HIGHERNATIONAL

DIPLOMA

UNIT TITLE:
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY:
APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE 1
UNIT CODE:
D75X34

FLEETWOOD
NAUTICAL
CAMPUS
SQA HND Nautical Science

Part One

Basic Concepts of Information Technology

Goals

To give the individual an understanding of the key concepts of computers and

their uses in society

To give the individual familiarity with the laws and regulations affecting the
use of, and the users of, computers and information storage systems

To give the individual an awareness of the health and safety considerations of

using computers

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Section 1: Component parts of a computer
The terms 'computer', or 'computer systems' refer to everything that is needed in
order to make a computer work. The three main subsystems are:-

• Core hardware
• Peripheral hardware
• Software and I or Firmware

Core hardware
refers to any part Moni or ..""
n
of the actual <::

computer which
has a 'real world'
existence, that is
to say it can be
seen and touched.
Peripheral
hardware is
hardware that is
attached to the
computer but is
0\1
not essential for
its operation, such AROUND YOUR PC
as a printer, a
scanner or a flash
drive

Let's take a look at the main components of a typical desktop computer:

Central processing unit (CPU) -

The microprocessor "brain" of the North Bridge Processor Socket
computer system is called the
central processing unit. It's a chip
that holds a complete computational
engine. It uses assembly language
as its native language. Everything
th·at a computer does is overseen
and controlled by the CPU.

Motherboard-
This is the main circuit board to
which all of the other internal
components connect. The 'Chipset'
is a group of chips consisting of the
North and South Bridges, and _
ancillary chips that tell the South Bndge
motherboard what it is, how it works, and what type of CPU it is looking for.

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64 bit CPU

The CPU and memory are usually on the

motherboard. Other systems may be found
directly on the motherboard or connected to it
through a secondary connection. For
example, a sound card can be built into the
motherboard or connected through an
expansion slot.

Devices that are typically connected to, or

found on, the motherboard are:-
• Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) Controller - This is the primary
interface for the hard drive, CD-ROM and floppy disk drive.
• Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) - This is a very high-speed
connection used by the graphics card to interface with the computer.
• Graphics card - This translates image data from the computer into a
format that can be displayed by the monitor. Some graphics cards have
their own powerful processing units (called a GPU -- graphics
processing unit). The GPU can handle operations that normally would
require the CPU.
• Sound card- This is used by the computer to record and play audio by
converting analog sound into digital information and back again.

Memory - This is very fast storage used to hold data. It has to be fast
because it connects directly to the microprocessor. There are several specific types of
memory in a computer:
• Random-access memory Small Outline Dual lnline
(RAM) - Used to temporarily Memory Module (SoDIMM) RAM Memory
store information with which the
computer is currently working
• Read-only memory (ROM) - A
permanent type of memory
storage used by the computer for
important data that doesn't
change
• Basic input/output system (BIOS) - A type of ROM that is used by
the computer to establish basic communication when the computer is
first powered on
• Caching - The storing of frequently used data in extremely fast RAM
that connects- directly to the CPU
• Virtual memory- Space on a hard disk used to temporarily store data
and swap it in and out of RAM as needed
• Flash memory - a solid state storage device, Flash memory requires
no moving parts and retains data even after the computer powers off

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Hard disk - This is large-capacity

permanent storage used to hold
information such as programs and
documents. Traditional hard drives contain
moving parts-- the drive has platters
on which it stores data. The drive
spins the platters to record and read
data. But some newer hard drives are
flash-based with no moving parts. These
drives are called solid- state drives.

Ports-
In computer hardware terms, a port is Accelerated Graphics Port
an interface that allows a computer to (AGP)
communicate with peripheral equipment.

USB Port-
The most common type of port today is
the Universal Serial Bus Port (USB)
which is used to connect virtually every
peripheral device possible printers, '·-
mouse, keyboard, scanner, flash memory
etc etc.
USB
Connector

Real-time clock - Every PC has a clock containing a vibrating crystal. By

referring to this clock, all the components in a computer can synchronize
properly.

Complementary Metal-oxide Semiconductor - The CMOS and CMOS battery

allow a computer to store information even when the computer powers down. The
battery provides uninterrupted power.

Power supply-
All electrical transformer, diode bridge rectifiers
and Field Effect Transistors (FET) regulate the
electricity used by the computer. The type of
power supply used is called Switch Mode
which diverts the most current to where it
is needed for a given load. This makes it
potentially dangerous to handle when
exposed as the device can deliver
lethal currents. Never work on a live
computer PSU unless you have been
specifically trained to do so.

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Peripheral Devices

There are a great many peripheral devices that are attached to computers. Some
are requirements, some are optional but so common as to be virtually a requirement,
some are very specialised and only needed by certain groups of people for particular
purposes.

Essential Peripheral Devices

These are typically of the type of device known as an 110 (Input I Output) device,
and consist of means to communicate with the computer. Input devices include
Keyboards, Touch Screens, Tablets and Light Pens, and to some extent that most
common of devices, the Mouse.

Strictly speaking the mouse is a Pointing Device which is used to tell the computer to
'look at' some item of data; however, that item of data may be a set of instructions to
the computer, so it is included as a 110 device.

Output devices include Monitor screens, Printers, Projectors and SoundCards I

Amplifiers I Loudspeakers.

Of these, the only truly essential device is a keyboard, without which the majority of
modern PCs will not start. It is perfectly feasible to control your computer without a
mouse, and provided you have a printer attached you can set the machine to output
not to a screen but instead to a printer. However, this would be extremely
inconvenient, and we can only imagine the frustrations of those early
computer programmers who had to work with punched cards and printers as their
only I/O devices.

Today, the Graphic User Interface (GUI) provides us with on screen Icons (small
images representing actions or files) which we can point at with the mouse and
control the computer in a largely intuitive fashion. Touch screen technology has seen
the introduction of so called ‘Metro’ tiles, which, when combined with various hand
movements across the screen allows the monitor to function as a mouse and a virtual
keyboard. Google, Windows 10 and other software now allows voice control of the
computer as an option.

Specialised Peripheral Devices

These are generally variations of the more common devices which have been
produced in order to allow alternative forms of control. Generally the
computer is instructed to treat the alternative device as the device it replaces, hence
an image of a keyboard on a touch screen is considered by the computer to be
a keyboard, and a pen moving across a Smart Board is considered to be a mouse.

Specialised devices are found in a wide range of applications including overcoming

disability, education, graphic design, architecture, engineering and robotics.

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Computers talking to computers

A Modem (Modulator I DeModulator) is a device that allows computers to exchange
information via some mass media transit system such as telephone. In the
early days the digital information (a string of 1sand Os) was indeed modulated as
an analogue signal (a varying waveform representing the digital signal) and
demodulated at the other end; now, however, the phone service itself can easily
handle digital information so modern Modems do not much more than route the
signal to the appropriate Internet Service Provider (ISP).

The Internet lets us connect to any machine in the world. Because of the relationship
between your computer, the ISP and the Internet, it is no longer appropriate to
send individual characters. Instead, your modem is routing TCPIIP (Transfer
Control Protocol I Internet Protocol) digital data packets (a datagram) between you and
your ISP.

The standard technique for routing these packets through your modem is called
the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). The basic idea is simple -- your computer's TCPIIP
stack forms its TCPIIP datagrams and then the datagrams are handed to the modem
for transmission to the ISP. The ISP receives each datagram and routes it
appropriately onto the Internet. The same process occurs to get data from the ISP
to your computer.

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Section 2: Data Handling

Software and Firmware
These are just another name for types of computer program. A program is a listing of
codes which give the computer instructions on what to do and how to do it. Software
is stored on some form of storage medium until required (hard disk, flash drive) and
then loaded into memory for operation; firmware is hard wired into a device, such as
the BIOS instructions which tell the computer what it is and how to start up.

Two main varieties of software are found:-

1. Operating Systems (OS), which tell the computer how to work and handle
data, such as Microsoft Windows , Unix, Linux Mac OS X, Apple iOS,
and Android
2. Applications, which the computer uses to perform specific tasks such as
Word Processing, Spreadsheets, Graphics and Databases.

Operating Systems
An operating system creates the ability to:
• serve a variety of purposes
• interact with users in more complicated ways
• keep up with needs that change over time
All desktop computers have operating systems. The most common are the Windows
family of operating systems developed by Microsoft, the Macintosh operating
systems developed by Apple and the UNIX family of operating systems (which
have been developed by a whole history of individuals, corporations and
collaborators). There are hundreds of other operating systems available for
special-purpose applications, including specializations for mainframes, robotics,
manufacturing, real-time control systems and so on.
In any device that has an operating system, there's usually a way to make changes to
how the device works. This is far from a happy accident; one of the reasons
operating systems are made out of portable code rather than permanent physical
circuits is so that they can be changed or modified without having to scrap the whole
device.

