Differential calculus

Differentiability

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
A function f is said to be differentiable at x=a whenever f′(a) exists and is defined as lim .
ℎ→0 ℎ
Moreover, for f′(a) to exist, we know that the function y=f(x) must have a tangent line at the point
(a,f(a)), since f′(a) is precisely the slope of this line. In order to even ask if f has a tangent line at
(a,f(a)), it is necessary that f be continuous at x=a: if f fails to have a limit at x=a, if f(a) is not defined,
or if f(a) does not equal the value of limx→af(x), then it doesn’t even make sense to talk about a
tangent line to the curve at this point.

Differentiable means the derivative exists at every point in its domain. Consequently, the only way for
the derivative to exist is if the function also exists (i.e., is continuous) on its domain. Thus, a
differentiable function implies a continuous function, but not vice-versa.

Task
Where is the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = |𝑥𝑥| differentiable? (See page 157 in Stewart textbook on
Calculus)

THEOREM If 𝑓𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑎𝑎, then 𝑓𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎𝑎.

The converse of the theorem is false; that is, there are functions that are continuous
but not differentiable. Give an example of such. (See page 159 Stewart)

Task
How can a function fail to be differentiable? Give three instances of such. (See page
159 Stewart)

1
Derivatives as a tangent/slope/inclination
The word tangent is derived from the Latin word tangens, which means “touching.”
Thus a tangent to a curve is a line that touches the curve. In other words, a tangent
line should have the same direction as the curve at the point of contact. How can this
idea be made precise? For a circle we could simply follow Euclid and say that a tangent
is a line that intersects the circle once and only once.

The problem of finding the tangent line to a curve and the problem of finding the
velocity of an object both involve finding the limit. This special type of limit is called a
derivative and we will see that it can be interpreted as a rate of change in any of the
sciences or engineering.

If a curve C has equation 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and we want to find the tangent line to 𝐶𝐶 at the
point 𝑃𝑃(𝑎𝑎, 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)), then we consider a nearby point 𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)), and compute the slope of
the secant line PQ:

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎

Then we let Q approach P along the curve C by letting 𝑥𝑥 approach 𝑎𝑎. If 𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 approaches
a number m, then we define the tangent t to be the line through P with slope m (see
Figure 1 below).

2
Example
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 at the point 𝑃𝑃(1,1).

Solution

There is another expression for the slope of a tangent line that is sometimes easier to
use. If 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 + ℎ, then the slope of the secant line PQ is

𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
𝑚𝑚𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
ℎ

3
Notice that as 𝑥𝑥 approaches 𝑎𝑎, ℎ approaches 0 (because ℎ = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎) and so the
expression for the slope of the tangent line in the definition above becomes

𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
𝑚𝑚 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

For a general formula of a derivative,

Differentiation from first principles

Example
Find the derivative using first principles 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = √𝑥𝑥.

Solution

4
Task
1
Given 𝑦𝑦 = find 𝑦𝑦 ′ using first principles.
𝑥𝑥

Techniques of differentiation
Hereunder are some of the techniques that we use to compute derivatives.

2. Power rule
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 , then = 𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example

If 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥)3 then y’=3x^2 x1.

Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = (2𝑥𝑥)3 . Then 𝑓𝑓’(𝑥𝑥) = 3(2𝑥𝑥)2 × 2 = 24𝑥𝑥 2 .

3. Product rule
𝑑𝑑
(𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)) = 𝑔𝑔′ (𝑥𝑥)𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥)𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example
If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑥𝑥)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥), find y’.

5
Solution

𝑦𝑦 ′ = cos 2𝑥𝑥.

Example
Find 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) if 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥.

Solution
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 × cos 𝑥𝑥 + 1 × sin 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥 + sin 𝑥𝑥

3. The quotient rule

𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑓𝑓′−𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓′
If 𝑦𝑦 = , then 𝑦𝑦 ′ =
𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔2

Example
1+𝑥𝑥 2
Given that 𝑦𝑦 = , find 𝑦𝑦’.
1−𝑥𝑥 2

6
Solution

Task
1. Find y’ if 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥.
2. Find y’ if 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥.
Solution
1
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
cos 𝑥𝑥
cos 𝑥𝑥 × 0 − 1 × (− sin 𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) =
cos2 𝑥𝑥
sin 𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) =
cos2 𝑥𝑥
sin 𝑥𝑥 1
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = ×
cos 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = tan 𝑥𝑥 sec 𝑥𝑥 = sec 𝑥𝑥 tan 𝑥𝑥 .

