DATABASES

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 DATABASES
A database is a structured collection of logically related data.

A database is an organized collection of data that allows users to

efficiently store, retrieve, and manage information. Databases
play a crucial role in various fields, including business,
healthcare, finance, education, and technology.

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 USES OF DATABASES
• Data Management: Efficiently storing and retrieving data for applications
such as banking systems, online shopping, and enterprise resource
planning.
• Data Integrity and Security: Enforcing rules to maintain data consistency
and restricting unauthorized access.
• Data Sharing: Allowing multiple users to access the same data
simultaneously.
• Data Backup and Recovery: Protecting data against loss and corruption.
• Decision Making: Providing analytical tools for business intelligence and
reporting.

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 File-Based Approach vs. Database Approach

File-Based Approach Database Approach

• Stores data in separate files • Stores data in a centralized database
managed by a Database Management
managed by the operating system. System (DBMS).
• Each application manages its own • Eliminates redundancy and
set of files. inconsistency through normalization
and indexing.
• Data redundancy and inconsistency • Provides multi-user access with
are common. concurrency control.
• Supports complex queries and
• Difficult to maintain and update as efficient data retrieval.
the system grows. • Offers better data security and backup
• Limited data sharing capabilities. mechanisms.
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 FEATURES OF DATABASES

Feature File-Based Approach Database Approach

Data Redundancy High Low

Data Consistency Low High

Data Sharing Limited Extensive

Data Security Minimal Strong

Querying Flexibility Limited Extensive

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 Relational Database Concepts
A Relational Database is a type of database that stores data in
tables (relations) with predefined relationships between
them.
Relational Database Design focuses on structuring data
efficiently to reduce redundancy and improve consistency.

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KEY CONCEPTS OF RELATIONAL DATABASES
• Table (Relation): A collection of related data organized in rows and
columns.
• Tuple (Row): A single record in a table.
• Attribute (Column): A specific piece of information stored in a table.
• Primary Key: A unique identifier for each record in a table.
• Foreign Key: A field in one table that establishes a relationship with
the primary key of another table.
• SQL (Structured Query Language): The language used to interact with
relational databases.

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Relational Database Design

Relational Database Design focuses on structuring data efficiently to

reduce redundancy and improve consistency.

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Steps in Designing a Relational Database:

• Identify Entities and Attributes: Determine the key objects (entities)

and their properties (attributes).
• Establish Relationships: Define how entities are related using foreign
keys.
• Normalize the Database: Apply normalization techniques to eliminate
redundancy.
• Define Constraints: Implement primary keys, foreign keys, and
integrity constraints.
• Create Schema: Develop tables based on the logical design.

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Examples of Simple Schemas:

• Students (StudentID, Name, Age, CourseID)

• Courses (CourseID, CourseName, Instructor)

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Data Normalization

Data Normalization is a process used to organize data in a database

efficiently by reducing redundancy and improving integrity.

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 Normalization Forms

Normalization is a systematic approach of decomposing tables to

eliminate data redundancy and undesirable characteristics such as
insertion, update and delete anomalies. It is a multi-step process that
puts data in to tabular form by removing duplicated data from the
relational table.
Normalization is used mainly for 2 purposes:
- Eliminating redundant data
- Ensuring data dependencies makes sense. ie:- data is stored logically

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 PROBLEMS WITHOUT NORMALIZATION

S_Id S_Name S_Address Subjects_opted

401 Adam Colombo-4 Bio

402 Alex Kandy Maths

403 Steuart Ja-Ela Maths

404 Adam Colombo-4 Chemistr

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Updation Anomaly – To update the address of a student who
occurs twice or more than twice in a table,we will have to
update S_Address column in all the rows, else data will be
inconsistent.
Insertion Anomaly – Suppose we have a student (S_Id), name
and address of a student but if student
has not opted for any subjects yet then we have to insert null,
which leads to an insertion anomaly.
Deletion Anomaly – If (S_id) 401 has opted for one subject
only and temporarily he drops it, when we
delete that row, entire student record will get deleted.