For a desktop computer user, this means you can add a new security update, system
patch, new application or even an entirely new operating system rather than junk your
computer and start again with a new one when you need to make a change (although it
must be said that occasionally radical redesign of an OS makes it impractical to perform
an upgrade install and a clean install from a reformatted hard disk is required – for
example upgrading from Windows XP to Windows 8. In order to do this, all files must be
safely backed up, the hard disc wiped, the new OS installed and all files and applications
reinstalled). As long as you understand how an operating system works and how to get at
it, in many cases you can change some of the ways it behaves.

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At the simplest level, an operating system does two things:

1. It manages the hardware and software resources of the system. In a desktop
computer, these resources include such things as the processor, memory,
disk space and more.
2. It provides a stable, consistent way for applications to deal with the hardware
without having to know all the details of the hardware.

The first task, managing the hardware and software

resources, is very important, as various programs and
input methods compete for the attention of the central
processing unit (CPU) and demand memory, storage and
input/output (1/0) bandwidth for their own purposes. In this
capacity, the operating system plays the role of the good
parent, making sure that each application gets the
necessary resources while playing nicely with all the other
applications, as well as husbanding the limited capacity of
the system to the greatest good of all the users and ©2008 HowStuffWorks
applications.

The second task, providing a consistent application interface, is especially important if

there is to be more than one of a particular type of computer using the operating
system, or if the hardware making up the computer is ever open to change. A
consistent application program interface (API) allows a software developer to write an
application on one computer and have a high level of confidence that it will run on
another computer of the same type, even if the amount of memory or the quantity of
storage is different on the two machines.
Even if a particular computer is unique, an operating system can ensure that
applications continue to run when hardware upgrades and updates occur. This is
because the operating system -- not the application -- is charged with managing the
hardware and the distribution of its resources. One of the challenges facing
developers is keeping their operating systems flexible enough to run hardware
from the thousands of vendors manufacturing computer equipment. Today's
systems can accommodate thousands of different printers, disk drives and special
peripherals in any possible combination.

Programming
Once upon a time, if you wanted your computer to actually do something, you had to
write a program. A program is just a series of code instructions that tell the computer
what to do and in what sequence.

The computer does not understand English or any other human language, only a
series of 'On' and 'Off' instructions (Binary Code), represented by 1 and 0. In order to
turn a human language into something the computer does understand, an
intermediate program is required, known as a Compiler. A High Level Compiler
takes instructions in a language (a High Level Language) that looks vaguely like
English (or French or whatever) – and turns it into a code called Machine Code which
a Low Level Complier turns into Binary Code.

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Many computer languages have been developed over the years, many for specific
purposes (Cobol, C++, Java, HTML) and some for generic programming uses (Pascal,
Basic).

Here is a simple code fragment from Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) to stop an
Access Database showing warnings when an event occurs:-

DoCmd. Set Warnings = False

VBA is a High Level Language, and you can clearly see that it is indeed almost
English, certainly close enough to be able to understand what it says. However, the
specific format of the instruction (the syntax) is always critical.

This line of code would not work

DoCmd. Set Warnings: False

Today most programming applications allow the user to select actions from a menu,
or even to copy keystrokes from the keyboard, and the application writes the
code for you. Once the province of highly trained programmers, now even Primary
School students can create websites with no knowledge of programming HTML
whatsoever.

Data Storage

We have so far considered only how data is stored in a physical medium such as a
Hard Disk; we have not looked at what form that storage takes or how we can store and
subsequently access our data.

Bytes, Bits and Nibbles

A Bit is the smallest piece of data that can be stored, and consists of a single digital 1
or 0 - a single instruction to the computer. It is common to group bits into 8 bit blocks
(1 Byte); half a byte is known as a Nibble. 8 bits in a byte a!lows the storage of up
to 256 instructions using all the various combinations from 00000000 to 11111111

The Standard ASCII Character Set

Bytes are frequently used to hold individual characters in a text document.

In the ASCII character set, each binary value between 0 and 127 is given a specific
character. The first 32 values (0 through 31) are codes for things like carriage return
and line feed. The space character is the 33rd value, followed by punctuation, digits,
uppercase characters and lowercase characters.

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Most computers extend the ASCII character set to use the full range of 256 characters
available in a byte. The upper 128 characters handle special things like accented
characters from common foreign languages.

Computers store text documents, both on disk and in memory, using these codes.
For example, if you use Notepad in Windows to create a text file containing the
words, "Now is the winter of our discontent," Notepad would use 1 byte of
memory per character (including 1 byte for each space character between the
words -- ASCII character 32). When Notepad stores the sentence in a file on disk,
the file will also contain 1 byte per character and per space.

Try this experiment: Open up a new file in Notepad and insert the sentence, "Now is
the winter of our discontent" in it. Save the file to disk under the name henry.txt. Then
use the Explorer and look at the size of the file.

You will find that the file has a size of 35 bytes on disk: 1 byte for each character.
If you add another word to the end of the sentence and re-save it, the file size will
jump to the appropriate number of bytes. Each character consumes a byte.

If you were to look at the file as a computer looks at it, you would find that each
byte contains not a letter but a number -- the number is the ASCII code
corresponding to the character. We could expand these decimal numbers out to
binary numbers (so 32 = 00100000) if we wanted to be technically correct-- that is
how the computer really deals with things.

Files
A file is just a collection of Bytes arranged in sequence with a title which the
computer can use to identify and locate it. Earlier Operating Systems used a File
Allocation Table (FAT) to connect a file specifically to an area on the storage
medium (a Sector). A large file may spread over several sectors. Modern file
handling techniques, such as the Windows New Technology File System (NTFS)
instead index the file and keep track of it by its index. An analogy would be an
old Librarian knowing the position of every book on the shelf while the young upstart
finds the book by looking in the filing system. The great advantage of indexing is
that, provided the index, which is attached to the file, is not deleted, the file can
always be found; were the FAT to become corrupted no file could ever be
found. However, if the physical storage location, such as a cluster on a hard drive,
were to be damaged then either system would be unable to access the file.

Each system has its limitations; NTFS is not cross platform, Apple and Android use their
own file systems, and Linux, while able to read NTFS also has its own methods. FAT32
is cross platform, but Windows will only format a hard drive with FAT32 to a maximum of
32Gb. Many cross platform multimedia devices such as PVR television recorders,
Games Consoles, Music storage streamers etc. rely on the versatility of FAT32 but
special Third Party software is required to format the very large drives (up to 4Tb [4
million, million bytes]) required by these systems. Filenames are made up of three parts;
the file path, the filename and the extension.

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The File Path tells the computer where to look for the file. The first part identifies the
physical location, such as C:\ (usually the main Hard Disk) or www:\ (the World Wide Web).
Subsequent parts identify the route to the file along the Directory Tree.

The directory tree

It would be inconvenient and cumbersome if every file were stored in one place.
Instead, the user can set up a directory tree in which the basic hard drive C:\ is called
the Root Directory and sub directories branch off it, like the branches of a tree. In order to
direct the computer to the file, it needs to know which branches to take, rather like giving
road directions.

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The Windows 8 Metro

Tiles

Whereas once it was necessary to locate a file from the directory structure,
most modern GUIs allow some sort of direct access from the start screen,
called the Desktop, to folders containing the files required. Applications are
typically started directly from icons on the desktop

The Filename
The filename is the actual name by which the user knows his or her file. Older file
systems limited the name to 8 characters, but now it is permissible to have longer
and more descriptive names up to a maximum of 64 characters. The entire path,
name and extension must not exceed 255 characters. The filename itself must not
include any of the following:-

Backslash \
Less than <
More than >
Asterisk *
Full Stop .
Question Mark ?
Quotation Mark “
Colon :
The Macintosh Desktop
Semi Colon ;
Pipe |

as these have a specific function within the operating system

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The Filename
The filename is the actual name by which the user knows his or her file. Older file
systems limited the name to 8 characters, but now it is permissible to have longer and
more descriptive names up to a maximum of 64 characters. The entire path, name
and extension must not exceed 255 characters. The filename itself must not include
any of the following:-

Backslash \
Less than <
More than >
Asterisk *
Full Stop .
Question Mark ?
Quotation Mark "
Colon :
Semi Colon ;
Pipe |

as these have a specific function within the operating system

The Filename Extension

The extension is an addition to the filename consisting of four or five
characters, the first of which is the Full Stop (Period, Dot) sign. The extension is used
to describe the type of data to be found in the file and helps the application decide
how to handle it. Most extensions are applied automatically and for all
practical purposes can remain hidden from the user. Changing the extension will not
change the data type and could render the file unusable.