Chain rule
is also known as the outside-inside rule or the composite function rule or function of a
function rule. It is used only to find the derivatives of the composite functions.

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Let 𝑓𝑓 be a real-valued function that is a composite of two functions 𝑔𝑔 and ℎ. i.e, 𝑓𝑓 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑔𝑔 𝑜𝑜 ℎ = 𝑔𝑔(ℎ(𝑥𝑥)). Suppose 𝑢𝑢 = ℎ(𝑥𝑥), where and exist, then this could be
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
expressed as: = . .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

This is called Leibniz notation.

Chain Rule Steps

• Step 1: Identify The Chain Rule: The function must be a composite function,
which means one function is nested over the other.

• Step 2: Identify the inner function and the outer function.

• Step 3: Find the derivative of the outer function (df/du), leaving the inner
function.

• Step 4: Find the derivative of the inner function (du/dx).

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

• Step 5: Multiply the results from step 4 and step 3 ( = × ).
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

• Step 6: Simplify the chain rule derivative.

Example
𝑑𝑑
To find the derivative of (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2𝑥𝑥), express 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)), where 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑢𝑢
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑢𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑥.

𝑑𝑑
Then by the chain rule formula, (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2𝑥𝑥) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑢𝑢 · 2 = 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(2𝑥𝑥).
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example

2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 . Then 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 2 and 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 . Now 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = × = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 × 2𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example
y = sin (cos (x2))

8
solution
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
let 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑥𝑥 2 , 𝑢𝑢 = cos(𝑣𝑣) and 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑢𝑢. Then = 2𝑥𝑥; = − sin 𝑣𝑣; = cos 𝑢𝑢.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑦𝑦’ = . . = cos 𝑢𝑢 × − sin 𝑣𝑣 × 2𝑥𝑥 = −2x cos(cos 𝑥𝑥 2 ) sin 𝑥𝑥 2 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Task
Find y’ if y = (1+ cos(2x))2.

Solution

𝑦𝑦 ′ = 2(1 + cos 2𝑥𝑥) × − sin 2𝑥𝑥 × 2 = −4 sin 2𝑥𝑥(1 + cos 2𝑥𝑥).

General standard forms of derivatives

For example, let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑥𝑥), then 𝑓𝑓’(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥).1 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥)

Implicit differentiation
The functions that we have met so far can be described by expressing one variable
explicitly in terms of another variable—for example, 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 − 4. y’=2. Some functions,

9
however, are defined implicitly by a relation 𝑥𝑥 between 𝑦𝑦 and such as 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥. If
we cannot make 𝑦𝑦 the subject of the formula, then we resort to implicit
differentiation. This consists of differentiating both sides of the equation with respect
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
to 𝑥𝑥 and then solving the resulting equation for 𝑦𝑦 ′ = . The symbol for differentiating
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑
wrt 𝑥𝑥 is .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
WRT to x: if 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥. Differentiating wrt 𝑥𝑥, both sides we get (𝑦𝑦) = (𝑥𝑥). Re-write
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Notice LHS: = 𝑓𝑓(′(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅). So = 1. (also 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 1𝑥𝑥 0 = 1. )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Suppose I want differentiate wrt 𝑦𝑦. Thus (𝑦𝑦) = (𝑥𝑥). This gives = which
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
gives = 1.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 . Differentiating wrt 𝑥𝑥, both sides we get (𝑦𝑦) = (𝑥𝑥 2 ). LHS: = 2𝑥𝑥.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
Suppose I want to differentiate wrt 𝑦𝑦. Thus (𝑦𝑦) = (𝑥𝑥 2 ).
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 2𝑥𝑥 ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 = 2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
= .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥

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For example

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 2 . Find .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Differentiate term by term.

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 2
(𝑦𝑦) = (𝑥𝑥) + (𝑦𝑦 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 1 + 2𝑦𝑦 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example
Find the derivative of the following wrt 𝑥𝑥.

