Fig: Block diagram of radio communication system

RADIO RECEIVERS

Radio receiver is an electronic equipment which

pick ups the desired signal, reject the unwanted
signal and demodulate the carrier signal to get
back the original modulating signal.
 Main Functions
i. Intercept the electromagnetic waves in the
receiving antenna to produce the desired R.F.
modulated carrier.
ii. Select the desired signal and reject the
unwanted signals.
iii. Amplify the R.F. signal
iv. Detect the RF carrier to get back the original
modulation frequency voltage .
v. Amplify the modulation frequency voltage.
 Design of Receiver

• The radio receiver has to be cost effective

• Requirements:
– Has to work according to application as for AM
or FM signals
– Tune to and amplify desired radio station
– Filter out all other stations
– Demodulator has to work with all radio stations
regardless of carrier frequency
 Features
i. Simplicity of operation.
ii. Good Fidelity.
iii. Good Selectivity.
iv. Average Sensitivity.
v. Adaptability to different types of Aerials.
 Classification of Radio Receivers

Depending upon application

• AM Receivers - receive broadcast of speech or music
from AM transmitters which operate on long wave,
medium wave or short wave bands.

• FM Receivers – receive broadcast programs from FM

transmitters which operate in VHF or UHF bands.
• Principles

– Frequency Spectrum Sharing (many

transmitters using one medium)

– Demodulating desired signal and rejecting other

signals transmitted at the same time
 Receivers

•Radio system should be able to receive any

type of audio source simultaneously.

• Different stations with different sources

transmit signals simultaneously.

• Different listeners tune to different stations

simultaneously.
 Basic Functions of A M Receivers
i. Reception.
ii. Selection.
iii. Detection.
iv. Reproduction.
Types of Receiver:

1. Tuned Radio-Frequency (TRF) or Straight

Receivers
2. Superheterodyne Receiver.
 Noncoherent Tuned Radio-Frequency Receiver

Antenna
coupling RF RF RF
network amp. amp. amp.

• Difficult to tune
• Q remains
constant  filter
Audio Audio
bandwidth varies
detector amplifier

Nonuniform selectivity
 ?
• For an AM receiver commercial broad cast
band receiver (535KHz to 1.605MHz) with an
input filter Q factor of 54 , determine the
bandwidth at the low and high ends of RF
spectrum
 f 540
Band width at low frequency B= = = 10 KHz
Q Q

f 1600
Band width at high frequency B= = = 29630 Hz
Q 54
-3dB band width at low frequency is 10KHz but at high frequency 3 times that of the
low frequencies.

Tuning at high end of the spectrum three stations would be received

simultaneously.

To achieve band width of 10KHz at high frequencies a Q of 160dB is required but

with a Q of 160 the band width at low frequencies is
f 540
B= = = 3375Hz
Q 160
It is too selective and band rejection will takes place.
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Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver:

• Composed of RF amplifiers and detectors.

• No frequency conversion

• It is not often used.

• Difficult to design tunable RF stages.

• Difficult to obtain high gain RF amplifiers

TRF - non uniform selective

Heterodyne receiver Gain

Selectivity
Sensitivity

Heterodyne Mix two frequencies together in a non linear device.

Translate one frequency to another using non linear

mixing

Heterodyne receiver has five sections

 SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER

A superheterodyne receiver, often shortened to

superhet, is a type of radio receiver that uses
frequency mixing to convert a received signal to a
fixed intermediate frequency (IF) which can be
more conveniently processed than the original
carrier frequency. It was invented by US engineer
Edwin Armstrong in 1918 during World War I.
Virtually all modern radio receivers use the super
heterodyne principle
"Superheterodyne" is a contraction of "supersonic
heterodyne", where "supersonic" indicates
frequencies above the range of human hearing.
The word heterodyne is derived from the Greek
roots hetero- "different", and -dyne "power". In
radio applications the term derives from the
"heterodyne detector" pioneered by Canadian
inventor Reginald Fessenden in 1905, describing
his proposed method of producing an audible
signal from the Morse code transmissions of the
new continuous wave transmitters.
The French engineer Lucien Lévy filed a patent
application for the superheterodyne principle in August
1917. The American Edwin Howard Armstrong also filed
a patent in 1917. Levy filed his original disclosure about
seven months before Armstrong's. The German inventor
Walter H. Schottky also filed a patent in 1918. At first
the US recognized Armstrong as the inventor, and his US
Patent 1,342,885 was issued on 8 June 1920. After
various changes and court hearings Levy was awarded a
US patent No 1,734,938 that included seven of the nine
claims in Armstrong's application, while the two
remaining claims were granted to Alexanderson of GE
and Kendall of AT&T.
 Mixer / Converter
Section