Common extensions are:-

.doc A document created in Word up to XP

.docx A document created in Word 2007 or later
.pps A Powerpoint Presentation created in all versions up to XP
.ppsx A Powerpoint Show created in Powerpoint 2007 or later
.ppsm A Powerpoint Show containing executable code (a Macro)
.exe An Executable File (a Program)
.com A Machine Code Program or an Internet Address extension
..bak A backup file
.sys A system file
.jpg A graphics file (one of many different formats available)
.mp4 A multimedia movie file
.vob A DVD Video file

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Section 3: Security, Copyright and the Law

Data Loss and Backups
Backup procedures guard against the accidental loss or corruption of data. All
computer users should, as a matter of routine, set aside time to create and maintain
backup files. This process will guard against damage, network problems, virus, power
cuts or hard disk I computer 'crashes'.

It is of no benefit to save backup files to the same location as the working files.
Some people have a secondary hard drive in their computer which 'ghosts' the
primary hard drive by automatically copying all the data from the master. This is all
well and good, but were there to be a fire, flood or other physical catastrophe the
backup would be lost along with the master drive.

Better solutions include:-

• Storing to a network drive. Most network administrators make full
backups of all network drives daily and keep hard copy backups in
secure and protected locations which should survive the above
mentioned disasters
• Backing up to a portable hard drive or flash drive. Flash drives of
16GigaByte (16GB, 16 000 000 000 bytes) capacity are now available
which is more than adequate for most domestic purposes. Portable
hard drives in the TeraByte range (1TB = 1 000 000 000 000 bytes) are
also now available, which is enough to store the average movie
collection
• Backing up to other removable media such as CD or DVD ROM.
• Backing up. to a 'cloud' storage. These are servers operated by ISPs
and other internet service organisations such as Amazon (who will
back up all your music etc. to their cloud). Often this is offered as a
free facility, and, being internet based means you can access your
cloud stored files from any internet connected device - PC, Tablet,
Smart Phone etc. However, it does rely on your having an internet
connection of reasonable speed.
• Other internet backup solutions in the form of software provision, for
example Dropbox, which allows you to share files with other
subscribers and automatically keep your shared files synchronised.

Autosaving
Most commercial applications today have autosave facilities which periodically save the
latest version of a file being used. The interval at which these saves occur can be
specified by the user. However, whilst this is a useful facility it is still a sensible
precaution to manually save your work at frequent intervals, and especially if large
changes have been made.

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Power Failures
In the event of a power cut the working memory of the computer will be cleared
and unsaved data will be lost. Whilst regular backups and saves will minimise the
disruption, continuity of activity can only be assured by the use of an Uninterruptible
Power Supply (UPS) which uses batteries to back up mains power supplies until
either the computer can be shut down properly or the mains power is restored.

Viruses
Viruses and other malicious code (Malware) can cause enormous damage to data.
Virus severity ranges from mere inconvenience (the NIMDA virus, whilst being a pain
in the proverbial does little or no damage to the host) to the devastating destruction of
hard disks and all the data it contains.

Viruses come in many forms, the most common being:-

• True Viruses A true virus can only spread from one computer to
another (in some form of executable code) when its host is taken to the
target computer; for instance because a user sent it over a network or
the Internet, or carried it on a removable medium such as a floppy disk,
CD, DVD, or USB drive. Viruses can increase their chances of
spreading to other computers by infecting files on a network file system
or a file system that is accessed by another computer
• Tapeworms (or worms). These exist mainly to self- replicate using
your machine as a host. They make numerous copies of themselves,
filling up the hard disk and slowing the computer to a crawl, and then
email themselves to everyone in your address book. They exploit
vulnerabilities in security settings and systems to propagate and, unlike
a true virus, does not need the host to be taken to the target.
• Trojans. Named after the famous strategy of the Trojan Horse, these
viruses conceal themselves inside other, legitimate programs and
strike at the appropriate moment. Like worms, they replicate and spread
through emails, shared files, networks and other contacts
• Spyware. Spyware is a form of malicious code that loads as a Trojan
and resides on your computer, monitoring all forms of activity such as
keystrokes and internet addresses. The spy at the other end can, for
example, watch as you key your credit card number into the computer
for an online_ transaction. While the term spyware suggests software
that secretly monitors the user's behavior, the functions of spyware
extend well beyond simple monitoring. Spyware programs can also
interfere with user control of the computer in other ways, such as
installing additional software and redirecting Web browser activity.
Spyware is known to change computer settings, resulting in slow
connection speeds, different home pages, and/or loss of Internet or
functionality of other programs. In an attempt to increase the
understanding of spyware, a more formal classification of its included
software types is captured under the term privacy-invasive software.

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Not all spyware is malicious - data m1n1ng uses your browsing history to suggest
sites or products that may be of interest to you, and cookies (small items of code
stored on your computer) help sites to remember you and streamline your browsing
experience. These are known as Spy Robots (Spybots). When you visit a site such
as Amazon and it opens with "Hello Fred Bloggs, we have recommendations for
you" what you are seeing is Cookies and Data Mining in action. Not all of
these are desired and an excellent freeware product, Spybot Search and Destroy,
will kill them very easily.

Some Trojans are of the type called Not Usually Required (NUR) software; A common
form is encountered when downloading and installing fre'eware. Unbeknown to the
installer there is a Trojan (or several) bundled into the free ware package which
typically includes a Browser Hijacker, which replaces your own Internet Browser, for
example Chrome, with something like Babylon. These hijackers do not do any
damage but they ruin your browsing experience with endless unwanted
advertisements. They are generally very difficult to remove as they user RootKits to
embed themselves in the operating system so they can avoid antivirus software. A
Registry Cleaner with anti-rootkit features is usually needed. Other hijackers
commonly found are media player hijackers, email system hijackers and cloud storage
hijackers.

Virus Protection
Anti-virus protection can and should be installed on all computers to safeguard
against damage. As new viruses are being created and defeated on a daily basis it
is essential to keep the protection up to date. A good virus protection package will
monitor all activity, scan new files or sited for known viruses, quarantine or deleted
detected threats and warn about potential spy and other malware.

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Data Security by Passwords

In most organizations the System Administrator will use a system of
passwords to safeguard the computer system against unauthorized use or abuse.
Usually an operator will be required to enter a password to access (Log On) the
system, and further passwords may be required to access specific software or
facilities. ·

The extent to which an operator has access to data will depend upon the Permissions
the Administrator has granted to that particular individual. Most computer systems
will keep a log of who has accessed, or attempted to access, what. Permissions
can range from Full Administrator Access, which allows access to all data and
functionality, to limited Read Only Access in which the user is only able to open and
read certain files but cannot make any changes to them.

Most software packages also incorporate some form of Password facility in order to
allow the creator of a file a measure of control over who reads or modifies the data
contained within it.

Good Security Measures

Good security is the cornerstone of good computing. In order to ensure good security
organizations should take into account that:-

• Secure premises are required for storage of both computers and data
• Good programs of backup protection should be followed
• Backup copies need to be stored securely away from main copies
• Access control is implemented via passwords and other security
measures
• Data access should be limited to those with a 'need to know'
• Data encryption will help to limit unauthorized access
• Contingency plans are in place for power loss or other catastrophe
• Up To Date Anti-Virus software is an essential not a luxury

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Copyright and Copyright Law

Copyright is a law that protects the work of an author or artist. Information that is
subject to copyright cannot be used without the permission of the copyright
owner.

The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) is a United States copyright law that
implements two 1996 treaties of the World Intellectual Property Organisation
(WIPO). It criminalizes production and dissemination of technology, devices, or
services intended to circumvent measures (commonly known as Digital Rights
Management or DRM) that control access to copyrighted works. It also
criminalizes the act of circumventing an access control, whether or not there is
actual infringement of copyright itself. In addition, the DMCA heightens the
penalties for copyright infringement on the Internet.

In the UK, the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 sets out the rights of the
creator or inventor of a literary, dramatic or musical work, and the Copyright
(Computer Programs) Regulations 1992 extends the definition of literary work to include
computer programs. These regulations state that "The owner of the copyright in a
work of any description has the exclusive right to do the acts specified in Chapter II
as the acts restricted by the copyright in a work of that description" The acts specified
in Chapter II are:-

a) to copy the work

b) to issue copies of the work to the public
c) to perform, show or play the work in public
d) to broadcast the work or include it in a cable programme service
e) to make an adaptation of the work or do any of the above in relation to an
adaptation

On 1 June 2014 three new statutory instruments came into force in the UK, amending
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Implementing EU Directive 2001/29,
these statutory instruments updated the exceptions and limitations to the rights of
performers and copyright around Research, Education, Libraries and Archives;
Disability; and Public Administration. The updated Research, Education, Libraries and
Archives regulation extends the copyright exception for students and libraries from just
literary and artistic works to all forms of copyright works. Text and data-mining will also
be permitted for non-commercial research purposes, where the researcher has the
right to access the material. The existing exception for fair dealing for instruction
purposes is extended to include copying of small amounts of material using modern
technology, rather than just by hand.

