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Contents
Preface
Who Should Read This Book?
How to Use This Book

Acknowledgements

About the Authors

Chapter 1. Getting Started

The Java Technology Phenomenon
What Can Java Technology Do?
How Will Java Technology Change My Life?
The “Hello World!” Application
“Hello World!” for the NetBeans IDE
“Hello World!” for Microsoft Windows
“Hello World!” for Solaris OS and Linux
A Closer Look at the “Hello World!” Application
Common Problems (and Their Solutions)
Questions and Exercises: Getting Started
Chapter 1 Notes

Chapter 2. Object-Oriented Programming Concepts

What Is an Object?
What Is a Class?
What Is Inheritance?
What Is an Interface?
What Is a Package?
 Questions and Exercises: Object-Oriented Programming Con-
cepts

Chapter 3. Language Basics

Variables
Operators
Expressions, Statements, and Blocks
Control Flow Statements
Chapter 3 Notes

Chapter 4. Classes and Objects

Classes
Objects
More on Classes
Nested Classes
Enum Types
Chapter 4 Notes

Chapter 5. Annotations
Annotations Basics
Declaring an Annotation Type
Predefined Annotation Types
Type Annotations and Pluggable Type Systems
Repeating Annotations
Questions and Exercises: Annotations
Chapter 5 Notes

Chapter 6. Interfaces and Inheritance

Interfaces
Inheritance
 Chapter 6 Notes

Chapter 7. Generics
Why Use Generics?
Generic Types
Generic Methods
Bounded Type Parameters
Generics, Inheritance, and Subtypes
Type Inference
Wildcards
Type Erasure
Restrictions on Generics
Questions and Exercises: Generics
Chapter 7 Notes

Chapter 8. Packages
Creating and Using Packages
Questions and Exercises: Creating and Using Packages

Chapter 9. Numbers and Strings

Numbers
Characters
Strings
Chapter 9 Notes

Chapter 10. Exceptions

What Is an Exception?
The Catch or Specify Requirement
Catching and Handling Exceptions
Specifying the Exceptions Thrown by a Method
 How to Throw Exceptions
Unchecked Exceptions—The Controversy
Advantages of Exceptions
Summary
Questions and Exercises: Exceptions
Chapter 10 Notes

Chapter 11. Basic I/O and NIO.2

I/O Streams
File I/O (Featuring NIO.2)
Summary
Questions and Exercises: Basic I/O
Chapter 11 Notes

Chapter 12. Collections

Introduction to Collections
Interfaces
Aggregate Operations
Implementations
Algorithms
Custom Collection Implementations
Interoperability
Chapter 12 Notes

Chapter 13. Concurrency

Processes and Threads
Thread Objects
Synchronization
Liveness
 Guarded Blocks
Immutable Objects
High Level Concurrency Objects
Questions and Exercises: Concurrency
Chapter 13 Notes

Chapter 14. Regular Expressions

Introduction
Test Harness
String Literals
Character Classes
Predefined Character Classes
Quantifiers
Capturing Groups
Boundary Matchers
Methods of the Pattern Class
Methods of the Matcher Class
Methods of the PatternSyntaxException Class
Unicode Support
Additional Resources
Questions and Exercises: Regular Expressions
Chapter 14 Notes

Chapter 15. The Platform Environment

Configuration Utilities
System Utilities
PATH and CLASSPATH
Questions and Exercises: The Platform Environment
 Chapter 15 Notes

Chapter 16. Packaging Programs in JAR Files

Using JAR Files: The Basics
Working with Manifest Files: The Basics
Signing and Verifying JAR Files
Using JAR-Related APIs
Questions and Exercises: Packaging Programs in JAR Files
Chapter 16 Notes

Chapter 17. Java Web Start

Additional References
Developing a Java Web Start Application
Deploying a Java Web Start Application
Displaying a Customized Loading Progress Indicator
Running a Java Web Start Application
Java Web Start and Security
Common Java Web Start Problems
Questions and Exercises: Java Web Start
Chapter 17 Notes

Chapter 18. Applets

Getting Started with Applets
Doing More with Applets
Solving Common Applet Problems
Questions and Exercises: Applets
Chapter 18 Notes

Chapter 19. Doing More with Java Rich Internet Applications

Setting Trusted Arguments and Secure Properties
 JNLP API
Cookies
Customizing the Loading Experience
Security in Rich Internet Applications
Guidelines for Securing Rich Internet Applications
Questions and Exercises: Doing More with Rich Internet Appli-
cations
Chapter 19 Notes

Chapter 20. Deployment In Depth

User Acceptance of RIAs
Deployment Toolkit
Java Network Launch Protocol
Deployment Best Practices
Questions and Exercises: Deployment In Depth
Chapter 20 Notes

Chapter 21. Introduction to JavaFX

Appendix. Preparation for Java Programming Language Cer-

tification
Programmer Level I Exam
Programmer Level II Exam
Java SE 8 Upgrade Exam
Appendix. Notes
Preface
Since the acquisition of Sun Microsystems by Oracle Corporation in
early 2010, it has been an exciting time for the Java language. As ev-
idenced by the activities of the Java Community Process program,
the Java Language continues to evolve. The publication of this sixth
edition of The Java Tutorial reflects version 8 of the Java Platform
Standard Edition (Java SE) and references the API of that release.
This edition introduces new features added to the platform since the
publication of the fifth edition (under release 7):
• Lambda expressions enable you to treat functionality as a
method argument, or code as data. Lambda expressions let you
express instances of single-method interfaces (referred to as
functional interfaces) more compactly. See the new section
“Lambda Expressions” in the chapter “Classes and Objects.”
• Default methods are methods in an interface that have an imple-
mentation. They enable new functionality to be added to the in-
terfaces of libraries and ensure binary compatibility with code
written for older versions of those interfaces. See the new section
“Default Methods” in the chapter “Interfaces and Inheritance.”
• Aggregate operations enable you to perform functional-style op-
erations on streams of elements, in particular, bulk operations on
collections, such as sequential or parallel map-reduce transfor-
mations. See the new section “Aggregate Operations” in the
chapter “Collections.”
• Date-Time APIs enable you to represent dates and times and ma-
nipulate date and time values. They support the International Or-
ganization for Standardization (ISO) calendar system as well as
other commonly used global calendars. See the new chapter
 “Date Time.”
• Type annotations can be used in conjunction with pluggable type
systems for improved type checking, and repeating annotations
enable to apply the same annotation to a declaration or type use.
See the new sections “Type Annotations and Pluggable Type
Systems” and “Repeating Annotations” in the new chapter “An-
notations.”
• Improvements have been added that focus on limiting attackers
from using malicious applets and Rich Internet Applications
(RIAs). See the following new and updated sections:
• “Security in Rich Internet Applications” and “Guidelines for
Securing Rich Internet Applications” in the chapter “Doing
More With Rich Internet Applications”
• “Deployment Best Practices” in the chapter “Deployment in
Depth”
• “Enhancing Security with Manifest Attributes” and “Signing
JAR Files” in the chapter “Packaging Programs in JAR Files”
If you plan to take one of the Java SE 8 certification exams, this
book can help. The appendix “Preparation for Java Programming
Language Certification” lists the three exams that are available, de-
tailing the items covered on each exam, cross referenced to where, in
the tutorial, you can find more information about each topic. Note
that this is one source, among others, that you will want to use to
prepare for your exam. Check the online tutorial for the latest certifi-
cation objectives and cross references to sections of the tutorial.
All of the material has been thoroughly reviewed by members of Or-
acle Java engineering to ensure that the information is accurate and
up to date. This book is based on the online tutorial hosted on Oracle
Corporation’s website at the following URL:
The information in this book, often referred to as “the core tutorial”,
is required by most beginning to intermediate programmers. Once
you have mastered this material, you can explore the rest of the Java
platform documentation on the web site. If you are interested in de-
veloping sophisticated Rich Internet Applications, check out
JavaFX, the new cutting-edge Java GUI toolkit, which comes with
the JDK. To learn more, see the JavaFX documentation at the fol-
lowing URL:

As always, our goal is to create an easy-to-read practical program-

mers’ guide to help you learn how to use the rich environment pro-
vided by Java to build applications, applets, and components. Go
forth and program!

WHO SHOULD READ THIS BOOK?

This book is geared towards both novice and experienced program-
mers.
• New programmers can benefit most from reading the book from
beginning to end, including the step by step instructions for com-
piling and running your first program in Getting Started.
• Programmers experienced with procedural languages such as C
may want to start with the material on object-oriented concepts
and features of the Java programming language.
• Experienced programmers may want to jump feet first into the
more advanced topics, such as generics, concurrency, or deploy-
ment.
This book contains information to address the learning needs of pro-
grammers with various levels of experience.
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
 • ebook files for Kindle.
• ebook files for iPad, Nook, and other eReaders that sup-
port the format.
Each ebook contains a single trail, which is equivalent to several re-
lated chapters in this book. You can download the ebooks via the
link “In Book Form” on the home page for the Java Tutorials:

We welcome feedback on this edition. To contact us, please see the

tutorial feedback page:
Acknowledgements
This book would not be what it is without the Oracle Java engineer-
ing team who tirelessly reviews the technical content of our writing.
For this edition of the book, we especially want to thank Alan Bate-
man, Alex Buckley, Stephen Colebourne, Joe Darcy, Jeff Dinkins,
Mike Duigou, Brian Goetz, Andy Herrick, Stuart Marks, Thomas
Ng, Roger Riggs, Leif Samuelsson, and Daniel Smith.
Illustrators Jordan Douglas and Dawn Tyler created our professional
graphics, quickly and efficiently.
Editors Janet Blowney, Deborah Owens, and Susan Shepard pro-
vided careful and thorough copy edits of our JDK 8 work.
Thanks for the support of our team: Devika Gollapudi, Ram Goyal,
and Alexey Zhebel.
Last, but not least, thanks for the support of our management:
Sowmya Kannan, Sophia Mikulinsky, Alan Sommerer, and Barbara
Ramsey.
About the Authors
Raymond Gallardo is a senior technical writer for Oracle Corpora-
tion. Previous engagements include college instructor, technical
writer for IBM, and bicycle courier. He obtained his B.Sc. in com-
puter science and English from University of Toronto and M.A. in
creative writing from The City College of New York.
Scott Hommel is a senior technical writer at Oracle Corporation,
where he documents the Java Platform, Standard Edition. For the
past fifteen years, he has written tutorials, technical articles, and core
release documentation for Java SE and related technologies.
Sowmya Kannan wears many hats on the Java SE documentation
team including planning, writing, communicating with developer au-
diences, and tinkering with production tools. She has more than fif-
teen years’ experience in the design, development, and documenta-
tion of the Java platform, Java-based middleware, and web applica-
tions.
Joni Gordon is a principal technical writer at Oracle Corporation.
She has contributed to the documentation for Java Platform, Stan-
dard Edition and for JavaFX. She has been a technical writer for
more than fifteen years, and has a background in enterprise applica-
tion development.
Sharon Biocca Zakhour was previously a principal technical writer
on staff at Oracle Corporation and formerly at Sun Microsystems.
She has contributed to Java SE platform documentation for more
than twelve years, including The Java Tutorial, Fourth Edition, and
The JFC Swing Tutorial, Second Edition. She graduated from UC
Berkeley with a B.A. in computer science and has worked as a pro-
grammer, developer support engineer, and technical writer for thirty
years.
Chapter 1. Getting Started
This chapter provides everything you’ll need to know about getting
started with the Java programming language. The first section pro-
vides an overview of Java technology as a whole. It discusses both
the Java programming language and platform, providing a broad
overview of what this technology can do and how it will make your
life easier. The second section provides information on the “Hello
World!” application. This hands-on approach describes what to
download, what to install, and what to type, for creating a simple
“Hello World!” application. It provides separate instructions for the
NetBeans integrated development environment (NetBeans IDE), Mi-
crosoft Windows, Solaris Operating System (Solaris OS), Linux, and
Mac users. The third section discusses the “Hello World!” applica-
tion, describing each section of code in detail. It covers source code
comments, the class definition block, and the
method. The fourth section presents common problems and
solutions. This is the place to go if you have trouble compiling or
running the programs in this chapter. The chapter ends with ques-
tions and exercises to test your understanding.

THE JAVA TECHNOLOGY PHENOMENON

Talk about Java technology seems to be everywhere, but what ex-
actly is it? This section explains how Java technology is both a pro-
gramming language and a platform, and provides an overview of
what this technology can do for you.
The Java Programming Language
The Java programming language is a high-level language that can be
characterized by all of the following buzzwords:
 • Simple
• Object oriented
• Distributed
• Multithreaded
• Dynamic
• Architecture neutral
• Portable
• High performance
• Robust
• Secure
Each of the preceding buzzwords is explained in The Java Language
Environment1, a white paper written by James Gosling and Henry
McGilton.
In the Java programming language, all source code is first written in
plain text files ending with the extension. Those source files
are then compiled into files by the compiler. A
file does not contain code that is native to your processor;
it instead contains bytecodes—the machine language of the Java Vir-
tual Machine2 (Java VM). The launcher tool then runs your
application with an instance of the Java Virtual Machine.
Figure 1.1. An Overview of the Software Development Process

Because the Java VM is available on many different operating sys-

tems, the same files are capable of running on Microsoft
Windows, the Solaris′ Operating System (Solaris OS), Linux, or
Mac OS. Some virtual machines, such as the Java SE HotSpot at a
Glance3, perform additional steps at runtime to give your application
a performance boost. This includes various tasks such as finding per-
formance bottlenecks and recompiling (to native code) frequently
used sections of code.
Figure 1.2. Through the Java VM, the Same Application Is Ca-
pable of Running on Multiple Platforms