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1st Normal Form – No two rows of data must contain
repeating group of information. Ie. Each set of
column must have a unique value, such that multiple columns
cannot be used to fetch the same row.
Each row should have a primary key that distinguishes it
uniquely.
Primary Key – The primary key is usually a single column, but
sometimes more than one column can be
combined to create a single primary key

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 First Normal Form

Before Normalization After Normalization

Student Age Subject Student Age Subject

Adam 20 Bio
Adam 20 Bio, Maths
Adam 20 Maths
Alex 21 Maths
Alex 21 Maths
Steuart 19 Maths
Steuart 19 Maths

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In 1st normal form, any row must not have a column in which
more than one value is saved. However in 1st normal form,
data redundancy will increase as there will be many columns
with the same data in multiple rows, but each row as a whole
will be unique.

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2nd normal form
In the 2nd normal form there should not be any partial
dependency of any columns on primary key. A table that has
concatenated primary key, each column in the table that is not
part of the primary key must depend upon the entire
concatenated key for its existence.

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 SECOND NORMAL FORM

BEFOR NORMALIZATION AFTER NORMALIZATION

Student Age Subject Student Age Student Subject

Adam 20 Bio Adam Bio

Adam 20
Adam 20 Maths Adam Maths
Alex 21
Alex 21 Maths Alex Maths

Steuart 19 Maths Steuart 19

Steuart Maths

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While the candidate key is (Student, Subject), Age of student
only depends on Student column.

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3rd normal form
Every non-prime attribute of table must be dependent
on primary key. The transitive functional
dependency must be removed from the table

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In this table Student_Id is the primary key, but street and city depends
on Zip. The dependency between Zip and other fields is called
transitive dependency. Hence, to apply 3rd normal form, we need to
remove Street, City and State to a new table with Zip as a primary key.

Example – Student_Detail table (before 3rd normal form)

Student_Id Student_Name DOB Street City Zip

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 After 3rd Normal Form

Student_Id Student_Name DOB

Zip Street City State

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 Entity-Relationship Diagrams (ERD)

An Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD) is a visual representation of

entities and their relationships within a database.

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 Key Components of ERD
• Entities: Objects that store data (e.g., Students, Courses, Teachers).
• Attributes: Properties of an entity (e.g., StudentID, Name, Age).
• Relationships: Connections between entities (e.g., A Student enrolls
in a Course). There are 4 types of relationships that could exist
between entities
• One-to-one (Eg:-Husband and Wife)
- One-to-many (Eg:-Student and Student_Detail)
- Many-to-one( Children to Father)
- Many-to-many (Eg:-Student and Address)
• Primary and Foreign Keys: Unique identifiers that define
relationships.
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 ERD Notation
• Rectangle: Represents an entity.
• Oval: Represents an attribute.
• Diamond: Represents a relationship.
• Lines: Connect entities to attributes and relationships.

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Compiled by Amidu Nashiru
TYPES OF KEYS IN RELATIONAL DATABASES
• Candidate Key: A key that can uniquely identify a record in a table. A
candidate key could be simple or composite.
• Super Key: A set a attributes that can uniquely identify a record.
• Primary Key: is a set of attributes that uniquely identifies a tuple. A
primary key can not contain null values.
• Alternate Key: Any other candidate key apart from the primary key is
an alternate key.
• Foreign Key: is a key that is being referenced by another entity in a
database.

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INTRODUCTION TO A DBMS
A Database Management System (DBMS) is
software that enables users to store, retrieve,
manage, and manipulate data efficiently. It
provides a structured approach to organizing data
and ensures data integrity, security, and
consistency.

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 FEATURES OF A DBMS

• Data Storage & Retrieval – Stores and retrieves data efficiently.