On May 22, 2001, the European Union passed the EU Copyright Directive or EUCD,
which addresses some of the same issues as the DMCA. But the DMCA's principal
innovation in the field of copyright, the exemption from direct and indirect liability of
internet service providers and other intermediaries (Title II of the DMCA), was
separately addressed, and largely followed, in Europe by means of the separate
Electronic Commerce Directive.

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The copyright law of the European Union has arisen in an attempt to harmonise the
differing copyright laws of European Union member states. It consists of a number of
Directives, which the member states are obliged to enact into their national laws, and by
the judgments of the European Court of Justice and the Court of First Instance.

The first major step taken by the European Economic Community to harmonise copyright
laws came with the decision to apply common standard for the copyright protection of
computer programs, enacted in the directive on the legal protection of computer
programs (91/250/EEC) in 1991. A common term of copyright protection, 70 years
from the death of the author was agreed in 1993 as the directive harmonizing the term
of protection of copyright and certain related rights (931981EEC).

Software programs are copyrighted and it is illegal to copy them, or part of them,
without permission. It is also illegal to attempt to decompile them to see what 'makes
them tick' or attempt to reverse engineer the code to make it do something else. All
these prohibitions and conditions of use are set out in the End User Licence
Agreement (EULA) that is displayed as part of the installation process.

Before copying or engineering any software, therefore, consider:-

• Freeware may be freely copied without restriction

• Shareware may also be freely copied but often a small, sometimes
voluntary, contribution should be made to the costs of the original
developer
• It is permissible to make a backup of software disks for the personal
use of the purchaser only
• Copying of a program for financial gain is an offence
• Copying a program for personal use is an offence
• Some software licences permit the use of multiple copies but only
under controlled conditions. You may be permitted to copy certain
software for use at home in connection with your work provided that
both copies are not used simultaneously
• The penalties for breaches of the regulations may result in large fines
and civil lawsuits.

Before buying or selling second hand software you should:-

• Hand over I receive all original disks and any backup copies
• Hand over I receive all original manuals and licence certificates
• Hand over I receive any online registration numbers or documents
• Where the product was originally purchased on line and downloaded,
notify the manufacturer of the change of ownership so that their
registration records can be amended.

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Most modern software is aware of itself, that is to say it knows its own serial number and
identity. An illegal copy of, for example, Microsoft Word will be detected as soon as you
log onto the Microsoft Website, leading to at the least a refusal by Microsoft to offer any
assistance, and at the worst, prosecution.

Dongles are used by some proprietary vendors as a form

of copy protection or digital rights management, because
it is much harder to replicate a dongle than to copy the
software it authenticates. Many modern dongles are
software dongles and are either built into the device
or provided as a USB PROM (Programmable Read Only
Memory) Drives containing the necessary unlock codes.

Plagiarism
Chambers Dictionary defines a plagiarist as a kind of thief:
"one who steals the thoughts or writings of others and gives them out as his
[sic] own".

• using published work without referencing

• collaborating with any other person when the work is supposed to be
individual
• taking another person's computer file/program
• submitting another person's work as one's own
• the use of unacknowledged material published on the web

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Section 4: The Data Protection Act 1998
(From the website of the Information Commissioners Office) The Data
Protection Act gives individuals the right to know what information is held about them.
It provides a framework to ensure that personal information
is handled properly.

The Act works in two ways. Firstly, it states that anyone who processes personal
information must comply with eight principles, which make sure that personal
information is:

1. Fairly and lawfully processed

2. Processed for limited purposes
3. Adequate, relevant and not excessive
4. Accurate and up to date
5. Not kept for longer than is necessary
6. Processed in line with your rights
7. Secure
8. Not transferred to other countries without adequate protection

The second area covered by the Act provides individuals with important rights,
including the right to find out what personal information is held on computer and
most paper records.

Should an individual or organization feel they're being denied access to

personal information they're entitled to, or feel their information has not been handled
according to the eight principles, they can contact the Information Commissioner's
Office for help. Complaints are usually dealt with informally, but if this isn't possible,
enforcement action can be taken.

Duties of persons who keep data (Data Controllers)

The Data Protection Act doesn't guarantee personal privacy at all costs, but aims to
strike a balance between the rights of individuals and the sometimes competing
interests of those with legitimate reasons for using personal information.

It -applies to some paper records as well as computer records.

This short checklist will help you comply with the Data Protection Act. Being able to
answer 'yes' to every question does not guarantee compliance, and you may need
more advice in particular areas, but it should mean that you are heading in the right
direction.

• Do I really need this information about an individual? Do I know what

I'm going to use it for?
• Do the people whose information I hold know that I've got it, and are
they likely to understand what it will be used for?

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• If I'm asked to pass on personal information, would the people about

whom I hold information expect me to do this?
• Am I satisfied the information is being held securely, whether it's on
paper or on computer? And what about my website? Is it secure?
• Is access to personal information limited to those with a strict need to
know?
• Am I sure the personal information is accurate and up to date?
• Do I delete or destroy personal information as soon as I have no more
need for it?
• Have I trained my staff in their duties and responsibilities under the
Data Protection Act, and are they putting them into practice?
• Do I need to notify the Information Commissioner and if so is my
notification up to date?

Notification of the keeping of Data

Notification is a statutory requirement and every organization that processes personal

information must notify the Information Commissioner's Office (ICO), unless they are
exempt. Failure to notify is a criminal offence.

Notification is the process by which a data controller informs the Information

Commissioner of certain details about their processing of personal information. These
details are used by the Information Commissioner to make an entry describing the
processing in the register of data controllers that is available to the public for
inspection.

The principal purpose of having notification and the public register is transparency
and openness. It is a basic principle of data protection that the public should know (or
should be able to find out) who is carrying out the processing of personal information
as well as other details about the processing (such as for what reason it is being
carried out).

Notification, therefore, serves the interests of individuals in assisting them to

understand how personal information is being processed by data controllers.
It is not, however, intended (nor is it practicable) that the register should contain
very detailed information about a data controller's processing. The aim is to keep
the content at a general level, with sufficient detail to give an overall picture of the
processing. More detail is only necessary to satisfy specific statutory requirements or
where there is particular sensitivity.

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Rights of Individuals on whom Data is kept

• Access to Information
This allows you to find out what information is held about you on a computer
and within some manual records, such as medical records, files held by public
bodies and financial information held by credit reference agencies.

• Correcting information
This allows you to apply to a court to order a data controller to correct, block,
remove or destroy personal details if they are inaccurate or contain
expressions of opinion based on inaccurate information.

• Preventing processing of information

This means you can ask a data controller not to process information about
you that causes substantial unwarranted damage or distress. The data
controller is not always bound to act on the request.

• Preventing unsolicited marketing

This means a data controller is required not to process information about you
for direct marketing purposes if you ask them not to. For example, you have
the right to stop unsolicited mail.

• Preventing automated decision making

This means you can object to decisions made only by automatic means. For
example, where there is no human involvement.

• Claiming compensation
This allows you to claim compensation through the courts from a data
controller for damage, and in some cases distress, caused by any breach of
the act.

• Exempt information
This allows you to ask the ICO to investigate and assess whether the data
controller has breached the act. Please read our, how to complain section,
which explains how to do this.

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Section 5: Health and Safety in Computing

The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974

The 74 Act imposes general obligations upon Employers, Employees,

Manufacturers, Importers and Suppliers to:-

• Provide and maintain safe equipment

• Provide a safe means of storing, transporting and handling hazardous
substances
• Provide a safe place of work
• Provide training, information and instruction to workers
• Use only safe systems of work
• Co-operate with employers and other persons
• Take reasonable care for health and safety

These general obligations are expanded in a variety of subordinate legislation.

