MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

MODULE THREE

DATA MANAGEMENT

CORE IDEA
Statistical tools derived from mathematics are useful in
processing and managing numerical data to describe a
phenomenon and predict values.
Learning Outcome:
5. Use a variety of statistical tools to process and manage
numerical data.
6. Use the methods of linear regression and correlations to
predict the value of a variable given certain conditions.
7. Advocate the use of statistical data in making important
decisions.

Unit Lessons:
Lesson 3.1 The Data
Lesson 3.2 Measures of Central Tendency
Lesson 3.3 Measures of Dispersion
Lesson 3.4 Measures of Relative Position
Lesson 3.5 Normal Distributions
Lesson 3.6 Linear Correlation
Lesson 3.7 Linear Regression

 Time Allotment: Ten lecture hours

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Lesson
3.1 The Data

Specific Objectives

1. To Understand the nature of statistics.

2. To gain deeper insights on the different levels.
of measurements.
3. To clarify the meaning of some important key concepts.
4. To explore the strengths and limitations of graphical
representation.

It is written in the Holy Book that “the truth shall set us free;” therefore,
understanding statistics paves the way towards intellectual freedom. For without
sufficient knowledge about it, we may be doomed to a life of half-truth. Statistics
will provide deeper insights to critically evaluate information and to bring us to the
well-lit arena of practicality.

Discussions

General Fields of Statistics: Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics

Descriptive Statistics. If statistics, in general, basically deals with analysis of data,

then descriptive statistics part of the general field is about “describing” data in
symbolic forms and abbreviated fashions. Sometimes we dealing with a large
amount of data and that it is impossible to describe it as it is being a large amount

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of data but descriptive statistics will provide us certain tools to make the data
manageable to handle and conveniently neat to describe.

To explore the characteristics of descriptive statistics, let us create a fictitious

situation. What does it mean if someone tells you that majority of workers earn
approximately P20,000.00 in a month? Were you able to dissect the idea behind
the plain statement? Does it trigger your mind to question further?

This statement is a piece of information that described a particular trait or

characteristic of a group of workers. Supplied with this singular information but
armed with statistical inquisitiveness, descriptive statistics can further describe the
given information to the extent of its depth and breadth.

Inferential Statistics. We could probably argue that descriptive statistics, with its
characteristic to describe, is sufficient to depict any given information. While it is
effective to describe a manageable size of data, it can hardly engulf a sizeable
amount of data. Thus, for this kind of situation, inferential statistics is the
alternative technique that can be used. Inferential statistics has the ability to
“infer” and to generalize and it offers the right tool to predict values that are not
really known.

Let us consider the fictitious situation we made under descriptive statistics, but this
time instead of reporting the approximate monthly earning of some workers, we
want to determine the estimated monthly earnings of all the workers in a certain
region. By attempting to apply descriptive statistics, it would be impossible to ask
all the workers in the entire region about their monthly income. But by using
inferential statistics, we would instead practically decide to select just a small
number of workers and ask them of their monthly income. From there, we can
predict or approximate in a “more or less” fashion the monthly income of all
workers in the entire region.

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Of course, inference or generalization is a risky process that is why we need to

ensure that the small group of workers we selected are the approximate
representative of the workers in the entire region. But nevertheless, this inference
or prediction is better than chance accuracy.

Measurement

It essentially means quantifying an observation according to a certain rule. For

instance, the presence of fever can be quantified by using a thermometer. Body
weight can be determined by using a weighing scale. Or the mental ability can be
quantified by using written examination that can generate scores. The
quantification sometimes can be done is simply counting. In quantifying an
observation, there are two types of quantitative informations: variable and
constant. A variable is something that can be measured and observed to vary.
While a constant is something that does not vary, and it only maintains a single
value.

Scales of Measurement
- Nominal Scale : Categorical Data
- Ordinal Scale : Ranked Data
- Interval/Ratio Scale : Measurement Data

To quantify an observation, it is necessary to identify its scale of measurement, it

is known as level of measurement. Scale of measurement is the gateway to the
fascinating world of statistics. Without sufficient knowledge of it, all our statistical
learnings lead to nowhere.

Nominal Scale. It concerns with categorical data. It simply means using numbers to
label categories. This is done by counting the occurrence of frequency within
categories. One condition is that the categories must be independent or mutually
exclusive. This implies that once something is identified under a certain category,
then that something cannot be reassigned at the same time to another category.

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An example for this, if we want to measure a group of people according to marital

status. We can categorize marital status by simply assigning a number. For instance
“1” for single and “2” for married.

Marital Status: Single (1) and Married (2)

(1) (2)

Obviously, those numbers only serve as labels and they do not contain any
numerical weight. Thus, we cannot say that married people (having been labelled
2) have more marital status than single people (having been labelled 1).

Ordinal Scale: It concerns with ranked data. There are instances wherein
comparison is necessary and cannot be avoided. Ordinal scale provides ranking of
the observation in order to generate information to the extent of “greater than”
or “less than;”. But the ranked data generated is limited also the extent of “greater
than” or “less than;”. It is not capable of telling information about how much
greater or how much less.

Ordinal scale can be best illustrated in sports activities like fun run. Finding the
order finish among the participants in a fun run always come up with a ranking.
However, ranked data cannot provide information as to the difference in time
between 1st placer and 2nd placer. Relative to this, reading reports with ordinal
information is also tricky. For example, a TV commercial extol a certain brand for
being the number one product in the country. This may seem acceptable, but if you
learned that there is no other product then definitely the message of the
commercial will be swallowed with an smirking face.