• Data Security & Integrity – Ensures data accuracy and access control.
• Multi-user Access – Supports multiple users accessing the database
simultaneously.
• Backup & Recovery – Provides mechanisms for data recovery in case
of failures.
• Data Abstraction – Hides complex database structures from users.

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 TYPES OF DBMS

• Relational DBMS (RDBMS) – Uses tables with relationships (e.g.,

MySQL, SQL Server, PostgreSQL).
• NoSQL DBMS – Works with non-relational data (e.g., MongoDB,
Cassandra).
• Object-Oriented DBMS (OODBMS) – Works with objects rather than
tables.
• Hierarchical & Network DBMS – Older models used for specific
applications.

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 MYSQL AS A DBMS

MySQL is an open-source Relational Database

Management System (RDBMS) that is widely used for
web applications and enterprise solutions. It follows
the SQL standard and provides robust features like
transactions, replication, and indexing.

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Implementing Databases
• Database Implementation Process
• Requirements Analysis – Understanding what data needs to be stored.
• Database Design
• Conceptual Design – Entity-Relationship (ER) modeling.
• Logical Design – Table structures, relationships, constraints.
• Physical Design – Storage and indexing strategies.
• Normalization – Eliminating data redundancy using normalization
techniques.
• Implementation – Creating tables, relationships, and constraints in a
DBMS.
• Testing & Optimization – Ensuring performance and correctness.
• Deployment & Maintenance – Making the database live and managing
updates.

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Structured Query Language (SQL)

SQL (Structured Query Language) is a programming

language used for storing and managing data in
RDBMS. All RDBMS (SQL Server,
Oracle, MySQL, MS Access) use SQL as the standard
database language. SQL is used to perform all types
of operations in a database.

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SOME DATA TYPES (STRINGS)
• CHAR String (0 - 255)
• VARCHAR String (0 - 255)
• TEXT String (0 - 65535)

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 DATA TYPES DATE AND TIME
• DATE YYYY-MM-DD
• DATETIME YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
• TIMESTAMP YYYYMMDDHHMMSS
• TIME HH:MM:SS

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 DATA TYPES (NUMERIC)
• INT Integer (-2147483648 to 214748- 3647)
• BIGINT Integer (-9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807)
• FLOAT Decimal (precise to 23 digits)
• DOUBLE Decimal (24 to 53 digits)

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 CATEGORIES OF SQL COMMANDS
Data Definition Language
Data Manipulation Language
Data Control Language
Transaction Control Language

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Data Definition Language (DDL)

Command Description
CREATE To create new table or database
ALTER For alteration
TRUNCATE Delete data from table
DROP Drop a table
RENAME To rename a table

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CREATE – Creates a new database or table.

CREATE TABLE students (

id INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(50),
age INT);

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ALTER – Modifies a table structure.

ALTER TABLE students ADD email

VARCHAR(100);

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DROP – Deletes a table or database.

DROP TABLE students;

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Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Command Description

INSERT To create new table or database

UPDATE For alteration

DELETE Delete data from table

MERGE Drop a table

SELECT Selects an entity or attribute

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INSERT – Adds new records.
INSERT INTO students (name, age) VALUES ('John', 20);

UPDATE – Modifies existing records.

UPDATE students SET age = 21 WHERE name = 'John';

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DELETE – Removes records.

DELETE FROM students WHERE age < 18;

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Data Control Language (DCL)

Command Description

GRANT Grant permission of right

REVOKE Take back permission

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•GRANT – Provides permissions.
GRANT SELECT ON students TO 'user1';

•REVOKE – Removes permissions.

REVOKE SELECT ON students FROM 'user1';

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Transactional Control Language (TCL)
Command Description

COMMIT To permanently save

ROLLBACK To undo change

SAVEPOINT To save temporarily

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Data Query Language (DQL)

Command Description

SELECT Retrieve records from one or more tables

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To be continued……………………….

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