The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999

• MHSW extends the powers of the 74 Act

• MHSW covers all places of work
• MHSW requires a 'suitable and sufficient assessment' to be made of all
risks
• MHSW requires the introduction of a Safety Management System
(SMS) where this is not already required by other regulations

The Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare Regulations) 1992

• Requires that the workplace, equipment, devices and systems are

maintained in proper working order. (Regulation 5)

Display Screen Equipment Regulations. 1992

Definitions

• A USER is someone who regularly uses DSE as a significant part of

their normal work
• An OPERATOR is a self-employed User

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Hazards of DSE

• Postural Problems
• Visual Problems

leading to
• Work Related Upper Limb Disorders (WRULDS)
• Spinal damage
• Eyesight effects
• Epilepsy
• Fatigue and Stress

Research has shown that while there is little chance of eyesight being
damaged by DSE, failure to take proper precautions, especially regular rest periods,
can result in temporary trouble in focussing, sore eyes, headaches and adopting
poor postures to gain a better view of the screen

Precautions against problems with DSE

• Sit upright in a comfortable and properly adjusted chair

• Use a wrist support
• Do not sit too far from keyboard or screen
• Use a footrest where necessary
• Ensure the area is well lit with both natural and artificial light
• Ensure the area is well ventilated
• Take frequent breaks, say every 15 minutes, from the screen
• Ensure the screen is free from glare and reflections
• Use contrasting complementary text colours where possible. White
text on a blue background has been found to be best.
• Use Ergonomic software
• Users are entitled to eye tests free of charge, provided by their
employer

Substances Hazardous to Health (Control of Substances Hazardous to

Health Regulations 2002 as amended 2004 et seq.)

What is a Substance Hazardous to Health?

A Substance Hazardous to Health is any Physical agent, Chemical agent or Biological
agent that is capable of causing harm to human physiology. It is understandable to
automatically consider chemicals as the causative agents, but it is important to
appreciate that dusts, fibres and other physical agents can be hazardous ( j u s t think
of Asbestos)

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Toxicity
Toxicity is the ability of a substance to produce injury once it reaches a site on the body.
The degree of harmful effect depends on:-

• The intrinsic harmfulness of the substance

• The level of acute exposure
• The level of chronic exposure
• Route by which the agents enters the body
• Speed of dispersion of the agent through the body
Sources of exposure
Personnel can be exposed to toxicological effects as a result of normal
operational routines, operational necessity, emergency or accident.

Routes of Entry
The toxic agent can enter the body in one of four ways:-

1 Inhalation The agent is breathed in

2 Ingestion The agent is swallowed
3 Injection The agent is forced through the skin
4 Absorption The agent is absorbed through the skin or enters
through a wound

Exposure to substances hazardous to health may occur whilst maintaining, repairing, or

potentially even using, computers.

• Older components may contain PolyChlorinated Phenols (PCPs) which are

toxic and known to cause mutations and sterility in marine organisms
• Many silicon chips contain Beryllium or Beryllia. This is safe unless the chip
is 'cooked' and cracks, releasing Beryllium dust into the
atmosphere. Beryllium is toxic to humans
• Solder fumes contain lead and formaldehyde
• Switch cleaners and other chemicals are potentially hazardous and may also
be flammable

Duties of employees with respect to control measures

Each employee must:-
• Use the control measures that have been provided for him
• Not misuse or abuse anything provided for his health and safety
• Use PPE correctly
• Store and maintain PPE correctly
• Utilized Hygiene and Welfare facilities provided for him
• Remove contaminated clothing before eating, drinking or smoking
• Report all faults, defects and hazardous occurrences
• Co-operate fully with management on all matters relating to health and
safety

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 The birth of the net

The Internet has had a relatively brief, but explosive

history. It grew out of an experiment begun in the
1960's by the U.S. Department of Defence, who
wanted to create a computer network that would
continue to function in the event of a nuclear war. If
part of the network were damaged or destroyed, the
rest of the system still had to work. That network was
ARPANET, developed by Bell Laboratories, which
linked U.S. scientific and academic researchers. It
©Learn the Net.com was the forerunner of today's Internet, and worked on
the principle of distributed control. No one centre had control of the network, and in the event
that a centre was disabled, the rest of the network would automatically route around it. Not
only was it the birth of the Internet, but also the telecoms system we know today.

In 1985, the National Science Foundation (NSF) created NSFNET, a series of networks for
research and education communication. Based on ARPANET protocols, the NSFNET
created a national backbone service, provided free to any U.S. research and educational
institution. At the same time, regional networks were created to link individual institutions with
the national backbone service.

NSFNET grew rapidly as people discovered its potential and as new software applications
were created to make access easier. Corporations such as Sprint and MCI began to build
their own networks that they linked to NSFNET. As commercial firms and other regional
network providers have taken over the operation of the major Internet arteries, NSF has
withdrawn from the backbone business.

NSF also coordinated a service called InterNIC, which registered all addresses on the
Internet so that data could be routed to the right system. This service has now been taken
over by Network Solutions, Inc. and other registration services in cooperation with NSF.

Today’s Web (Learn the Net.com)

The World Wide Web today is a collection of electronic documents that are linked together
like a spider web, communicating with each other via the Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
[HTTP], based on a concept introduced by a British researcher, Sir Tim Berners-Lee (which
earned him the name of Inventor of the World Wide Web). Communication uses a standard
high level language, Hypertext Markup Language [HTML].

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These documents are stored on computers called

servers located around the world. The Web has
evolved into a global electronic publishing medium
and increasingly, a medium for conducting
electronic commerce.

Even though the Internet is a global network, in

many ways it resembles a small town, with similar
services. Let's say you want to send or receive
mail. The Internet has electronic post offices.
There are online libraries with millions of books
and periodicals you can use any time of the day or
night. Chat rooms are the Internet equivalent of
24-hour coffee shops, with people eager to gab anytime you want. With the explosive growth of the
World Wide Web, you can shop, order a pizza, preview a movie, and listen to radio stations from
around the world. All of these represent different ways of using the Internet. Of course, the Net also
has its seedy areas and criminal element just like the real world, and some caution is required to
navigate it safely.

In the real world you can travel to different places over the same network of roads using different
modes of transportation. You might use a car for one purpose and a truck for something else.
Getting around on the Internet works much the same way.

To understand the Internet, it is helpful to realize that

many different kinds of communication go on at the same
time. You use different software programs to accomplish
different tasks: for instance, a web browser to access
shopping sites and an e-mail program to send and receive
messages.

Some programs, such as Microsoft Internet Explorer, contain more than one kind of application.
For instance, Explorer has a web browser, a newsreader, and a media player. You can also use
more specialized and sophisticated software, such as RealPlayer, a stand-alone media player or
combine different software programs together into a system that works for you.

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Anatomy of the Net

The components that make up the Internet are as follows:-

 Your personal computer

 Web browser software to access the Web
 A connection to an Internet service provider (ISP)
 Servers to host the data
 Routers and switches to direct the flow of data

These various components act together to make the web work, like this:-

 Web pages are stored on web servers located around the globe.
 Entering the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) of a web page in your web browser or
clicking a link sends a request to the server, which hosts the page.
 The server sends the web page to your computer and your web browser displays it on
your screen.

Looking at the way these various components function, both individually and as integrated
systems will allow a better understanding of what the web is actually doing when you access
it.
The key to the whole system is the Universal Resource Locator, usually called the URL or
Web Address. It serves exactly the same purpose as a house address. If you have a sofa for
sale, but I do not know where you live, it will be impossible for me to buy it. What you need to
do is tell me where I can find you, so that we can get in touch and make arrangements, and in
such a way that we both understand what we mean.

Here is how to interpret the various parts of a URL:

http:// www. anyolddomain.com /english/ start.htm

http:// -- Short for HyperText Transfer Protocol, this indicates a hypertext document or
directory.

https:// -- Secure encrypted protocol, such as might be used for online banking

www. -- This indicates a page on the World Wide Web. (Sometimes "www" is missing.)

anyolddomain.com/ -- Called the domain name, it often tells you the name of a company,
university, or organization. It can also tell you the country of origin, for example .bt indicates
Bhutan!

english/ -- This is directory or folder on the web server that contains a group of related web
pages within the website.

start.htm -- This is a web page inside the folder. (The same file can be named start.html –the
extra “l” indicates a secure site) A URL doesn't always include the name of the web page.

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 A website is one or more web pages that relate to a common theme, such as a person,
business, organization, or a subject, such as sports.
 A web page is an electronic document written in a computer language called HTML
(HyperText Markup Language).
 Web pages can contain text, graphics, video, animation, and sound, as well as interactive
features, such as data entry forms
 The first page is called the home page, which acts like an index, indicating the content on the
site.
 From the home page, you can click hyperlinks to access other web pages
 A URL usually has no spaces.
 A URL always uses forward slashes (//).
 URLs aren't case sensitive. So typing "http://www.anyolddomain.com" or
"HTTP://WWW.ANYOLDDOMAIN.COM" or any variation of upper and lower case letters
takes you to the same page.
 If you type a URL incorrectly, your browser will not be able to locate the site or resource you
want. Should you get an error message or access the wrong site, make sure you spelled the
address correctly.
 You can find the URL behind any link by placing your cursor over the link. The pointer turns
into a hand and the URL appears in your browser's status bar, usually located at the bottom
of your browser window.