The Java Platform

A platform is the hardware or software environment in which a pro-
gram runs. We’ve already mentioned some of the most popular plat-
forms like Microsoft Windows, Linux, Solaris OS, and Mac OS.
Most platforms can be described as a combination of the operating
system and underlying hardware. The Java platform differs from
most other platforms in that it’s a software-only platform that runs
on top of other hardware-based platforms.
The Java platform has two components:
• The Java Virtual Machine
• The Java Application Programming Interface (API)
You’ve already been introduced to the Java Virtual Machine; it’s the
base for the Java platform and is ported onto various hardware-based
platforms.
The API is a large collection of ready-made software components
that provide many useful capabilities. It is grouped into libraries of
related classes and interfaces; these libraries are known as packages.
The next section, “What Can Java Technology Do?” highlights some
of the functionality provided by the API.
Figure 1.3. The API and Java Virtual Machine Insulate the Pro-
gram from the Underlying Hardware

As a platform-independent environment, the Java platform can be a

bit slower than native code. However, advances in compiler and vir-
tual machine technologies are bringing performance close to that of
native code without threatening portability.

WHAT CAN JAVA TECHNOLOGY DO?

The general-purpose, high-level Java programming language is a
powerful software platform. Every full implementation of the Java
platform gives you the following features:
• Development Tools: The development tools provide everything
 you’ll need for compiling, running, monitoring, debugging, and
documenting your applications. As a new developer, the main
tools you’ll be using are the compiler, the
launcher, and the documentation tool.
• Application Programming Interface (API): The API provides
the core functionality of the Java programming language. It of-
fers a wide array of useful classes ready for use in your own ap-
plications. It spans everything from basic objects, to networking
and security, to XML generation and database access, and more.
The core API is very large; to get an overview of what it con-
tains, consult the Java Platform Standard Edition 8 Documenta-
tion4.
• Deployment Technologies: The JDK software provides standard
mechanisms such as the Java Web Start software and Java Plug-
In software for deploying your applications to end users.
• User Interface Toolkits: The JavaFX, Swing, and Java 2D tool-
kits make it possible to create sophisticated Graphical User Inter-
faces (GUIs).
• Integration Libraries: Integration libraries such as the Java IDL
API, JDBC API, Java Naming and Directory Interface (JNDI)
API, Java RMI, and Java Remote Method Invocation over Inter-
net Inter-ORB Protocol Technology (Java RMI-IIOP Technolo-
gy) enable database access and manipulation of remote objects.

HOW WILL JAVA TECHNOLOGY CHANGE MY LIFE?

We can’t promise you fame, fortune, or even a job if you learn the
Java programming language. Still, it is likely to make your programs
better and requires less effort than other languages. We believe that
Java technology will help you do the following:
• Get started quickly: Although the Java programming language
 is a powerful object-oriented language, it’s easy to learn, espe-
cially for programmers already familiar with C or C++.
• Write less code: Comparisons of program metrics (class counts,
method counts, and so on) suggest that a program written in the
Java programming language can be four times smaller than the
same program written in C++.
• Write better code: The Java programming language encourages
good coding practices, and automatic garbage collection helps
you avoid memory leaks. Its object orientation, its JavaBeans′
component architecture, and its wide-ranging, easily extendible
API let you reuse existing, tested code and introduce fewer bugs.
• Develop programs more quickly: The Java programming lan-
guage is simpler than C++, and as such, your development time
could be up to twice as fast when writing in it. Your programs
will also require fewer lines of code.
• Avoid platform dependencies: You can keep your program por-
table by avoiding the use of libraries written in other languages.
• Write once, run anywhere: Because applications written in the
Java programming language are compiled into machine-indepen-
dent bytecodes, they run consistently on any Java platform.
• Distribute software more easily: With Java Web Start, users
will be able to launch your applications with a single click of the
mouse. An automatic version check at startup ensures that users
are always up to date with the latest version of your software. If
an update is available, Java Web Start will automatically update
their installation.

THE “HELLO WORLD!” APPLICATION

This section provides detailed instructions for compiling and running
a simple “Hello World!” application. The first section provides in-
formation on getting started with the NetBeans IDE, an integrated
development environment that greatly simplifies the software devel-
opment process. The NetBeans IDE runs on the Java platform,
which means that you can use it with any operating system for which
there is a JDK available. These operating systems include Microsoft
Windows, Solaris OS, Linux, and Mac OS X. We recommend using
the NetBeans IDE instead of the command line whenever possible.
The remaining sections provide platform-specific instructions for
getting started without an integrated development environment. Th-
ese instructions are provided for users of Windows, Solaris OS, and
Linux, respectively. (For more information about which operating
system versions are supported, see Oracle JDK 8 and JRE 8 Certi-
fied System Configurations.5) If you run into problems, be sure to
consult the common problems section; it provides solutions for many
issues encountered by new users.

“HELLO WORLD!” FOR THE NETBEANS IDE

It’s time to write your first application! These detailed instructions
are for users of the NetBeans IDE. The NetBeans IDE runs on the
Java platform, which means that you can use it with any operating
system for which there is a JDK available. These operating systems
include Microsoft Windows, Solaris OS, Linux, and Mac OS X.
A Checklist
To write your first program, you’ll need:
1. The Java SE Development Kit. Consult the Java SE Downloads
Index.6
2. The NetBeans IDE. To obtain this for all platforms, consult the
NetBeans IDE Downloads Index.7

Creating Your First Application

Your first application, , will simply display the
greeting “Hello World!” To create this program, you will:
• Create an IDE project
When you create an IDE project, you create an environment in
which to build and run your applications. Using IDE projects
eliminates configuration issues normally associated with devel-
oping on the command line. You can build or run your applica-
tion by choosing a single menu item within the IDE.
• Add code to the generated source file
A source file contains code, written in the Java programming
language, that you and other programmers can understand. As
part of creating an IDE project, a skeleton source file will be au-
tomatically generated. You will then modify the source file to
add the “Hello World!” message.
• Compile the source file into a .class file
The IDE invokes the Java programming language compiler
, which takes your source file and translates its text
into instructions that the Java virtual machine can understand.
The instructions contained within this file are known as byte-
codes.
• Run the program
The IDE invokes the Java application launcher tool ( ),
which uses the Java virtual machine to run your application.
Create an IDE Project
To create an IDE project:
1. Launch the NetBeans IDE.
• On Microsoft Windows systems, you can use the NetBeans
IDE item in the Start menu.
• On Solaris OS and Linux systems, you execute the IDE
 launcher script by navigating to the IDE’s directory and
typing
• On Mac OS X systems, click the NetBeans IDE application
icon.
2. In the NetBeans IDE, choose File | New Project (Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4. Netbeans IDE with the File | New Project Menu Item
Selected