1. 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 4
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑
(𝑥𝑥 ) + (𝑦𝑦 ) = (4)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑦𝑦 = −2𝑥𝑥,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
=− =− .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦

2. 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑦𝑦 cos 𝑥𝑥 = 2,

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Solution
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ cos 𝑥𝑥. − 𝑦𝑦 sin 𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ cos 𝑥𝑥. = 𝑦𝑦 sin 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(1 + cos 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑦𝑦 sin 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 sin 𝑥𝑥
= .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 + cos 𝑥𝑥

Task
Attempt the following

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1. Given the equation 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑦𝑦, find
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2. Given 𝑦𝑦 + �𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 , find .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3. If ln 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥, find .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4. If 𝑦𝑦 2 = ln(2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦), find .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
5. If 𝑒𝑒 sin 𝑡𝑡 = ln 𝑤𝑤, find and .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Inverse trigonometric functions

Direct differentiation of inverse trig functions is impossible; hence we resort to implicit
differentiation to find the derivative of inverse trigonometric functions. For example

1 1
𝑦𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥𝑥. (𝑦𝑦 = = 𝑥𝑥 −1 . 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 ′ = −1 × 𝑥𝑥 −2 = − 2 ) Remember it is different from the
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

reciprocal of trig functions, for example,

12
 1
the reciprocal of 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥 is csc 𝑥𝑥 ( = (sin 𝑥𝑥)−1 . But for polynomials, the inverse of
sin 𝑥𝑥
1 1
𝑥𝑥 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑥𝑥 −1 . But not for: 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 + 1 the reciprocal is which is not the
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 +3𝑥𝑥+1

inverse of f(x).

Example
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = sin−1 𝑥𝑥), find .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Solution
Take sine of both sides

sin(𝑦𝑦) = sin(sin−1 𝑥𝑥))

sin 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 sin2 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 )

Differentiating both sides wrt x, we get:

(a function and its inverse cancel each other. For example, square and square root are inverses
and they cancel one another. If you square 10 you get 100, and if you take the square root of
2
100, you get back to 10 where u started. �√𝑥𝑥� = √𝑥𝑥 2 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sin−1 (sin 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥).
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
cos 𝑦𝑦 =1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
cos 𝑦𝑦 =1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cos 𝑦𝑦

NB: sin2 𝑦𝑦 + cos 2 𝑦𝑦 = 1. And cos 2 𝑦𝑦 = 1 − sin2 𝑦𝑦. Also after taking the sqrt of both sides
cos 𝑦𝑦 = �1 − sin2 𝑦𝑦.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �1 − sin2 𝑦𝑦

1
= .
√1 − 𝑥𝑥 2

Also note,

sin2 𝑦𝑦 + cos 2 𝑦𝑦 = 1

sin2 𝑥𝑥 cos 2 𝑥𝑥 1
+ =
cos 2 𝑥𝑥 cos 2 𝑥𝑥 cos 2 𝑥𝑥

13
 tan2 𝑥𝑥 + 1 = sec 2 𝑥𝑥

tan2 𝑥𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥𝑥 − 1

tan 𝑥𝑥 = �sec 2 𝑥𝑥 − 1

Task
Differentiate y = cos −1 𝑥𝑥 wrt 𝑥𝑥.

Example
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Find if 𝑦𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥𝑥.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Solution

Example

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑦𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥𝑥 find .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Solution

sec 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
sec 𝑦𝑦 tan 𝑦𝑦 =1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 sec 𝑦𝑦 tan 𝑦𝑦
1
=
𝑥𝑥 tan 𝑦𝑦

But 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 and sec 2 𝑦𝑦 − 1 = tan2 𝑦𝑦. Thus tan 𝑦𝑦 = �sec 2 𝑦𝑦 − 1 = √𝑥𝑥 2 − 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
= .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥√𝑥𝑥 2 − 1

Task
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1. If 𝑦𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥𝑥, find . done
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

14
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2. If 𝑦𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥𝑥, find . done
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

3. Find the derivative of tan−1 𝑥𝑥 (arctan 𝑥𝑥).

Introduction to Common and Natural

Logarithms
The logarithm of a number is the power or exponent by which another value must be raised to produce
an equivalent value of the given number. The logarithm of a number is expressed in the form of;

log b N = x, where b is the base and can be any number except 1 and zero; x and N are the
exponent and argument/variable, respectively.