Hyperlinks

Still in the market for a sofa, now imagine that we have made
contact and discovered that you live in a block of flats, and all I
have is the address of the block. When I arrive at the block, I will
still not know how to find you. The doorman, however, may have
a list of residents, and, by
asking him, I can find you.

Hyperlinks achieve the same purpose of rerouting you

to another URL from the one at which you have arrived.
This may be because the present URL is only an
introductory page (a Home Page) [the front door to the
block of flats], and the actual site contents are on sub
pages with different URLs. If you knew the URL you
could go straight there, otherwise the hyperlink
[doorman] will redirect you.

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 Clicking either the hyperlinked text, or the linked images on an image map passes the linked
URL to your Browser enabling the correct connection to be made

To determine if a graphic is hyperlinked, move your cursor arrow over the image. You know
the item is hyperlinked if:

1. The arrow cursor turns into a hand.

2. A URL appears in the status bar at the lower left of your web browser

The Web Browser

Imagine now that the sofa you wanted is no longer for sale. You are still in the market for a
sofa, but do not know where to find one or who has one. There are two ways of going about
this. You could either buy a magazine to check out the advertisements: this would be the
same as using a Search Engine. Alternatively you could wander around the town looking into
hopeful places where sofas might be sold (speculative Surfing).

This is the function of the Web Browser, and, just as a shop that does not sell sofas may be
able to tell you where there is one that does, Web Browsers often contain Search Engines
themselves.

 A web browser is a software program used to access the World Wide Web.
 A browser (also known as client software) retrieves data from remote web servers
and displays a web page.
 The most popular browsers come from Motzilla (Firefox), Google (Chrome) and
Microsoft (Internet Explorer).
 Browsers basically work the same way. Once you know one, you can easily learn the
other.

The Microsoft Internet Explorer Browser Toolbar

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 The Google Chrome Browser

The most useful buttons on your browser toolbar include:

 Back -- Returns you to the previous page.

 Forward -- Returns you to a page you have backed up from.
 Home -- Takes you to a home page specified in the browser preferences.
 Reload or Refresh -- Downloads the web page from the server again.
 Stop -- Stops the browser from loading the current page.
 Print -- Lets you make a hard copy of the current document or frame loaded in
your browser.
 Access indicator icon (upper right) -- When animated, it tells you the browser is
retrieving data.
 Status bar (lower left) -- Reports on the progress of the data download.
 Go menu -- Lets you select a web page you have previously accessed.

Signing up to an Internet Service Provider

Choosing an ISP is like buying a car; what do you intend to do with it? Do you want a
racy sportster that gives you performance but costs a fortune, or do you want a luxury
sedan loaded with features, also at a price, or will you be satisfied with an old banger?

 Most ISPs that you can subscribe to in this country come well loaded with features
– E-mail, your own website (if you know how to create one, that is – most people
don’t, which the ISP relies upon to reduce their running costs), search engines,
news services and so forth. Generally they will also try to seduce you with ‘free’
time, but beware – there is no such thing as a free lunch. The ‘free time’ usually
means that the ISP is not charging you, but the telephone company is, or there
are limitations on when that time can be used, or the ‘free time’ is only an
introductory trial and the company makes its money back once you start paying.

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 The best advice is to look carefully into the market, and see what is what and
what it offers you.

ISPs employ a range of technologies to enable consumers to connect to their network.

For users and small businesses, the most popular options include dial-up, DSL (typically
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line, ADSL), broadband wireless, cable modem, fiber to
the premises (FTTH), and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) (typically basic
rate interface).

Typical home user connection

 Dial-up
 DSL
 Broadband wireless access
 Cable Internet
 FTTH
 ISDN
 Wi-Fi

Typical business type connection

 DSL
 SHDSL
 Ethernet technologies

Broadband Internet access, often shortened to just broadband, is a high data rate
Internet access—typically contrasted with dial-up access over a 56k modem.

Dial-up modems are limited to a bitrate of less than 56 kbit/s (kilobits per second) and
require the full use of a telephone line—whereas broadband technologies supply more
than double this rate and generally without disrupting telephone use.

Although various minimum bandwidths have been used in definitions of broadband,

ranging up from 64 kbit/s up to 8.0 Mbit/s, the 2006 OECD report is typical by defining
broadband as having download data transfer rates equal to or faster than 256 kbit/s. The
trend is to raise the threshold of the broadband definition as the marketplace rolls out
faster services.

Data rates are defined in terms of maximum download because several common
consumer broadband technologies such as ADSL are "asymmetric"—supporting much
slower maximum upload data rate than download.

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Connecting to your ISP

Most ISPs today provide a CD-ROM which contains all the necessary software to
connect your computer to their server, or the software may be intrinsic in the modem
supplied. This Plug and Play capability means that the simple act of connecting the
modem to the computer starts the installation process. Changing ISP can also generally
be done once you are ‘on line’.

ISP software bundles also usually contain some utilities software, perhaps even a
rudimentary virus checker, and most will include Microsoft Internet Explorer. You will
need to check what you actually require from the disc, as the offered IE, for example,
may be an older version than the one you have, or may be a newer version that is not
supported by your machine’s architecture or your Operating System.

Start the installation process according to the provided literature, and thereafter simply
follow the onscreen instructions

Should everything not proceed smoothly, the ISP will have a telephone help line you can
call, but beware: the ‘free support’ means they do not charge you for the advice. You
are charged for the phone call, and these are often premium rate lines at £££ per minute
or more, although some do include genuinely free support on a freefone number for an
initial period.

You will be asked to provide a logon User Name and Password. Common names such
as Fred Smith will already have been used, and the ISP may suggest an alternative such
as Smith1125. Many people use a pseudonym, somewhat like Citizens Band Radio
‘Handles’.

Do not use an obvious password such as your birthday, but equally do not use one so
obscure that you can never remember it. If you do forget it, the ISP will have on record
some security questions that they can ask you to prove your identity, and then either tell
you your password in an e-mail, or allow you to set a new one.

Specifying a Home Page in Explorer

Once you have selected and signed up with your ISP, you will need to select a start up
page for your Internet access. This is the page that your browser will always load when
you start an Internet session.

During the process of connecting to your ISP they will have almost certainly set their
home page to be your start up page. This is not unreasonable, but if you wish to have a
different start up page that is easy to do. Many people have their preferred Search
Engine as a homepage. Your browser will include a Settings or Options tab which will
allow you to set your home page. Alternatively, most sites will offer the option on Right
Click of the mouse to set that site as your home page. Beware of Browser Hijackers
downloaded with freeware which will autonomously set themselves as your homepage.

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Searching the Net: using Search Engines

With billions of web pages online, you

could spend a lifetime surfing the
Web, following links from one page to
another. Amusing perhaps, but not
very efficient if you are after some
specific information. One of the
biggest complaints concerns the
difficulty of finding targeted
information. Where do you start?

Searching the Internet requires part

skill, part luck and a little bit of art.

Fortunately, a number of free online

resources help with the hunt.

You've probably heard of Yahoo!,

Google, AltaVista and search engines.
There are literally dozens of these
tools to help you locate what you're
looking for. The trick is understanding
how they work, so you can use the
right tool for the job.

Search engines break down into two

categories--directories and indexes.

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Directories, such as Yahoo!, are good at

identifying general information. Like a card
catalogue in a library, they classify websites
into similar categories, such as accounting
firms, English universities and natural history
museums. The results of your search will be a
list of websites related to your search term. For
instance, if you are looking for the Louvre
museum website, use a directory.

But what if you want specific information, such

as biographical information about Leonardo da Vinci? Web indexes are the way to go,
because they search all the contents of a website. Indexes use software programs called
spiders and robots that scour the Internet, analyzing millions of web pages and newsgroup
postings and indexing all of the words.

Indexes like AltaVista and Google find individual pages of a website that match your search
criteria, even if the site itself has nothing to do with what you are looking for. You can often
find unexpected gems of information this way, but be prepared to wade through a lot of
irrelevant (and frequently undesirable – there’s a lot of filth out there) information too.

Search results may be ranked in order of relevancy--the number of times your search term
appears in a document--or how closely the document appears to match a concept you have
entered. This is a much more thorough way to locate what you want.

Let's perform an online search using three popular search engines--Yahoo!, Google, and Ask
Jeeves--so you can see how they work and how you can develop an efficient search strategy.

Here's the challenge: You are planning a trip to Blackpool and you've always wanted to ride
the Big One Roller Coaster. Is it operational? Is the Pleasure Beach open in January? How
can you find out?