3. In the New Project wizard, expand the Java category and se-
lect Java Application (Figure 1.5):
Figure 1.5. Netbeans IDE, New Project Wizard, Choose Project
Page
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
and their respective value. The New Mexican rock-inscriptions and
paintings, such of them as are not mere idle sketches executed
without purpose by the natives to while away the time, belong to the
lower classes of representative and symbolic picture-writing, and are
utterly inadequate to preserve any definite record far beyond the
generation that executed them. Most of them had a meaning to the
artist and his tribe at the time they were made; it is safe to suppose
that no living being to-day can interpret their meaning, and that they
never will be understood. The similar figures painted on the walls of
modern estufas,[XI-72] the natives will not, probably cannot, explain.
Mr Froebel, in opposition to Mr Bartlett's theory that the figures are
meaningless, very justly says: "Many circumstances tend to disprove
that these characters were originally nothing but the results of an
early attempt at art. In the first place, the similarity of the style, in
localities a thousand miles apart, and its extreme peculiarity,
preclude every idea of an accidental similarity. One cannot imagine
how the same recurring figures should have been used over and
over again, unless they had a conventional character, and were
intended to express something."[XI-73]

CONCLUSIONS. I conclude this division of my work by a few

general remarks, embodying such conclusions
respecting the New Mexican ruins as may be drawn from the ruins
themselves, without reference to the mass of speculation, tradition,
and so-called history, that has confused the whole subject since first
the missionary padres visited and wrote of this region, and sought
diligently, and of course successfully, for traditions respecting the
Asiatic origin of the Americans, and the southern migration of the
Aztecs from the mysterious regions of the Californias to Anáhuac.
These conclusions are not lengthy or numerous, and apply with
equal force to the Casas Grandes of Chihuahua, outside of the
geographical limits of this chapter.
1. The ruined structures offer but little internal evidence of their age.
There is not even the slight aid of forest growth found in nearly all
other parts of America. The different buildings show very different
degrees of dilapidation it is true, but to what extent in each case the
ravages of time have been assisted by the roaming Apaches and
other savages, it is impossible to decide. The Casas Grandes of
Chihuahua are much more dilapidated than the similar Casa Grande
of the Gila; but, although both are built of mud, a slight difference in
the quality of the mud employed, with the more abundant rains of
Chihuahua, would account for the better condition of the Gila
remains, and prevent us from assigning necessarily a greater
antiquity to those of Chihuahua. It is known as a historical fact that
the southern buildings were not only in ruins at the coming of the
Spaniards in the middle of the sixteenth century, but had been so
long in that condition that the native knowledge respecting them
had passed into the state of a tradition and a superstition. Certainly
not less than a century would suffice for this. Of the northern ruins
very many are known to have been inhabited and flourishing towns
when the Spaniards came. That any were at that time in ruins is not
proven, though possible.
2. The material relics of the New Mexican group bear no
resemblance whatever to either Nahua or Maya relics in the south. It
has been constantly stated and repeated by most writers, that all
American aboriginal monuments, the works of the Mound-Builders of
the Mississippi, the ruins of New Mexico and Arizona, the Casas
Grandes of Chihuahua, the Edificios of Zacatecas, the pyramids of
Anáhuac and the central plateaux, Mitla, Palenque, the cities of
Yucatan, and finally Copan, all belong evidently to one class and
present one type; that all are such as might reasonably be attributed
to the same people in different periods of their civilization. It is even
customary for travelers and writers to speak without hesitation of
Aztec ruins and relics in Arizona, as if there were no longer any
doubt on the subject. So far as the New Mexican link in the chain is
concerned, I most emphatically deny the resemblance, on grounds
which the reader of the preceding pages already fully understands. I
can hardly conceive of structures reared by human hands differing
more essentially than the two classes in question. In the common
use of adobes for building-material; in the plain walls rising to a
height of several stories; in the terrace structure, absence of doors
in the lower story, and the entrance by ladders; in the absence of
arched ceilings of overlapping blocks, of all pyramidal structures, of
sculptured blocks, of all architectural decorations, of idols, temples,
and every trace of buildings evidently designed for religious rites, of
burial mounds and human remains; and in the character of the rock-
inscriptions and miscellaneous relics, not to go farther into details,
the New Mexican monuments present no analogies to any of the
southern remains. I do not mean to express a decided opinion that
the Aztecs were not, some hundreds or thousands of centuries ago,
or even at a somewhat less remote period, identical with the natives
of New Mexico, for I have great faith in the power of time and
environment to work unlimited changes in any people; I simply claim
that it is a manifest absurdity to suppose that the monuments
described were the work of the Aztecs during a migration southward,
since the eleventh century, or of any people nearly allied in blood
and institutions to the Aztecs as they were found in Anáhuac.
3. Not only do the ruins of this group bear no resemblance to those
of the south, but they represent in all respects buildings like those
still inhabited by the Pueblo tribes and the Moquis, and do not differ
more among themselves than do the dwellings of the peoples
mentioned. Every one of them may be most reasonably regarded as
the work of the direct ancestors of the present inhabitants of the
Pueblo towns, who did not differ to any great extent in civilization or
institutions from their descendants, though they may very likely have
been vastly superior to them in power and wealth. Consequently
there is not a single relic in the whole region that requires the
agency of any extinct race of people, or any other nations—using
the word in a somewhat wider signification than has sometimes
been given to it in the preceding volumes—than those now living in
the country. Not only do the remains not point in themselves to any
extinct race, but if there were any traditional or other evidence
indicating the past agency of such a race, it would be impossible to
reconcile the traditional with the monumental evidence except by
the supposition that the Pueblos are a foreign people who took
possession of the abandoned dwellings of another race, whose
institutions they imitated to the best of their ability; but I do not
know that such a theory has ever been advanced. I am aware that
this conclusion is sadly at variance with the newspaper reports in
constant circulation, of marvelous cities, the remnants of an
advanced but extinct civilization, discovered by some trapper, miner,
or exploring expedition. I am also aware of the probability that many
ruins in addition to those I have been able to describe, have been
found by military officials, government explorers, and private
individuals during the past ten years; and I hope that the
appearance of this volume may cause the publication of much
additional information on the subject,—but that any of the newly
discovered monuments differ in type from those previously known,
there is much reason to doubt. Very many of the newspaper
accounts referred to relate to discoveries made by Lieut. Wheeler's
exploring party during the past two or three years. Lieut. Wheeler
informs me that the reports, so far as they refer to the remains of an
extinct people, are without foundation, and that his observations
have led him to a conclusion practically the same as my own
respecting the builders of the ruined Pueblo towns.
4. It follows that New Mexico, Arizona, and
THE ANCIENT
PUEBLO TOWNS.
northern Chihuahua were once inhabited by
agricultural semi-civilized tribes, not differing
more among themselves than do the Pueblo tribes of the present
time; the most fertile valleys of the region were cultivated by them,
and were dotted by fine town-dwellings of stone and adobe,
occupied in common by many families, similar but superior to the
present Pueblo towns. At least a century, probably much longer,
before the Spaniards made their appearance, the decline of this
numerous and powerful people began, and it has continued
uninterruptedly down to the present time, until only a mere remnant
in the Rio Grande and Moqui towns is left. Before the Spaniards
came all the southern towns, on the Gila and its tributaries, had
been abandoned; since that time the decline of the northern nations,
which the Spaniards found in a tolerably flourishing condition, is a
matter of history. The reason of the decline this is hardly the place
to consider, but it is doubtless to the inroads of outside warlike and
predatory tribes like the Apaches that we must look for the chief
cause. It is not impossible that natural changes in the surface of the
region, such as the drying-up of springs, streams, or lakes, may
have also contributed to the same effect. These changes, however, if
such took place, were probably gradual in their operation; for the
location of the ruins in what are still in most cases among the most
fertile valleys, either in the vicinity of water, or at least of a dried-up
stream, and their absence in every instance in the absolutely desert
tracts, show pretty conclusively that the towns were not destroyed
suddenly by any natural convulsion which radically changed the face
of the country. It is not difficult to imagine how the agricultural
Pueblo communities, weakened perhaps at first by some
international strife which forced them to neglect the tillage of their
land, and hard pressed by more than usually persistent inroads from
bands of Apaches who plundered their crops and destroyed their
irrigation-works, visited perchance by pestilence, or by earthquakes
sent by some irate deity to dry up their springs, were forced year by
year to yield their fair fields to the drifting sands, to abandon their
southern homes and unite their forces with kindred northern tribes;
till at last came the crowning blow of a foreign invasion, which has
well nigh extinguished an aboriginal culture more interesting and
admirable, if not in all respects more advanced, than any other in
North America.
 CHAPTER XII.
ANTIQUITIES OF THE NORTHWEST.