For example, the logarithm of 32 to base 2 is 5 and can be represented as; log 2 32 = 5. Because
25 = 32. But 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙32 ≠ 5. (105 = 100 000 ≠ 32)

A common logarithm has a fixed base of 10. The common log of a number N is expressed as;

log 10 N or log N. Common logarithms are also known as decadic logarithm and decimal
logarithm.

If log N = x, then we can represent this logarithmic form in exponential form, i.e., 10 x = N.

Figure 1. graph of 𝑦𝑦 = log 𝑥𝑥. (log10=1; log1=0; log0=?? Log(-1)=does not exist.

15
Figure 2. The graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 10𝑥𝑥 .

The basic properties of common logarithms are the same as the properties of all logarithms.

In both exponential functions and logarithms, any number can be the base. However, there are
two bases that are used so frequently that mathematicians have special names for their
logarithms, and scientific calculators include keys specifically for them! These are the common
(log) and natural logarithms (ln). this is also applies to their inverses, e.g. the inverse of log 𝑥𝑥 is
10𝑥𝑥 and ln 𝑥𝑥 is 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 .

16
A common logarithm (log) is any logarithm with base 10. Recall that our number
system is base 10; there are ten digits from 0-9, and place value is determined by
groups of ten. You can remember a “common logarithm,” then, as any logarithm whose
base is our “common” base, 10.

Natural logarithms are different than common logarithms. While the base of a
common logarithm is 10, the base of a natural logarithm is the special number e, it is
given by log 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑥𝑥. The natural logarithm of a number N is the power or exponent to
which ‘e’ has to be raised to be equal to N. (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑦𝑦 = ln 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥) Although this
looks like a variable, it represents a fixed irrational number approximately equal to
2.718281828459…. (Like 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, it continues without a repeating pattern in its digits.) e is
sometimes called Euler′s number or Napier’s constant, and the letter e was chosen to
honour the mathematician Leonhard Euler (pronounced oiler). e is a complicated but
interesting number.

Remember: log 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 means that 𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥. Taking natural logs of both sides gives,

ln 𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 = ln 𝑥𝑥

𝑦𝑦 ln 𝑎𝑎 = ln 𝑥𝑥

ln 𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 =
ln 𝑎𝑎

Therefore

ln 𝑥𝑥
log 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 = .
ln 𝑎𝑎

Given 𝑥𝑥 > 0, the natural log of 𝑥𝑥 is defined as the logarithm of 𝑥𝑥 to the base 𝑒𝑒. The
symbol 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 is used,
ln 𝑥𝑥 = log 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥,
and 𝑦𝑦 = ln 𝑥𝑥 if and only if 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 .
𝑦𝑦 = ln 𝑥𝑥
Taking exponential of both sides, we get
𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 ln 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥

17
In other words, 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 and 𝑒𝑒 are inverses. ln(𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥. Just like square and
2
square-root are inverses. �√𝑥𝑥� = 𝑥𝑥.

Natural logarithms are particularly convenient for problems involving differential

calculus. When we write ln 𝑥𝑥 instead of log 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥, the rules for logarithms take the
following form: (laws of log and ln are the same)
(i) ln 1 = 0, ln 𝑒𝑒 = 1,
(ii) ln(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = ln 𝑥𝑥 + ln 𝑥𝑥,
𝑎𝑎
(iii) ln = ln 𝑎𝑎 − ln 𝑏𝑏, 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎 ÷ 𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎−𝑏𝑏
𝑏𝑏

(iv) ln 𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟 ln 𝑥𝑥.
The rules for changing the base become
𝑥𝑥 ln 𝑦𝑦
𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 ln 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ln 𝑏𝑏 , log 𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦 = .
ln 𝑏𝑏
Using the above equations, the formulas for the derivative of 𝑏𝑏 take the form
𝑑𝑑(𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 )
= ln 𝑏𝑏 . 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Theorem
𝑑𝑑 1 𝑓𝑓′ (𝑥𝑥)
On the interval (0, ∞), (ln 𝑥𝑥) = . And ln 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑
Also (𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Proof

18
 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 ln 𝑥𝑥 1 𝑑𝑑 1 1 1
Note: (log 𝑥𝑥) = � �= (ln 𝑥𝑥) = × = .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ln 10 ln 10 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ln 10 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 ln 10

Standard form of differentials

19
If y=sin x then y’=cos x and if y=cos x then y’=-sin x.

Also if y=tanx then y’=sec^2 x.