First we'll try Yahoo! One trick when searching is narrow your focus.
Entering "Blackpool" in the search box results in over 59,600,000
sites related to the ‘Paris of the North’. Entering "Pleasure Beach"
results in 47,300,000 sites, many of which have nothing to do with Blackpool. By combing the
terms "Blackpool” and “Pleasure Beach”, the search returns 1,480,000 sites, along with a brief
description of each one. Now you have to visit each site to see if there's any information about
operational status and opening times.

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Now let's try using Google, an index-based search engine. The

Google search results in over 17,100,000 documents that match the
search terms! Life is too short to comb through all these. The reason
for this enormous list is that Google turns up every document that
contains the words in the search list. To search for documents that contain just this phrase,
use quotation marks around the terms ("Blackpool Pleasure Beach"). Doing this results in
about 230,000 documents, which is still one heck of a lot of sites to visit. Fortunately, Google
smartly ranks sites in order of relevancy, so the first few are more than likely to have
information about schedules.

Ask Jeeves uses a technology called

natural language query, a fancy way of
saying that you can ask your question
in plain English. By typing a question
like "Blackpool Pleasure Beach
Opening Times” you find only 7,600
sites, and you get a list of related
search choices By clicking on the
question, you will access a website that
may have the right answer.

Bear in mind that websites tend to change often. These changes are not always reflected in
the search engine database, particularly for directories. Typically, websites are registered with
search engines when they first go online. After that, changes are not reported generally. To
find the most recent information, your best bets are search engines that use Web-indexing
robots, software that constantly searches the Internet, recording additions and changes.

Refining Your Search

Regardless of which search engine you use, it really pays to find out the particulars of how it
works. Take the time to read the search tips on the respective sites. For instance, how does
the engine handle searches that include more than one word? Most engines, but not all, return
results that include any of the words. Because there is so much information online, you will
usually want to limit the scope of your searches. How do you do this?

Boolean Logic

This is a good point to digress a bit to talk about Boolean operators.

The English mathematician, George Boole, developed an algebra of logic, which has become
the basis for computer database searches. Boolean logic uses words called operators to
determine whether a statement is true or false.

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The most common operators are AND, OR and NOT. These three little words can be
enormously helpful when doing online searches. A few examples show why.

Searching... Results in...

Blackpool AND
Documents with both words
Pleasure

Blackpool OR
The greatest amount of matches; documents with either word
Pleasure

Blackpool NOT Documents about Blackpool, but not including any containing
Pleasure the word Pleasure; a good way to limit the search.

The exact syntax each engine uses varies, so familiarize yourself with each one's unique
properties.

Perhaps the most useful feature in defining search criteria, Boolean operators provide you with
powerful control over the search engine logic. The Boolean operators AND, OR, NOT (or AND
NOT in some engines), NEAR and parentheses are in many ways analogous to mathematical
operators in how they shape the execution of a complex equation. Here's what these Boolean
operators do for you:

AND

If you want a document that contains all of your keywords, use the capitalized word AND
between keywords. The engine will only find documents that have both words. Here's an
example: Using the search criteria Manchester AND United would return all documents that
contain both words. Be sure to capitalize all letters in the word AND, otherwise the search
engine will treat it as a keyword, not as an operator.

MANCHESTER UNITED

If the left oval represents all documents containing the word Manchester and the right oval
represents all documents containing the word United, the intersection of those ovals, the
green area, represents all documents containing both words. You can see how this operator is
useful in narrowing your results.

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OR

If you want to broaden your search to find documents that contain either of the keywords, use
the OR operator between words. This is very useful when searching for terms that have
synonyms. An example is children OR kids, which would return any document that had either
of the words.

If the left oval represents all documents containing the word children and right oval represents
all documents containing the word kids, the green area represents documents that contain
either word or both words. You can see how this operator broadens your search, obtaining
more results.

NEAR

This operator is a more specific form of the AND operator. It ensures that the document
contains both terms and that they are located near each other. In many lengthy documents,
just using the operator AND might not provide useful results as the two keywords may be
located in very different parts of the document and might not be related to one another.

NOT or AND NOT

Using the capitalized AND NOT preceding a search term eliminates documents that contain
that term. Why would you want to do this? If you want to find information on Manchester and
do not want documents that include information relating to Manchester United you could use
"Manchester" AND NOT “United”

MANCHESTER UNITED

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Metasearches

Rather than search each directory or index individually, you can submit your query
simultaneously to multiple search engines by doing a metasearch.

Advanced Search Criteria on the Net

Understanding how to perform sophisticated searches of online information will greatly

increase your chances of finding what you want. While most search engines let you define
your search criteria in very specific ways, not all function identically.

Capital Sensitivity

If a search keyword is capitalized the search engine will return only documents containing the
capitalized word. For example, if you were interested in documents relating to the country of
China, capitalizing the word and using an engine that supports capital sensitivity narrows
down the number of results returned, eliminating documents that relate to china dishes or
cookery. Note however, that in many instances it is better to leave keywords uncapitalized to
allow the engine to return results that contain keywords in either form.

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Phrase Searching

When using search terms containing more than one word in a specific order, if you enclose the
words in quotation marks, the engine returns only documents containing the exact phrase.
Here's an example: When searching for information on gun control legislation, using "gun
control" will eliminate those documents that contain the words gun and control, but not in that
order; possibly in entirely different paragraphs and maybe not even relating to the topic of gun
control.

Truncation

If you are looking for information on gardening, you could use it as your keyword. However, if
your results are limited in number (though not likely with gardening) and you want to broaden
your search, use a root part of the word and abbreviate it with an asterisk (garden*). The
engine will return links to documents containing gardens, garden, gardener, gardeners, and so
on.

Parentheses

The operators AND, NEAR, OR and AND NOT are powerful in their own right, but when used
in conjunction with parentheses, they offer substantial control over the search logic executed
by the engine. Parentheses are used in Boolean logic similar to the way they are used in a
mathematical equation, limiting and ordering relations between variables.

Here's an example: If you want to find a Web-based Internet tutorial you might use the search
criteria Internet AND (tutorial OR lesson). The documents returned must contain both of the
words Internet and tutorial or Internet and lesson. Essentially, the parentheses are used as
they are for the distribution property in mathematics--to distribute the keyword Internet to
either of the two "OR" words inside the symbols.

The most common use of parentheses is to enclose two possible keywords separated by an
OR operator and then linking those enclosed/possible keywords with other criteria using AND.
However, there are times and instances where the reverse arrangement might prove useful.
For example, if you were looking for information on gun control you might want to use "gun
control" OR (legislation AND gun), which would return documents with the words "gun control"
or documents containing the word gun and the word legislation.

You can further refine the search. Since the word "law" is a synonym of legislation you can
even nest one set of parentheses inside another to distribute gun to either legislation or law
and while we're at it, truncate "law" with an asterisk to also distribute gun to the variation--
laws.

Here's how it would look: "gun control" OR (gun AND (law* OR legislation)). Note that each left
side parentheses must be paired with a right side one somewhere in the Boolean expression
or the search engine will get confused

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+require and -exclude

Some engines offer a variation of the Boolean operators AND and NOT. A + symbol preceding
a word (with no space between) requires that the word be present in documents. A - symbol
preceding a keyword ensures that the word is not present in returned documents. Note that all
words that must be in the document should be preceded by a + symbol, even the first word.
Here's an example: +fraud +election ensures that fraud is also in all the documents.

Limited Boolean Options

Some engines offer limited Boolean logic with radio buttons or pull-down menu choices such
as:

Documents must include "All terms" (equivalent to using the operator AND between all terms).

Documents must include "Any terms" (equivalent to using OR between all terms).

Date Capability

Many search engines offer the ability to limit searches by web page creation dates. This is a
very useful tool for people doing continuing research on a specific topic. It enables them to
limit the results to pages created since their last search. It is also useful when searching for
current event topics.

Note that the implementation of this feature varies widely. Some search tools like Yahoo! offer
radio buttons or pull-down menus, while AltaVista and HotBot provide the ability to specify
dates or time frames. Also, date sensitivity is related to the web page creation date, not some
historical time frame. For instance, it would not be useful to use an engine's date capability to
search for 1907 and information relating to the Wright brothers, since there were no web
pages created in 1907!

Restricting Searches to Specific Parts of a Document

Some engines can limit searches to specific areas, the most common being the document title
and URL. Here's an example of a title search: If you are looking for information on alternative
medicine and believe that there are entire web pages devoted to your subject that have the
keywords in the titles, you could use the syntax: title: alternative AND medicine.

An example of URL search would be if you are looking for Apple Computer web pages. You
could use: url: apple, which would return web pages created by the computer maker Apple
(and others).