General Character of North-western Remains—No Traces of Extinct or of Civilized

Races—Antiquities of California—Stone Implements—Newspaper Reports—Taylor's
Work—Colorado Desert—Trail and Rock-Inscriptions—Burial Relics of Southern
California—Bones of Giants—Mounds in the Saticoy Valley—New Almaden Mine—
Pre-Historic Relics in the Mining Shafts—Stone Implements, Human Bones, and
Remains of Extinct Animal Species—Voy's Work—San Joaquin Relics—Merced Mounds
—Martinez—Shell Mounds round San Francisco Bay, and their Contents—Relics from
a San Francisco Mound—Antiquities of Nevada—Utah—Mounds of Salt Lake Valley—
Colorado—Remains at Golden City—Extensive Ruins in Southern Colorado and Utah
—Jackson's Expedition—Mancos and St Elmo Cañons—Idaho and Montana—Oregon—
Washington—Mounds on Bute Prairie—Yakima Earth-work—British Columbia—Deans'
Explorations—Mounds and Earth-works of Vancouver Island—Alaska.

Ruins of the New Mexican Pueblo type, described in the preceding

chapter, extend across the boundary lines of New Mexico and
Arizona, and have been found by travelers in southern Utah and
Colorado; stone and bone implements similar to those used by the
natives when the first Europeans came and since that time, are
frequently picked up on the surface or taken from aboriginal graves
in most parts of the whole northern region; a few scattered rock-
inscriptions are reported in several of the states; burial mounds and
other small earth-heaps of unknown use are seen in many localities;
shell mounds, some of them of great size, occur at various points in
the coast region, as about San Francisco Bay and on Vancouver
Island, and they probably might be found along nearly the whole
coast line; and the mining shafts of California have brought to light
human remains, implements wrought by human hands, and bones of
extinct animals, at great depths below the surface, evidently of great
age. With the preceding paragraph and a short account of the ruins
of Colorado, I might consistently dispose of the antiquities of the
Northwest.
There has not been found and reported on good authority a single
monument or relic which is sufficient to prove that the country was
ever inhabited by any people whose claims to be regarded as
civilized were superior to those of the tribes found by Europeans
within its limits. It is true that some implements may not exactly
agree with those of the tribes now occupying the same particular
locality, and some graves indicate slight differences in the manner of
burial, but this could hardly be otherwise in a country inhabited by
so many nations whose boundaries were constantly changing. Yet I
have often heard the Aztec relics of California and Oregon very
confidently spoken of. It is a remarkable fact that to most men who
find a piece of stone bearing marks of having been formed by
human hands, the very first idea suggested is that it represents an
extinct race, while the last conclusion arrived at is that the relic may
be the work of a tribe still living in the vicinity where it was found.