RF Section Mixer IF Section

Pre RF Band pass IF

selector amplifier filter Amplifier

IF signal
RF signal

Local
Oscillator

Gang tuning
Audio amplifier Audio detector
Section Section

Audio AM
speaker Amplifier Detector

Audio Frequencies
 Mixer / Converter
Section

RF Section Mixer IF Section

Pre RF Band pass IF

selector amplifier filter Amplifier

IF signal
RF signal

Local
Oscillator

Gang tuning
Audio amplifier Audio detector
Section Section

Audio AM
speaker Amplifier Detector

Audio Frequencies
Super-hetrodyne Receiver:

• Downconvert RF signal to lower IF frequency

Main amplification takes place at IF

Communication Receiver:

• Downconvert RF signal to two IF frequency

➢ A Radio Frequency (RF) section

➢ An RF-to-IF converter (mixer)

➢ An Intermediate Frequency (IF) section

➢ Demodulator

➢ Audio amplifier
RF section

Mixer / converter section

IF section

Audio detector Section

Audio amplifier Section

 RF Section

Amplifier stage
Pre-selector

It determines the sensitivity of the

Broad tuned band pass filter with receiver.
adjustable frequency that is tuned
to carrier frequency

RF amplifier is the first active Receiver may have one

device in the network it is the or more RF amplifier
Reduces the noise primary contributor to the depending on the
Provide initial
bandwidth of the noise. And it is the predominant desired sensitivity.
band limiting to
receiver and provides factor in determining the noise
prevent specific
the initial step toward figure.
unwanted radio
reducing the over all
frequency called
receiver bandwidth to
image frequency
the minimum bandwidth
from entering into Due to RF amplifier
required to pass the
receiver. Greater gain and better sensitivity
information signal.
Improved image frequency rejection
Better signal to noise ratio
Better selectivity.
 RF
Amplifier
 Demodulation process:

High frequency Frequency RF → IF IF→ source information

signal translation

RF for commercial
AM broadcast band 535 – 1605 KHz and IF
broadcast purpose
450 – 460 KHz.

FM broadcast band 88 – 108 MHz and IF

10.7MHz

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 MIXER OR CONVERTER SECTION

1. Local oscillator
2. Mixer

Mixer stage is a nonlinear device

Convert radio frequencies to Radio frequencies are down

intermediate frequency converted to intermediate frequency

Heterodyning takes place in the Carrier and sidebands are translated

mixer stage. to high frequencies without effecting
the envelope of message signal.

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 Frequency Similar to that Frequencies
conversion of modulator are down
stage converted.

Frequency The difference between the Rf and Local

conversion oscillator frequency is always constant IF

The adjustment for the center frequency of the

preselector and the adjustment for local
oscillator are gang tuned.

The two adjustments are mechanically tied together and single adjustment will change the center
frequency of the pre selector and the local oscillator

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 High side injection Low side injection

Local oscillator frequency is Local oscillator frequency is

tuned above RF tuned below RF

f LO = fRf - fIF
f LO = fRf + fIF

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 Receiver RF input (535 – 1605 kHz)
RF-to-IF conversion
Preselector
535 - 565 kHz

535 545 555 565 kHz

Mixer
Oscillator
1005 kHz
high-side
injection
440 450 460 470 kHz IF filter (fLO > fRF)
450 – 460
flo = f RF + f IF kHz

450 460 kHz IF Filter output

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Frequency Mixer and
Oscillator

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 Frequency Conversion

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 535 540 545 550 555 560 565

440 445 450 455 460 465 470

Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel 3

450 455 460

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 For an AM super heterodyne receiver that uses high side injection and has a local
oscillator frequency of 1355KHz determine the IF carrier upper side frequency,
and lower side frequency for an RF wave that is made up of a carrier and upper
and lower side bands 900 and 905 and 895KHz respectively

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 895 900 905
In KHz ch-2 Mixer / Converter
Section
RF Section
IF Section

Pre RF Band pass IF

selector amplifier filter Amplifier

450 455 460

Local In KHz ch-2
oscillator

Ganged tuning

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 LOCAL OSCILLATOR TRACKING:

TRACKING:
It is the ability of the local oscillator in a receiver to oscillate either above or below the
selected radio frequency carrier by an amount equal to the IF frequency through the
entire radio frequency band.

High side injection: Local oscillator frequency frf+fif

Low side injection: Local oscillator frequency frf-fif

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 Tracking

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 Preselector
PRESELECTOR AND LOCAL OSCILLATOR
Preselector
Tuned circuit RF output
Gang tuning

Ls LO output Local
frequency oscillator
tuned circuit
Lp
Ct Ls
Lp Lp Ct Co
Co

TRACKING CURVE

Three point tracking

Poor tracking

Ideal tracking

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600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
The tuned ckt in the preselector is tunable from the center frequency from 540KHz to
1600 KHz and local oscillator from 995KHz to 2055KHz.( 2.96 to 1)

Tracking error: the difference between the actual local oscillator frequency to the
desired frequency.