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Restricting Searches to Specific Areas of the Web

Some engines allow you to limit your searches to "just the Web" or just "newsgroups" , or
“Pages from the UK”

Restricting Searches to Specific Media

Both Google and AltaVista allow you to search for various types of media, including audio,
video, and graphics.

A final word of advice.

The Internet may not be the best place to find certain information. While it abounds with
computer-related subjects, it is not as good for historical information.

In addition much of the information is, like the “Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy”, ‘apocryphal
or at least wildly inaccurate’. This is because there is no control over what is uploaded to
websites.

For some areas of research, a telephone and a sharp reference librarian may still be your best
bet.

Downloading your search results

Downloading refers to the method by which you access digital information from a remote
computer. As it turns out, almost everything you do on the Web is some form of downloading -
-it's as simple as clicking your mouse. When you access a web page, for instance, you are
actually downloading the document and all of its associated graphics from a web server. Once
the digital data arrives, your web browser looks at the file extension. If it recognizes the type of
file, it will display it. If it doesn't recognize it, it will ask you if you want to configure a viewer (tell
the browser which software program to use to view the file). You also have an option to save
the file to your hard drive.

Another way to download files is to click on the

link to the file with your right mouse button and
select Save to Disk from the pop-up box. In
some cases, you will be prompted to save the
file somewhere on your hard drive, or the file
may download automatically to your desktop,
depending on how your browser is configured.

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Compressed and Self-Extracting Files

With software, more often than not, you will be downloading files that have been compressed.
These may be individual files or groups of files that have been compressed into a single file.
This is done to save downloading time and disk space. If the files have been compressed, you
need a separate software utility to decompress them.

The exception is files with an .exe (DOS/Windows) extension which are self-extracting. These
files do not require a separate software program to run.

Saving your search results

Now that you have found the page that you are looking for, you may be simply satisfied to look
at the contents on the screen. You may, however, want to preserve the pages you have found
in some way or another. This may include:-

 Printing the web page as a hard copy

 Saving the web page in a number of possible formats
 Inserting the web page into another document, such as a Word document or a
PowerPoint presentation.

You should note, however, that it is not necessary

to save a web page if you only need it stored for a
short time. The majority of Browsers include a
facility whereby sites that you have visited have
their URLs stored in a folder called History. How
long History stores these folders is up to you, but it
can be for quite a long time, if required. This
means that you can revisit that site easily if
necessary. In addition the browser stores the
actual page in a temporary file called a ‘cache’
which is called, strangely enough, Temporary
Internet Files. This allows you to revisit the pages
associated with a URL in the History Folder even
when you are offline

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Printing your results

Most browsers have a Print button on the toolbar that lets you print a web page, but please
note:-

Some web pages are divided into multiple

sections called frames. You can only print one
frame at a time on some browsers, others allow
you the choice of printing all frames as laid out
on the web page, all frames sequentially, or
only the selected frame

 To print a particular frame, first

select it by clicking it
 Then click the Print button or
select Print Frame from the File menu

Saving results to files

Saving a Web Page

Once the page you wish to save is displayed on your monitor, it is easy to save by simply
calling up the File Menu. This can be done by either using the drop down menu in the
Browser Toolbar, or
by right clicking on the web
page itself

The Save Web Page dialogue box illustrated above will open up, giving you a number of
save choices:-

 Which folder do you wish to save the file to?

 What do you want the file to be called?
 What format do you want the file save in?

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The file formats offered will allow you to save the file data in a number of ways:-

1. Web Page Complete. This format saves each file in its original format, and saves all
of the files needed to display this page, including graphics, frames, and style sheets
2. Web Archive. To save all of the information needed to display this page in a single
MIME-encoded file, click Web Archive. This option saves a snapshot of the current
Web page
3. Web Page HTML only. This option saves the information on the Web page, but it
does not save the graphics, sounds, or other files.
4. Text only. This option saves the information on the Web page in straight text format

With Web Page, complete and Web Archive, you can view all of the Web page offline, without
adding the page to your Favourites list and marking it for offline viewing.

When you choose Web Page, complete, only the current page is saved. If you want to view
Web pages and the pages they link to while offline, click Related Topics below.

Saving an Image

Once a graphic or photo is displayed on your

monitor, you may want to save it for future
reference. Here's how to do it:

 Place your cursor over the

graphic.

 Click your right mouse button. A

pop-up box appears

 Save the image to your hard

drive by selecting the Save
option.

 You can accept the current file

name or rename the file.
(Graphic files are usually in .gif
or .jpg format.)

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Saving downloaded software

As well as saving text and graphic files that you have downloaded, you can also download
software onto your computer from the net. Software comes from many sources: Microsoft and
other major software developers offers downloadable upgrades to their products, anti virus
software providers offer the latest virus pattern updates to ensure the most up to date
protection, and other software developers offer applications, plug-ins, patches and games to
download.

Not all downloadable software is ‘Freeware’, that is offered free of charge. Program upgrades
are usually only offered to registered users, anti virus updates are generally on a subscription
basis, and many of the applications and games are either trial versions that only run for a
certain length of time unless you have paid for the full product (e.g. WinZip) or partial
programs that only perform certain defined tasks (e.g. Adobe Acrobat Reader). A lot of
offered software is ‘Shareware’, which requires the user to send a nominal registration fee to
the provider.

Good behaviour in your global community

We expect other drivers to observe the rules of the road and the same is true as we travel
through cyberspace. Here are a few pointers to help you out:

Avoid writing e-mail messages or posting in newsgroups using all caps.

IT LOOKS LIKE YOU'RE SHOUTING!

To add humour and personality to your messages, use smileys, also known as
emoticons, or expressions you create from the characters on your keyboard A few
popular ones include:

:-) Happy :-e Disappointed

:-( Sad :-< Mad
:-o Surprised :-D Laughing
:-@ Screaming ;-) Winking
:-I Indifferent
Keep your communications to the point. Some
people pay for Internet access by the minute, and the longer it takes to read your messages,
the more it may cost them. This is true whether you post messages to a newsgroup or a
mailing list.

Remember that anything you post to a newsgroup or type during a chat session is a public
comment. You never know who's reading it, or who may copy it and spread it around.

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When posting a message to a public bulletin board, forum, or newsgroup, stick to the topic.
Don't indiscriminately post unrelated comments, or worse--advertisements--to every
newsgroup you can think of.

This practice, known as spamming, will quickly lead to another unpleasant Internet practice,
flaming. What is flaming? Sometimes you might offend someone unintentionally. Be prepared
to receive some angry e-mail or be treated rudely in a public discussion. This is called being
flamed. If you attack back, you will spark a flame war. To contain the heat, the best response
usually is no response at all.

If you post an ad to a newsgroup, or send it in an e-mail, clearly identify it in the subject line.
That way people who aren't interested can delete it.

To keep messages short, use some common abbreviations:

 <BTW> means "by the way."

 A <G> enclosed in brackets indicates grinning.
 A good one to keep handy in case you're worried about offending someone is
<IMHO> -- In My Humble Opinion.
 Indicate your humorous reaction (actual or facetious) with <ROTFL>, which
stands for Rolling on the Floor Laughing or <LOL> (Laughing Out Loud)
 FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions) are handy documents to read before asking
questions. Always consult them whenever available.

Netiquette isn't something you learn overnight, so don't let your fear of not knowing cyber-
protocol hold you back: for a short and friendly summary, try the “UK Beginners' Guide to
Good Manners.”

Responsibility in a Virtual World

The Internet has made it possible for people all around the world to connect with each other in
meaningful ways. Whether for research, education, business, or fun, the Internet has changed
how many of us live, work, and play, in ways we may not even be fully aware of.

As the Internet continues to evolve, so do the issues that impact the way we use it. From
privacy, security and freedom of speech, to honesty and consideration in the way we interact
with others, we all have a responsibility to preserve and protect its unique character. That
means recognizing that while the medium is in many ways a reflection of the physical world, it
is in other ways, fundamentally different--manifesting its own customs and practices.

 Radical, Subversive, Racist, Supremacist and Neo Nazi groups

 Terrorist Organizations
 Paedophiles
 Pornographers
 Fraudsters
 Virus developers

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to name but a few. Many of the activities of these individuals are illegal in either the country of
origin, or this country, and persons accessing sites of an illegal nature are breaking the law,
even if the activity is legal in the country of origin. It is all too easy to link to a site that contains
offensive material; most Internet users have done it unintentionally at least once. The best
advice is, as soon as you realise what you have found, get out at once. If the site is known by
you to contain illegal material (for example Paedophile material) use your History folder to note
the URL that took you there, and report it to the Police.

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