CALIFORNIAN California has within her limits large quantities of

RELICS. native utensils and many burial deposits, some
of which doubtless date back to the time when
no European had yet set foot in the country. A complete description
of such relics, illustrated with cuts of typical specimens from
different sections of the state, would be of great value in connection
with the account of the Californian tribes given in a preceding
volume; but unfortunately the material for such description and cuts
are utterly wanting, and will not be supplied for many years. Officers
and assistants connected with the U. S. Coast Survey and other
government exploring expeditions, are constantly, though slowly,
gathering relics for the national collection, and a few individuals
acting in an unofficial capacity have examined certain localities and
described the aboriginal implements found therein through
trustworthy mediums. But most of the discoveries in this direction
are recorded only in newspaper accounts, which, in a large majority
of cases, offer no guarantee of their authenticity or accuracy. Many
are self-evident hoaxes; many others are doubtless as reliable as if
published in the narrative of the most trust-worthy explorer or in the
transactions of any learned society; but to decide upon the relative
merits of the great bulk of these accounts is altogether impossible,
to say nothing of the absence of drawings, which, after all, are the
only satisfactory description of miscellaneous relics. I therefore deem
it not advisable to fill the pages of a long chapter with a compilation
of the almost innumerable newspaper items in my possession,
useless for the most part to antiquarians, and comparatively without
interest to the general reader. Dr Alex. S. Taylor has already made
quite a complete compilation of the earlier accounts in Californian
newspapers, which he published in the California Farmer in 1860-3.
Without, as a rule, going into details, I shall present a brief résumé
of what has been written about Californian relics of aboriginal times,
giving in full only a few reports of undoubted authenticity.[XII-1]
Brasseur de Bourbourg tells us that in the distant north "was found
anciently a city named Tula, the ruins of which are thought to have
been found in the valley, still so little explored, of Tulares. The
Americans have announced in their newspapers the discovery of
these Californian ruins, but can one credit the reports?" Brasseur
possibly alludes in the paragraph quoted to certain reports circulated
about 1853, which announced the discovery, somewhere in the
desert of the Colorado on the California side, of a ruined bridge of
stone, where no river had run for ages, together with an immense
pyramid, and other grand remains. These reports seem to have
originated in the correspondence of a Placerville newspaper; but
whether they were manufactured in the office of the paper, or were
actually sent in by some roaming prospector of an inventive turn of
mind, does not appear.[XII-2]
Mr Blake found in the Colorado desert "several
COLORADO DESERT.
long, path-like discolorations of the surface,
extending for miles in nearly straight lines, which
were Indian trails. The only change which was produced appeared to
be the removal or dimming of the polish on the pebbles. There was
no break in the hard surface, and no dust. That the distinctness of
the trail was made by the removing of the polish only, became
evident from the fact that figures and Indian hieroglyphics were
traced, or imprinted, on the surface adjoining the path, apparently
by pounding or bruising the surface layer of the pebbles. These trails
seemed very old, and may have endured for many generations."[XII-
3] A writer in the Bulletin mentions a road which extends from the
mouth of the Coahuila Valley of San Gorgonio Pass, beginning at
Noble's ranch, eastwardly across the desert in almost a straight line,
to the mouth of the Colorado Cañon. The earth is worn deep, and
along its course the surface is strewn with broken pottery. In many
of the soft rocks the imprints of the feet of men and animals are still
plainly visible. The road is not much over a foot wide, and from it
branch off side paths leading to springs or other sources of water.
[XII-4] The only other remains in the desert of which I find any
record are some rock-inscriptions at Pah Ute Creek, located about
thirty miles west from the Mojave villages. Mr Whipple gives a
drawing of the inscriptions, which bear a strong resemblance in their
general character, as might be expected, to those which have been
found in so many localities in the New Mexican region.[XII-5]
The vertical face of a granite cliff at San Francisquito Pass, near a
spring, was covered with carved characters, probably similar to
those last described. One of the characters resembled a long chain,
with a ball at one end, surrounded by rays like those employed in
our representations of the sun; another was like in form to an
anchor. Well-worn ancient foot-paths, old reservoirs, and other
undescribed relics are reported in the vicinity of Owen's lake and
river.[XII-6] Painted figures in blue, red, and white, are reported,
together with some Spanish inscriptions of a date preceding 1820, in
Painted Rock Valley, four days' journey east by south from Tejon
Pass, also in the cañada of the San Juan arroyo, which empties into
the Salinas River near the mission of San Miguel. In the former case
the figures are painted on a blue grayish rock, about twenty feet
square and hollowed out in bowl shape.[XII-7]

BURIAL RELICS IN
THE SOUTH.

Relics from Southern California.

Mr Paul Schumacher, engaged in the service of the United States
Coast Survey, has taken great interest in Californian aboriginal relics,
which he has collected for the Smithsonian Institution at
Washington. In the vicinity of San Luis Obispo, between points Sal
and San Luis, he examined during the past year four graves or burial
deposits, known as nipomo, walckhe, kesmali, temeteti. These
graves furnished some three hundred human skeletons, or rather
about that number were examined, and also quite a large number of
domestic utensils, weapons, and ornaments. Among these relics
great uniformity is observed, indicating that all the graves belonged
to the same tribe of natives. Nine specimens are shown in the cut on
the opposite page, made from Mr Schumacher's drawings. Fig. 1, 2,
and 9, represent large cooking-pots, globular or pear-shaped, and
hollowed out of magnesian mica. The circular opening of fig. 9,
having a small and narrow rim, measures only five inches in
diameter, while the greatest diameter of the pot is eighteen inches.
Near the edge of the opening this vessel is only a quarter of an inch
thick, but the thickness increases regularly towards the bottom,
where it is an inch and a quarter. Sandstone mortars of different
dimensions, but of similar forms, were found in great abundance
with the other utensils, one of the largest of which is shown in fig. 8.
This is sixteen inches in diameter and thirteen in height. The
smallest are only an inch and a half high, and three inches in
diameter. The pestles are of the same material, and their form is
shown in fig. 3. There was moreover, quite an assortment of what
seem to be cups, measuring from one and a quarter to six inches in
diameter, and neatly worked out of serpentine, the surface of which
was brightly polished. Specimens are shown in fig. 5 and 7. Another
similar one, the smallest found, was enclosed in three shells, in a
very curious manner, as shown in fig. 6. In this enclosed cup was a
quantity of what is described as paint; and traces of the same
material were found in all the cups, indicating that they were not
used to contain food. Fig. 4 represents a plate which is presumably
of stone, although the cut would seem to indicate a shell. These
domestic implements deposited by the aborigines with their dead
were rarely broken, and when they were so, the breakage was
caused in every instance by the pressure of the soil or other
superimposed objects. One peculiar circumstance in connection with
these relics was that some broken mortars and pestles were repaired
by the use of asphaltum as a cement. All the relics collected by Mr
Schumacher, as well as those which I have copied, are preserved in
the National Museum at Washington.[XII-8] The same explorer is now
engaged in making an examination of the islands of the Santa
Barbara Channel, where it is not improbable that many interesting
relics may be discovered. Mr Taylor heard from a resident of San
Buenaventura that "in a recent stay on Santa Rosa Island, in 1861,
he often met with the entire skeletons of Indians in the caves. The
signs of their rancherías were very frequent, and the remains of
metates, mortars, earthen pots, and other utensils very common.
The metates were of a dark stone, and made somewhat after the
pattern of the Mexican. Extensive caves were often met with which
seemed to serve as burial places of the Indians, as entire skeletons
and numerous skulls were plentifully scattered about in their
recesses." Some very wonderful skulls are also reported as having
been found on the islands, furnished with double teeth all the way
round the jaw.[XII-9]
Miscellaneous relics reported on authority
MISCELLANEOUS
REMAINS.
varying from indifferent to bad at different points
in the southern part of the state, are as follows:
In 1819 an old lady saw a gigantic skeleton dug up by soldiers at
Purísima on the Lompock rancho. The natives deemed it a god, and
it was re-buried by direction of the padre. Taheechaypah pass and
the mission of San Buenaventura are other localities where skeletons
of extraordinary size have been found. The old natives at San Luis
Rey have seen in the mountain passes tracks of men and animals in
solid rock. These tracks were made, those of the men at least, by
their fathers fleeing from some convulsion of nature which occurred
not many generations back. Nine miles north of Santa Barbara on
the Dos Pueblos rancho, some small mounds only two or three feet
high have been seen on the point of the mesa overlooking the sea.
Mr Carvalho claims to have dug from a small mound near Los
Angeles the bones of a mastodon, including four perfect teeth, one
of which weighed six pounds. Miss Saxon speaks of high mounds in
the vicinity of rivers, said to have been once the site of villages so
located for protection against floods.[XII-10]
In the plain at the mouth of the Saticoy River, twelve miles below
San Buenaventura, and five or six miles from the sea, are reported
two mounds, regular, rounded, and bare of trees. One of them is
over a mile long and two hundred feet high, and the other about
half as large. If the report of their existence is correct, there seems
to be no evidence that they are of artificial formation, except their
isolated position on the plain, and a native tradition that they are
burial-places. One writer suggests that they are the graves of a
people, or of their kings, whose cities are buried beneath the waters
of the Santa Barbara Channel. The site of the cities presents some
obstacles to exploration, and the details of their construction are not
fully known. Twenty miles farther up the Saticoy is a group of small
mounds, ten or twelve in number and five or six feet high. They
"seem to have been water-worn or worked out by running water all
around the mounds so as to isolate each one." Near these mounds,
on the Cayetano rancho, is a field of some five hundred acres,
divided by parallel ridges of earth, and having distinct traces of
irrigating ditches, supplied by a canal which extends two or three
miles up the Sespe arroyo. It is said that the present inhabitants of
this region, both native and Spanish, have no knowledge of the
origin of these agricultural works.[XII-11]
It is said that the New Almaden quicksilver mines were worked by
the natives for the purpose of obtaining vermilion, long before the
coming of the Spaniards. The excavation made by the aboriginal
miners was long supposed to be a natural cavern, extending about
one hundred feet horizontally into the hill, until some skeletons, rude
mining tools, and other relics of human presence revealed the
secret.[XII-12]
In various localities about Monterey, in addition to the usual mortars
and arrow-heads, holes in the living rock, used probably as mortars
for pounding acorns and seeds, are reported by Taylor; and the
Santa Cruz 'skull cave' is spoken of as 'noted throughout the country'
for having furnished bones now preserved in the Smithsonian
Institution.[XII-13]