The maximum tracking error 3KHz + or -.

Tracking error can be reduced by using three point tracking.

The preselector and local oscillator each have trimmer capacitor ct in parallel with
primary tuning capacitor co that compensates for minor tracking errors in the high end
of AM spectrum.

The local oscillator has additional padder capacitor cp in series with the tuning coil that
compensates for minor tracking errors at the low end of AM spectrum.

With three point tracking the tracking error can be adjusted from 0Hz at approximately
600KHz, 950KHz AND 1500KHz

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 Image frequency : It is any frequency other than the selected radio frequency
carrier that is allowed to enter into the receiver and mix with
the local oscillator will produce cross product frequencies that
is equal to the intermediate frequency.

flo =fsi+fif → fsi=flo-fif when signal frequency is mixed with oscillator

frequency one of the by products is the difference frequency which is passed
to the amplifier in the IF stage.

The frequency fim= flo+fsi the image frequency will also produce fsi when
mixed with fo .

For better image frequency rejection a high IF is preferred.

If intermediate frequency is high it is very difficult to design stable amplifiers.

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 2fif

fif fif

IF RF LO IM
SF
frequency

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 Image frequency rejection ratio
It is the numerical measure of the ability of the preselector to reject the image
frequency.

Single tuned amplifier the ratio of the gain at the desired RF to the gain at the
image frequency.

IFRR = (1 + Q 2  2
 f im   f RF 
 =   −  
 f RF   f im 
If multiple amplifiers are there the IFRR is nothing but the product of IFRRs of
the individual stages.

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 ?
• In a broadcast superheterodyne receiver
having no RF amplifier, the loaded Q of the
antenna coupling circuit (at the input of the
mixer ) is 100. If the intermediate frequency is
455kHz, calculate the image frequency and its
rejection ratio at(a) 1000 kHz and (b) 25 MHz.

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 For an AM broad cast band super heterodyne receiver with If, RF, LO
frequencies are 455KHz, 600KHz, 1055KHz determine
1. Image frequency
2. IFRR for a preselector Q of 100

Fim = flo+fif

Fim = frf+2fif

Fim= 1510 kHz.

ρ= 2.113

IFRR= 211.3

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 For citizens band receiver using high side injection with an RF carrier of 27MHZ and IF
center frequency of 455KHz determine

1. LO frequency
2. Image frequency
3. IFRR for a preselector Q of 100
4. Preselector Q required to achieve the same IFRR as that achieved for an RF carrier of
600KHz input.

Ans:
1. 27.455MHz
2. 27.91MHz
3. 6.77
4. 3167.

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 Double spotting : it occurs when the receiver picks up the same station at two
near by points on the receiver tuning dial.
It is caused by poor front end selectivity and inadequate image frequency
rejection.

Weak stations are overshadowed.

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 Choice of IF : Factors
If the IF is too high
I. Poor Selectivity and Poor adjacent channel
rejection.
II. Tracking Difficulties.
If the IF is too low
I. Image frequency rejection becomes poorer.
II. Selectivity too sharp and cutting off sidebands
III. Instability of oscillator will occur.

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 Frequencies Used
1. Standard broadcast AM : 455 kHz (465 kHz).
2. AM,SSB ( shortwave reception ) is about 1.6 -2.3
MHz
3. FM (88-108 MHz): 10.7 MHz.
4. Television Rx: ( VHF band 54-223MHz and UHF
band 470-940 MHz): Between 26 and 46 MHz.
5. Microwave and RADAR ( 1-10GHz): 30,60,70MHz.

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IF AMPLIFIER

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 Detector and AVC
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 Tone Compensation
Volume Control

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 Detector using
Transistor
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 Tone Control

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 Tuning Control

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 Example fim = flo + f IF
IFRR = (1 + Q2  2 ) fim = f RF + 2 f IF
 = ( fim / f RF ) − ( f RF / fim )

IFRR = 211.3  Q (600 kHz) = 100 (Simple preselector)

Low Q

455 kHz 1055

600 1510

IF RF LO Image

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 Example fim = flo + f IF
IFRR = (1 + Q2  2 ) fim = f RF + 2 f IF
 = ( fim / f RF ) − ( f RF / fim )

IFRR = 211.3  Q (27 MHz) = 3167

Q (600 kHz) = 100
Low Q High Q
27.455
455 kHz 1055 27 MHz
600 1510
27.91

IF RF LO Image RF LO Image
Solution: Use higher IF frequencies
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 Gain and Loss
RF-section
Mixer
RF
Preselector
amplifier

oscillator

Bandpass Audio Audio

IF amplifier
filter detector amplifier

IF-section
Use dB !!!
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