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Interval Scale: It deals with measurement data. In the nominal scale, we use
numbers to label categories while in the ordinal scale we use numbers to merely
provide information regarding greater than or less than. However, in interval scale
we assign numbers in such a way that there is meaning and weight on the value of
points between intervals. This scale of measurement provides more information
about the data. Consider the comparative illustration below:

Academic performance of five students in a certain class

Student A Student B Student C Student D Student E
Interval Data 99 74 73 70 70
Ordinal Data 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Nominal Data Passed Failed Failed Failed Failed

As you may have noticed, the interval scale provides substantial information about
the grades of students. Student A earned a grade of 99, and so on and so forth.
Now look at the information given by ordinal data. It is simply about ranking. With
this of information, Student B can proudly and rightfully claim the 2 nd place in the
ranking. Ordinal scale is a trusted friend to keep a secret, that the grade of student
B though claiming 2nd place is actually 74. Let us analyze the nominal data in our
example. With this scale, it is also alright for the school sadly to announce that only
one student passed and four students failed. Nominal data cannot provide more
information specifically provide brighter limelight to student A. Audience may
assume that Student A just got passing grade a little bit higher than the passing
mark but student A grade of 99 will remain hidden forever.

Ratio Scale. This is an extension of an interval scale. It also pertains with

measurement data but ratio’s point of view is about absolute value. Because of
this, we oftentimes cannot utilize ratio scale in the social sciences. We cannot
justify an absolute value to gauge intelligence. We cannot say that our student A
with a grade of 99 has an intelligence several points superior than student E who
hardly but successfully achieved a grade of 70.

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Key Concepts in Statistics

Population. A population can be defined as an entire group people, things, or

events having at least one trait in common (Sprinthall, 1994). A common trait is the
binding factor in order to group a cluster and call it a population. Merely having a
clustering of people, things or events cannot be considered as a population. At least
one common trait must be established to make a population. But, on the other
hand, adding too many common traits can also limit the size of the population. In
the illustration below, notice how a trait can severely reduce the size or
membership in the population.

A group of students (this is a population, since the common trait is “students”)

A group of male students.
A group of male students attending the Statistics class
A group of male students attending the Statistics class with iPhone
A group of male students attending the Statistics class with iPhone and
Earphone
As we read the list, we can mentally visualize that the size of the population is
dramatically becoming smaller and as we add more traits we may wonder if anyone
still qualifies. The more common traits we add, the more we reduce the designated
population.

Parameter. In gauging the entire population, any measure obtained is called a

parameter. Situationally, if someone asks you as to what is the parameter of the
study, then bear in mind that he is referring to the size of the entire population. In
some situations where the actual size of the population is difficult to obtain; the
parameters are in the form of estimate or inference.

Sample. The small number of observation taken from the total number making up
a population is called a sample. As long as the observation or data is not the totality
of the entire population, then it is always considered a sample. For instance, in a
population of 100, then 1 is considered as a sample. 30 is clearly a sample. It may
seem absurd but 99 taken from 100 is still considered a sample. Not until we include

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that last number (making it 100) could we claim that it is already a population and
no longer a sample.

Statistic. In gauging the sample, any measure obtained from the sample is called a
statistic. Whenever we describe the sample, then it is called statistics. Since a
sample is easier to observe or gather than the population, then statistics are
simpler to gather than the parameter.

Graphical representation

Graphs. It is another way to visually show the behavior of data. To create a graph,
distribution of scores must be organized. For instance, in the scores provided
below, presenting the scores in an unorganized manner can provide confusing or
no information at all; Reporting raw can even hide some significant scores to be
noticed.
120, 65, 110, 75, 105, 80, 105,
85, 100, 85, 100, 90, 95, 90, 90

But when we arrange the scores from highest to lowest, which is a form of score
distribution, some pieces of information can gradually brought forth and exposed.

Distribution of Scores
120
110
105
105
100
100
95
90
90
90
85
85
80
75
65

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The score distribution can still be organized in a form of a frequency distribution.

Frequency distribution provides information about raw scores, and the frequency
of occurrences. Frequency distribution provides clearer insights about the behavior
of scores.

X f
(Raw score) (Frequency of Occurrence)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
120 1
110 1
105 2
100 2
95 1
90 3
85 2
80 1
75 1
65 1
------------------------------------------------------------------------

Another alternative way of presenting data in frequency distribution is to present

them in a tabular form. A tabular form has the advantage of showing the visual
representation of the data. This kind of presentation is more appealing to the
general audience.
Frequency of Occurrence

0 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Raw scores

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Another way of showing the data in graphical form is by using Microsoft Excel, as
also illustrated in the graphs below. It is the frequency polygon of the scores in our
cited example above.

Notice in the illustration of the frequency polygon, the two graphs may appear
different but they are actually the same and they disclose the similar information.
This illustration will allow you realize that unless you see things with a critical eye,
a graph can create a false impression of what the data really reveal. This is an
obvious situation showing how graphs can be used to distort reality if you are not
equipped with a critical statistical mind. This type of deceitful cleverness in
distorting graphs is common in some corporations devising the tinsel to camouflage
and also to portray some gigantic leaps in sales in order to attract more clients or
buyers.

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