a
proposition; and affirm or deny the agreement or disagreement betwixt things, as, man is
an animal. Compound or concrete verbs also include adjectives and participles; or the
qualities and attributes of the subject of a proposition, as, man thinks or think is;
sometimes only the subject, as mae, eimi, I am, or sum; and frequently the subject,
affirmation and attribute, as, walketh, man is upon action. In some dialects verbs have
been so modified, as to denote or imply the modes, times, persons, genders, and
numbers of the things affirmed; and nominally distinguished, as verbs active, passive,
neuter, personal, impersonal, regular, irregular, auxiliary, and substantive; tho’ according to
their real use and signification, all verbs seem to be substantive and auxiliary, and either
singly, or conjunctively, with adjectives or participles, formed into attributive or compound
verbs, express all modes of actions and affirmations, as appears by the following
instances; sum, I am, or, it is man’s existence, es, the second person created or the
feminine gender, est, the second, first, and a third person born of the first and second, fui,
I have lived or been, fuisti, thou hast lived or been, fuit, he the person born, hath lived or
been; amo, I love or am for a woman, the first person, amas, the feminine the second
person, amat, the third person produced, the third person, am-avi for ui in fui, he has
loved or been loved, the past tense; doceo, I teach or give the lowering action to man,
the first person, doc-es, the second person or feminine gender, doc-et the third
proceeding from the other two, doc-ui, as in fui, I have lived or been taught, the past
tense; lego I read or recall, the first person, leg-is the second, leg-it the third, and leg-i,
man read the past; audio, I hear, or, spring the passive sense, au-di-is, au-di-it and au-di-
vi, I have lived or been heard; and the conjugating particles seem to be the degrees of
comparison, as, a, e, i, or as, es is, male, female, mankind, or earth, water and fire, or
motion and existences in general; and the persons of u man, and thence all things of the
masculine gender the first person, as, es, or is signifying the feminine in different degrees
and qualities, the second, and at, et, it, the rest of mankind and things, the third person,
am-us, em-us, im-us, all men of the male kind of the first person plural, atis, etis, itis, all
except the first person singular of the second, and ant, ent, int, all mankind and things in
different degrees, except the first and second person singular, of the third person plural;
and thus may be explained all the Latin and Greek modes of conjugating verbs.
Verbs are farther distinguished by grammarians into active, passive, and neuter, as
being expressive of actions, passions, or neither the one or the other, but mere being or
existing, as, I love, am loved, live, walk, or stand; tho’ according to the signification of
words, there does not seem to be any real ground for the latter distinction, for to love, to
be loved, to live, sleep or rest, must signify either actions, active passions and energies, or
their privation and passiveness. So that the distinction in this respect might be more
properly made into active and passive only, agreeable to the masculine and feminine, the
only proper distinction of nouns as to genders; all actions, substances, and things, at
least, as having relation to mankind, being either masculine or feminine, and the
distinctions made by the Greeks and Romans being mostly arbitrary and contrary to the
meaning of words which ought to determine the genders of nouns.
Verbs have a designation of person, corresponding with the personal pronouns; of
number with the singular and plural of nouns, of tenses as representing present, past, and
future actions and things; and of modes or the manner in which they ought to be
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