REMAINS FROM THE One of the most interesting classes of Californian

MINES. antiquities is that which includes aboriginal
remains discovered in the mining counties, at
considerable depths below the surface of the ground. The stone
implements thus found are not in themselves particularly interesting,
or different from those which have been found under other
circumstances; nor do they include any specimens which indicate the
former existence of any race more advanced than that found in the
country by Europeans. But the chief importance of these antiquities
consists in the great depth at which some of them have been found,
and in the fact that they have been found in connection with the
fossil bones of animals belonging to species now no longer existing
in the country. The existence of the work of human hands buried
hundreds of feet beneath the many successive layers of different
rocks and earths, might not necessarily imply a greater age than one
dating a few centuries before the coming of the Spaniards; although
few would be willing to admit, probably, that natural convulsions so
extensive have taken place at so recent an epoch. But when the
work of human hands is shown to have been discovered in
connection with the bones of mastodons, elephants, horses, camels,
and other animals long since extinct, and that they have been so
found there seems to be sufficient proof, it is hardly possible with
consistency to deny that these implements date from a remote
antiquity. Newspaper items describing relics of this class are almost
numberless; a few of the specimens have fallen into the hands of
scientific men, who have carefully examined and described them;
but a great majority, even of such implements as have not been
completely overlooked by the miner who dug or washed them from
their deep resting-places, have been lost after exciting a momentary
curiosity, and their important testimony lost to science. Mr C. D. Voy
of Oakland has shown much energy and interest in the examination
of stone implements and fossils from the mines. The relics
themselves have of course been found in almost every instance by
miners in their search for gold; but Mr Voy has personally visited
most of the localities where such discoveries were reported, and
seems to have taken all possible pains to verify the authenticity of
the discoveries, having in many cases obtained sworn statements
from the parties who made them. An unpublished manuscript written
by this gentleman is entitled Relics of the Stone Age in California,
and is illustrated with many photographs of specimens from his own
and other collections. This work, kindly furnished me by Mr Voy, is
probably the most complete extant on the subject, and from it I take
the following descriptions. The author proceeds by counties, first
describing the geology of each county, and then the relics of whose
existence he has been able to learn, and the localities where they
were found. Except a brief statement in a few cases of the depth at
which stone remains were found, and of the strata that covered
them, I shall not touch upon the geologic formation of the mining
region. Nor does a particular or scientific description of the fossil
remains come within the scope of my work. A brief account of the
stone implements and the positions in which they have been
discovered will suffice.
 Stone Mortar—Kincaid Flat.

Of all the counties Tuolumne has apparently

TUOLUMNE COUNTY.
proved the richest in antiquarian remains. From
the mining tunnels which penetrate Table
Mountain there was taken in 1858 a stone mortar holding two
quarts, at a depth of three hundred feet from the surface, lying in
auriferous gravel under a thick strata of lava. In 1862 another
mortar was found at a depth of three hundred and forty feet, one
hundred and four of which were composed of lava, and eighteen
hundred feet from the mouth of the tunnel. This relic is in Mr Voy's
collection, accompanied by a sworn statement of the circumstances
of its finding. Dr Snell is said to have had in his possession in 1862 a
pendant or shuttle of silicious slate, similar to others of which I shall
give a cut; spear-heads six or eight inches long, and broken off at
the hole where they were attached to the shaft; and a scoop, or
ladle, of steatite. These relics were found under Table Mountain at
the same depth as the preceding, together with fossil bones of the
mastodon and other animals, and are preserved in the Smithsonian
Institute and in the museum of Yale College. The cut represents a
stone mortar and pestle, found at Kincaid Flat in clayey auriferous
gravel, sixteen or twenty feet below the surface, where many other
stone implements, with bones of the mastodon, elephant, horse, and
camel, have been found at different times. A bow handle, or shuttle,
of micaceous slate found here will be shown in another cut with
similar relics from a different locality.[XII-14]
At Shaw's Flat, with bones of the mastodon, a stone bead of calc-
spar, two inches long and the same in circumference, was taken
from under a strata of lava at a point three hundred feet from the
mouth of the tunnel. The granite mortar shown in the cut, holding
about a pint, came from the same mining town.
 Granite Mortar—Shaw's Flat.

Granite Mortar—Gold Springs Gulch.

 Granite Dish—Gold Springs Gulch.