Logarithmic differentiation
Logarithm differentiation is used to simplify the functions to be differentiated. This
method uses the laws of logarithm to simplify the functions. We use logarithmic
differentiation in situations where it is easier to differentiate the logarithm of a function
than to differentiate the function itself. This approach allows calculating derivatives of
power, rational and some irrational functions in an efficient manner.

Example

20
Solution

Example
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Find if 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

21
Solution

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
= (cos 𝑥𝑥 ln 𝑥𝑥 + sin 𝑥𝑥 × ) × 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥

Task
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Evaluate if
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

1. 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2. 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 , evaluate .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1
𝑥𝑥
3. 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 .
4. 𝑦𝑦 = 23𝑥𝑥 .
5. 𝑦𝑦 = 3√𝑥𝑥 .
6. 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥𝑥 − 3)5 .

TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
The transcendental functions include the trigonometric functions 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥, cot
x, cosec x, the exponential function 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 , and the natural logarithm function 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥.

22
The Greek letters 𝜃𝜃 (theta) and 𝛼𝛼 (alpha) are often used for angles. In calculus it is
convenient to measure angles in radians instead of degrees. An angle 𝜃𝜃 in radians is
defined as the length of the arc of the angle on a circle of radius one. Since a circle of
radius one has circumference 2𝜋𝜋, that is 360 degrees = 2𝜋𝜋 radians.

The radian measure

The convention for complex numbers is to use radians as the measure for angles. But
what are the radians.

An arc of a circle is a "portion" of the circumference of the circle. The length of an

arc is simply the length of its "portion" of the circumference. Actually, the
circumference itself can be considered an arc length.

The length of an arc (or arc length) is traditionally symbolized by s. In the diagram
above, it can be said that arc AB subtends angle 𝜃𝜃.

If the length of an arc of a circle, s, (think of straightening it out), is the same as the
length of the circle's radius, r, a unique situation occurs. The angle, 𝜃𝜃, created by this
situation is called a radian.

Example
Convert 50 degrees to radians.

Answer

23
 Example
𝜋𝜋
Convert to degrees.
6

Answer

Task
Differentiate wrt x
1. 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥 2 .
NB: use the chain rule.
2. 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑥𝑥(1 − cos 𝑥𝑥) .
using the product rule:
3. 𝑦𝑦 = ln(3 − 2𝑥𝑥)2
4. 𝑦𝑦 = (ln 𝑥𝑥)3 ;
5. 𝑥𝑥 = ln(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥).

Higher derivatives
The 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of a real function 𝑓𝑓 is the derivative of the derivative of 𝑓𝑓, and is
denoted by 𝑓𝑓". The third derivative of 𝑓𝑓 is the derivative of the second derivative, and is
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦
denoted by 𝑓𝑓"′, or 𝑓𝑓 3 . We know if 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = �𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� = and 𝑓𝑓 ′′ (𝑥𝑥) =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
� �= . Note we do not write the denominator (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)2 but as 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 in differentiation
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
only. And �𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥)� = � � ≠ .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

24
Example

For 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 5 + 10𝑥𝑥 3 , the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th derivatives are as follows:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 5𝑥𝑥 4 + 30𝑥𝑥 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
Now � � = (5𝑥𝑥 4 + 30𝑥𝑥 2 )2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Task
1. Find y'' for y = 3x2 + 5x + cos x
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
2. find of x2 + y2 = 16.
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑦𝑦 = −2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −𝑥𝑥
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 × (−1) − (−𝑥𝑥) × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 −𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2

25
 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 −𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 × �− 𝑦𝑦�
=
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 2 1
= �−𝑦𝑦 − � ×
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 2

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 −𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 1
2
= � �× 2
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 −(𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑥 2 )
= .
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
3. find � � if 𝑦𝑦 = ln 𝑥𝑥.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

4. Find 𝑓𝑓 "′(𝑥𝑥) when 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 10𝑥𝑥 5 + 3𝑥𝑥 4 − 5𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 10𝑥𝑥 + 6.

Application of differentiation

Optimisation

We have seen that differential calculus can be used to determine the stationary points
of functions, in order to sketch their graphs. Calculating stationary points also lends
itself to the solving of problems that require some variable to be maximised or
minimised. These are referred to as optimisation problems.

26
Example

Michael wants to start a vegetable garden, which he decides to fence off in the shape
of a rectangle from the rest of the garden. Michael has only 160 m of fencing, so he
decides to use a wall as one border of the vegetable garden. Calculate the width and
length of the garden that corresponds to the largest possible area that Michael can
fence off.

27
Solution

We know Area = l x w

160=w+l+l (fencing required on three sides

w=160-2l

Area= l(160 – 2l)

=160l-2l2

We are interested in maximising the area of the garden, so we differentiate to get the
following:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 160 − 4𝑙𝑙
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

To find stationary points, A`(l) = 160 -4l = 0

Therefore l=40m

We can check that this gives a maximum area by showing that A``(l) < 0:

A`` (l) = -4

A width of 80 m and a length of 40 m will give the maximum area for the garden.

Activity

Solving optimising problems

1. The sum of two positive numbers is 20. One of the numbers is multiplied by the
square of the other. Find the numbers that make this product a maximum.

28
 2. A rectangular juice container, made from cardboard, has a square base and
holds 750 cm3 of juice. The container has a specially designed top that folds to
close the container. The cardboard needed to fold the top of the container is
twice the cardboard needed for the base, which only needs a single layer of
cardboard.

a) If the length of the sides of the base is x cm, show that the total area of the
cardboard needed for one container is given by:

3000
A (in square centimetres) = + 3𝑥𝑥 2
𝑥𝑥

b) Determine the dimensions of the container so that the area of the cardboard used is
minimised.

Rates of change

It is very useful to determine how fast (the rate at which) things are changing.
Mathematically we can represent change in different ways. For example we can use
algebraic formulae or graphs. Graphs give a visual representation of the rate at which
the function values change as the independent (input) variable changes. This rate of
change is described by the gradient of the graph and can therefore be determined by
calculating the derivative. We have learnt how to determine the average gradient of a
curve and how to determine the gradient of a curve at a given point. These concepts

29
are also referred to as the average rate of change and the instantaneous rate of
change.

When we mention rate of change, the instantaneous rate of change (the derivative) is
implied. When average rate of change is required, it will be specifically referred to as
average rate of change. Velocity is one of the most common forms of rate of change:

Average velocity = Average rate of change

Instantaneous velocity = Instantaneous rate of change

= Derivative

Velocity refers to the change in distance (s) for a corresponding change in time (t).

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = = 𝑠𝑠′(𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Acceleration is the change in velocity for a corresponding change in time. Therefore,

acceleration is the derivative of velocity

a (t) = v’ (t)

This implies that acceleration is the second derivative of the distance.

a (t) = s’’ (t)

30
Example

The height (in metres) of a golf ball t seconds after it has been hit into the air, is given
by h(t)=20t-5t2. Determine the following:

1. The average vertical velocity of the ball during the first two seconds.

2. The vertical velocity of the ball after 1,5 seconds.

3. The time at which the vertical velocity is zero.

4. The vertical velocity with which the ball hits the ground.

5. The acceleration of the ball.

Solutions

1. 10 m/s
2. v(t)=20 – 10t and v(1.5) = 5 m/s
3. t = 2 sec
4. h(t) = 0; hits ground after 4 sec. Then v(4) = -20m/s.
5. a = v’(t) = h’’(t) = -10 m/s/s

Activity

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Differentiability

A function f is differentiable if f’(x) exists at x. The value of f’(xo) at such a point xo is

the slope of the tangent line to y=f(x) there. Thus the equation if the tangent line is
given by

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥0 ) + 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥0 )(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥0 )

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Theorem

Differentiability implies continuity: if f is differentiable at x, then f is continuous at x.

Activity

Proof the theorem above.

The Mean Value Theorem

(application of differentiation)

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Example 2
Determine if the Mean Value Theorem can be applied to the following function on the given closed
𝑥𝑥
interval. If so, find all possible value(s) of c: 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = on [1,3].
1+𝑥𝑥

Solution

(i) F(x) is Continuity on [1,3]

(ii) F(x) is differentiable (1,3).

𝑓𝑓 is differentiable since it is continuous in [1,3]. Also,

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The end

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