At Blanket Creek, near Sonora, stone relics and bones of the

mastodon were found together in 1855.[XII-15] Wood's Creek was
another locality where stone relics with fossil bones, including those
of the tapir, are reported to have been dug out at a depth of twenty
to forty feet. The mortar and pestle shown in the cut is one of many
stone implements found, with fossil bones, at Gold Springs Gulch, in
1863, at a depth of sixteen feet in auriferous gravel, like the most of
such relics. It is twelve and a half inches in diameter, weighs thirty
pounds, and holds about two quarts. The cross-lines pecked in on
the sides with some sharp instrument, are of rare occurrence if not
unique. Among the other implements found here, are what Mr Voy
describes as "discoidal stones, or perhaps spinal whorls. They are
from three to four inches in diameter, and about an inch and a half
thick, both sides being concave, with centre perforated. It has been
suggested that these stones were used in certain hurling games."
They are of granite and hard sandstone. The author has heard of
similar relics in Ohio, Denmark, and Chili. Another relic, found at the
same place in 1862, with the usual bones under twenty to thirty feet
of calcareous tufa, is a flat oval dish of granite, eighteen inches and
a half in diameter, two or three inches thick, and weighing forty
pounds. It is shown in the cut, and, like the preceding, is preserved
in Mr Voy's cabinet, now at the University of California. Texas Flat
was another locality where fossil bones were found with fresh-water
shells.[XII-16]
Calaveras County has also yielded many
CALAVERAS COUNTY.
interesting relics of a past age, of the same
nature as those described in Tuolumne.[XII-17]
The famous 'Calaveras skull' was taken from a mining shaft at
Altaville, at a depth of one hundred and thirty feet beneath seven
strata of lava and gravel.[XII-18] The evidence was sufficient to
convince Prof. Whitney and other scientific men that this skull was
actually found as claimed, although on the other hand some doubt
and not a little ridicule have been expressed about the subject. Many
stone mortars and mastodon-bones have been found about Altaville
and Murphy's, but not under lava.[XII-19]
At San Andrés, in 1864, according to sworn statements in Mr Voy's
possession, large stone mortars were taken from a layer of
cemented gravel six feet thick, lying under the following strata:—
coarse sedimentary volcanic material, five feet; sand and gravel, one
hundred feet; brownish volcanic ash, three feet; cemented sand,
four feet; blueish volcanic sand, fifteen feet. At the Chili Gulch, near
Mokelumne Hill, the skull of a rhinoceros is reported to have been
found in 1863.[XII-20]

STONE HAMMERS.
Mortar from Shingle Springs.

Stone Hammer—Spanish Flat.

The mortar shown in the cut was found in gravel at a depth of ten
feet, at Shingle Springs in El Dorado County. At Georgetown and
vicinity there were found at different dates, large stone dishes very
similar to that at Gold Springs Gulch, shown in a preceding cut;
grooved stones like those at Spanish Flat, soon to be mentioned;
and mortars resembling that at Kincaid Flat. At Spanish Flat were
found several oval stones with grooves round their circumference, as
shown in the preceding cut, and weighing from a pound and a half
to two pounds. They were apparently used as hammers or weapons
by fitting a withe handle round them at the groove. Many other
mortars and stone implements were taken from the same locality,
including two pendants, shuttles, or bow-handles, very well worked
from greenstone, five or six inches long, and about one inch thick in
the middle. These two relics, together with a similar one from Table
Mountain before alluded to, are shown in the cut. At Diamond Spring
mortars were found at a depth of a hundred feet, and both fossil
bones and stone relics have been taken from time to time from the
mines about Placerville.[XII-21]

Stone Implements—Spanish Flat.

In Placer County, mastodon bones are reported at Rockland, and
stone mortars and other implements at Gold Hill and Forest Hill. One
dish at the latter place was much like that at Gold Springs Gulch,
shown in a preceding cut.[XII-22]
In Nevada County stone implements have been found at different
dates, from ten to eighty feet below the surface, at Grass Valley,
Buckeye Hill, Myer's Ravine, Brush Creek, and Sweetland.[XII-23]
Fossil bones of extinct animals and stone implements like those that
have been described, and which I do not deem it necessary to
mention particularly, since such mention would be but a repetition of
what has been said, with a list of depths and localities, have been
found, according to Mr Voy's explorations, in Butte County at New
York Flat, Oroville, Bidwell's Bar, and Cherokee Flat; in Stanislaus
about Knights Ferry; in Amador at Volcano, Little Grass Valley,
Jackson, Pokerville, Forest Home, and Fiddletown; in Siskiyou at
Trench Bar, on Scott River, at Yreka, and Cottonwood; in Trinity
about Douglas City; in Humboldt, at Ferndale and Humboldt Point; in
Merced at Snelling on Dry Creek; in Mariposa, at Horse Shoe Bend,
Hornitos, Princetown,—a mortar thirty-six inches in diameter—
Buckeye Ravine, Indian Gulch, and Bear Creek; in Fresno at
Buchanan Hollow and Millerton; and at several points not specified in
Tulare and Fresno.[XII-24]

Relic from San Joaquin Valley.

The cut shows a stone relic discovered in digging

MISCELLANEOUS
MINE RELICS.
a well in the San Joaquin Valley, imbedded in the
gravel thirty feet below the surface. "The
material is sienite and the instrument is ground and polished so as
to display in marked contrast the pure white of the feldspar and the
dark-green or black of the hornblende. It is in the form of a double-
cone, one end terminating in a point, while the other end is blunted,
where it is pierced with a hole which instead of being a uniform
gauge, is rimmed out, the rimming having been started from the
opposite sides. In examining this beautiful relic, one is led almost
instinctively to believe that it was used as a plummet for the purpose
of determining the perpendicular to the horizon. So highly-wrought a
stone would hardly have been used as a sinker for a fishing-net: it
may have been suspended from the neck as a personal ornament.
When we consider its symmetry of form, the contrast of colors
brought out by the process of grinding and polishing, and the
delicate drilling of the hole through a material so liable to fracture,
we are free to say it affords an exhibition of the lapidary's skill
superior to anything yet furnished by the Stone Age of either
continent," at least such is Mr Foster's conclusion. Prof. Whitney
states that he has two or three similar implements, and that they are
generally regarded as sinkers for use in fishing.[XII-25] Mr Taylor tells
us that he saw in 1852, on a high mesa, probably a league in
circumference, on or near the Merced River, thousands of small
mounds, five or six feet high, and apparently of earth only.[XII-26]
Capron says that on the plains of San Joaquin "are found immense
mounds of earth, which present evidences of their great antiquity. It
is supposed that they were thrown up, by the Indians, for
observatories, from which to survey the floods, or as places of resort
for safety when the plains became suddenly inundated, and the
ranging hunters were caught far in the interior."[XII-27] In the banks
of a creek near Martinez, resting on yellow clay, under five feet of
surface soil, a mortar and pestle were recently found by some boys,
according to a local newspaper. The mortar was about sixty inches in
circumference, and weighed nearly two hundred pounds. "It has the
form of a slightly flattened well-rounded duck egg; and has evidently
been artificially shaped in exterior form, as well as in the bowl, and
looks as fresh as if it had but yesterday been turned off from the
Indian sculptor's hands, while the polish of the pestle is smooth and
lustrous, as if it had been in daily use for the hundred or two years,
at least, that it must have been lying under the inverted mortar, as
shown by the level of five-feet accumulations of the valley-surface
stratum of soil above the yellow clay upon which it was found,
together with the partially-decomposed remains of a human frame."
[XII-28]

SHELL MOUNDS.

SAN FRANCISCO
RELICS.

Relics from a Shell-Mound—San Francisco.

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